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The potato is a starchy food, a
/ref> but later genetic studies traced a single origin, in the area of present-day southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia. Potatoes were Domestication, domesticated there approximately 7,000–10,000 years ago, from a species in the ''Solanum brevicaule'' complex. Lay summary: In the Andes region of South America, where the species is Indigenous species, indigenous, some close relatives of the potato are cultivated. Potatoes were introduced to Europe from the Americas by the Spanish in the second half of the 16th century. Today they are a staple food in many parts of the world and an integral part of much of the world's food supply. , potatoes were the world's fourth-largest food crop after maize (corn), wheat, and rice. Following millennia of selective breeding, there are now over 5,000 List of potato cultivars, different types of potatoes. Over 99% of potatoes presently cultivated worldwide descend from varieties that originated in the lowlands of Zona Sur, south-central Chile. The importance of the potato as a food source and culinary ingredient varies by region and is still changing. It remains an essential crop in Europe, especially Northern and Eastern Europe, where per capita production is still the highest in the world, while the most rapid expansion in production since 2000 has occurred in South Asia, southern and eastern Asia, with China and India leading the world in overall production . Like the tomato, the potato is a nightshade in the genus ''Solanum'', and the vegetative and fruiting parts of the potato contain the toxin solanine which is dangerous for human consumption. Normal potato tubers that have been grown and stored properly produce glycoalkaloids in amounts small enough to be negligible to human health, but, if green sections of the plant (namely sprouts and skins) are exposed to light, the tuber can accumulate a high enough concentration of glycoalkaloids to affect human health. The discovery of acrylamides in starchy foods in 2002 led to international health concerns, but subsequent high-quality evidence showed acrylamide is not likely to cause cancer in humans.
Potato plants are herbaceous perennials that grow about {{cvt, 60, cm, in high, depending on variety, with the leaves plant senescence, dying back after flowering, fruiting and tuber formation. They bear white, pink, red, blue, or purple Flower, flowers with yellow stamens. Potatoes are mostly pollination, cross-pollinated by insects such as bumblebees, which carry pollen from other potato plants, though a substantial amount of self-fertilizing occurs as well. Tubers form in response to decreasing day length, although this tendency has been minimized in commercial varieties.
After flowering, potato plants produce small green Potato fruit, fruits that resemble green cherry tomatoes, each containing about 300 seeds. Like all parts of the plant except the tubers, the fruit contain the toxic alkaloid solanine and are therefore unsuitable for consumption. All new potato varieties are grown from seeds, also called "true potato seed", "TPS" or "botanical seed" to distinguish it from seed tubers. New varieties grown from seed can be vegetative propagation, propagated vegetatively by planting tubers, pieces of tubers cut to include at least one or two eyes, or cuttings, a practice used in greenhouses for the production of healthy seed tubers. Plants propagated from tubers are clones of the parent, whereas those propagated from seed produce a range of different varieties.
Potatoes, both ''S. tuberosum'' and most of its wild relatives, are self-incompatible: they bear no useful fruit when self-pollinated. This trait is problematic for crop breeding, as all sexually-produced plants must be hybrids. The gene responsible for its trait as well as mutations to disable it are now known. Self-compatibility has successfully been introduced both to diploid potatoes (including a special line of ''S. tuberosum'') by CRISPR-Cas9. Plants having a 'Sli' gene produce pollen which is compatible to its own parent and plants with similar S genes.{{cite journal, last1=Hosaka, first1=Kazuyoshi, last2=Hanneman, first2=Robert E. Jr., title=Genetics of self-compatibility in a self-incompatible wild diploid potato species ''Solanum chacoense''. 1. Detection of an S locus inhibitor (Sli) gene , journal=Euphytica, publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC, volume=99, issue=3, year=1998, issn=0014-2336, doi=10.1023/a:1018353613431, pages=191–197, s2cid=40678039 , url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1018353613431 This gene was recently cloned by Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen University and Solynta in 2021, which would allow for faster and more focused breeding.{{cite journal, last1=Eggers, first1=Ernst-Jan, last2=Burgt, first2=van der, last3=Heusden, first3=van, last4=W., first4=Sjaak A., last5=Vries, first5=de, last6=E., first6=Michiel, last7=Visser, first7=Richard G. F., last8=Bachem, first8=Christian W. B., last9=Lindhout, first9=Pim, title=Neofunctionalisation of the Sli gene leads to self-compatibility and facilitates precision breeding in potato, journal=Nature Communications, volume=12, issue=1, date=2021-07-06, page=4141 , issn=2041-1723, doi=10.1038/s41467-021-24267-6, pmid=34230471 , pmc=8260583 , bibcode=2021NatCo..12.4141E
This study...
{{cite journal, last1=Ma, first1=Ling, last2=Zhang, first2=Chunzhi, last3=Zhang, first3=Bo, last4=Tang, first4=Fei, last5=Li, first5=Futing, last6=Liao, first6=Qinggang, last7=Tang, first7=Die, last8=Peng, first8=Zhen, last9=Jia, first9=Yuxin, last10=Gao, first10=Meng, last11=Guo, first11=Han, last12=Zhang, first12=Jinzhe, last13=Luo, first13=Xuming, last14=Yang, first14=Huiqin, last15=Gao, first15=Dongli, last16=Lucas, first16=William J., last17=Li, first17=Canhui, last18=Huang, first18=Sanwen, last19=Shang, first19=Yi, title=A nonS-locus F-box gene breaks self-incompatibility in diploid potatoes, journal=Nature Communications, publisher=Nature Portfolio, volume=12, issue=1, date=2021-07-06, page=4142 , issn=2041-1723, doi=10.1038/s41467-021-24266-7, pmid=34230469 , pmc=8260799 , bibcode=2021NatCo..12.4142M
...is cited by this review:
{{ Cite journal
, language = en
, year = 2022
, volume = 69
, publisher = Elsevier Ltd.
, first4 = Kentaro
, first3 = Kanae
, first2 = Katharina
, first1 = Takashi
, last4 = Shimizu
, last3 = Masuda
, last2 = Jung
, last1 = Akagi
, pages = 102255
, journal = Current Opinion in Plant Biology
, issn = 1369-5266
, title = Polyploidy before and after domestication of crop species
, pmid = 35870416
, s2cid = 250962663
, doi = 10.1016/j.pbi.2022.102255
Diploid hybrid potato breeding is a recent area of potato genetics supported by the finding that homozygous fixation (population genetics), fixation of donor alleles is possible.{{cite journal, last1=Lindhout, first1=Pim, last2=Meijer, first2=Dennis, last3=Schotte, first3=Theo, last4=Hutten, first4=Ronald C. B., last5=Visser, first5=Richard G. F., last6=van Eck, first6=Herman J., title=Towards F1 Hybrid Seed Potato Breeding, journal=Potato Research, publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC, volume=54, issue=4, year=2011, issn=0014-3065, doi=10.1007/s11540-011-9196-z, pages=301–312, s2cid=39719359
The major species grown worldwide is ''Solanum tuberosum'' (a tetraploid with 48 chromosomes), and modern varieties of this species are the most widely cultivated. There are also four diploid species (with 24 chromosomes): ''S.{{nbspstenotomum'', ''S.{{nbspphureja'', ''S.{{nbspgoniocalyx'', and ''S.{{nbspajanhuiri''. There are two triploid species (with 36 chromosomes): ''S.{{nbspchaucha'' and ''S.{{nbspjuzepczukii''. There is one pentaploid cultivated species (with 60 chromosomes): ''S.{{nbspcurtilobum''. There are two major subspecies of ''Solanum tuberosum'': ''andigena'', or Andean; and ''tuberosum'', or Chilean. The Andean potato is adapted to the short-day conditions prevalent in the mountainous equatorial and tropical regions where it originated; the Potatoes of Chiloé, Chilean potato, however, native to the Chiloé Archipelago, is adapted to the long-day conditions prevalent in the higher latitude region of southern Chile.{{cite journal, url=https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0717-34582007000300011 , title=Molecular description and similarity relationships among native germplasm potatoes (''Solanum tuberosum'' ssp. ''tuberosum'' L.) using morphological data and AFLP markers , journal=Electronic Journal of Biotechnology , volume=10 , issue=3 , pages=436–443 , access-date=6 December 2009, doi=10.2225/vol10-issue3-fulltext-14 , date=July 2007 , last1=Anabalón Rodríguez , first1=Leonardo , last2=Morales Ulloa , first2=Daniza , last3=Solano Solis , first3=Jaime , hdl=10925/320 , hdl-access=free
The International Potato Center, based in Lima, Peru, holds 4,870 types of potato germplasm, most of which are traditional landrace cultivars. The international Potato Genome Sequencing Consortium announced in 2009 that they had achieved a draft sequence of the potato genome, containing 12 chromosomes and 860 million base pairs, making it a medium-sized plant genome. More than 99 percent of all current variety (botany), varieties of potatoes currently grown are direct descendants of a subspecies that once grew in the lowlands of south-central Chile.{{cite web , url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/01/080129160727.htm , title=Using DNA, Scientists Hunt For The Roots Of The Modern Potato , author=Story is reprinted (with editorial adaptations by ScienceDaily staff) from materials provided by University of Wisconsin–Madison , publisher=ScienceDaily (with information from a report originally appearing in the American Journal of Botany) , date=4 February 2008 , access-date=27 August 2011 Nonetheless, genetic testing of the wide variety of cultivars and wild species affirms that all potato subspecies derive from a single Indigenous (ecology), origin in the area of present-day southern Peru and extreme Northwestern Bolivia (from a species in the ''Solanum brevicaule'' complex).
Most modern potatoes grown in North America arrived through European settlement and not independently from the South American sources, although at least one wild potato species, ''Solanum fendleri'', naturally ranges from Peru into Texas, where it is used in breeding for resistance to a nematode species that attacks cultivated potatoes. A secondary center of genetic variability of the potato is Mexico, where important wild species that have been used extensively in modern breeding are found, such as the hexaploid ''Solanum demissum'', as a source of resistance to the devastating Phytophthora infestans, late blight disease.{{Cite journal, title=Potato and tomato late blight caused by ''Phytophthora infestans'': An overview of pathology and resistance breeding , last1=Nowicki, first1=Marcin, date=17 August 2011, doi= 10.1094/PDIS-05-11-0458, pmid=30731850, last2=Foolad, first2=Majid R., last3=Nowakowska, first3=Marzena, last4=Kozik , first4=Elzbieta U., journal=Plant Disease (journal), Plant Disease, publisher=American Phytopathological Society (APS), volume=96, issue=1, pages=4–17, display-authors=etal, doi-access=free Another relative native to this region, ''Solanum bulbocastanum'', has been used to genetically engineer the potato to resist potato blight.
For culinary purposes, varieties are often differentiated by their waxiness: floury or mealy ''baking'' potatoes have more starch (20–22%) than waxy ''boiling'' potatoes (16–18%). The distinction may also arise from variation in the comparative ratio of two different potato starch compounds: amylose and amylopectin. Amylose, a long-chain molecule, diffuses from the starch granule when cooked in water, and lends itself to dishes where the potato is mashed. Varieties that contain a slightly higher amylopectin content, which is a highly branched molecule, help the potato retain its shape after being boiled in water. Potatoes that are good for making potato chips or potato crisps are sometimes called "chipping potatoes", which means they meet the basic requirements of similar varietal characteristics, being firm, fairly clean, and fairly well-shaped.
Immature potatoes may be sold fresh from the field as "creamer" or "new" potatoes{{anchor, creamer potatoes, new potatoes and are particularly valued for their taste. They are typically small in size and tender, with a loose skin, and flesh containing a lower level of starch than other potatoes. In the United States they are generally either a Yukon Gold potato or a red potato, called gold creamers or red creamers respectively.{{cite web, url=http://www.recipetips.com/glossary-term/t--35863/creamer-potato.asp, title=Creamer Potato, publisher=recipetips.com, access-date=18 July 2008 In the UK, the Jersey Royal is a famous type of new potato. They are distinct from "baby", "salad" or "fingerling potato, fingerling" potatoes, which are small and tend to have waxy flesh, but are grown to maturity and can be stored for months before being sold.
The European Cultivated Potato Database (ECPD) is an online collaborative database of potato variety descriptions that is updated and maintained by the Scottish Agricultural Science Agency within the framework of the European Cooperative Programme for Crop Genetic Resources Networks (ECP/GR)—which is run by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI).
Dozens of potato cultivars have been plant breeding, selectively bred specifically for their skin or, more commonly, flesh biological pigment, color, including gold, red, and blue varieties that contain varying amounts of phytochemicals, including carotenoids for gold/yellow or polyphenols for red or blue cultivars.{{cite journal, last1=Hirsch , first1=C.N., last2=Hirsch, first2=C.D., last3=Felcher, first3=K, last4=Coombs, first4=J, last5=Zarka, first5=D, last6=Van Deynze, first6=A, last7=De Jong, first7=W, last8=Veilleux , first8=R.E. , last9=Jansky, first9=S, year=2013, title=Retrospective View of North American Potato (''Solanum tuberosum'' L.) Breeding in the 20th and 21st Centuries, journal=G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics , volume=3, issue=6, pages=1003–13, doi=10.1534/g3.113.005595, pmc=3689798, last10=Bethke, first10=P, last11=Douches, first11=D.S. , last12=Buell, first12=C.R., pmid=23589519 Carotenoid compounds include provitamin A alpha-carotene and beta-carotene, which are converted to the essential nutrient, vitamin A, during digestion. Anthocyanins mainly responsible for red or blue pigmentation in potato cultivars do not have nutritional significance, but are used for visual variety and consumer appeal. In 2010, potatoes were genetic engineering, bioengineered specifically for these pigmentation traits.
In 2020, world production of potatoes was 359 million tonnes, led by China with 22% of the total (table). Other major producers were India, Russia, Ukraine and the United States. It remains an essential crop in Europe (especially northern and eastern Europe), where per capita production is still the highest in the world, but the most rapid expansion over the past few decades has occurred in southern and eastern Asia.
Potatoes contain Toxicity, toxic compounds known as glycoalkaloids, of which the most prevalent are solanine and chaconine. Solanine is found in other plants in the same family, Solanaceae, which includes such plants as deadly nightshade (''Atropa belladonna''), henbane (''Hyoscyamus niger'') and tobacco (''Nicotiana, Nicotiana spp.''), as well as the food plants eggplant and tomato. These compounds, which protect the potato plant from its predators, are generally concentrated in its leaves, flowers, sprouts, and fruits (in contrast to the tubers). In a summary of several studies, the glycoalkaloid content was highest in the flowers and sprouts and lowest in the tuber flesh. (The glycoalkaloid content was, in order from highest to lowest: flowers, sprouts, leaves, tuber skin, roots, berries, peel [skin plus outer cortex of tuber flesh], stems, and tuber flesh).
Exposure to light, physical damage, and age increase glycoalkaloid content within the tuber.{{cite web, url=http://www.csiro.au/resources/green-potatoes, title=Greening of potatoes, year=2005 , publisher=Food Science Australia, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125205141/http://www.csiro.au/resources/green-potatoes, archive-date=25 November 2011, url-status=dead, access-date=15 November 2008 Cooking at high temperatures—over {{cvt, 170, °C, °F—partly destroys these compounds. The concentration of glycoalkaloids in Solanum jamesii, wild potatoes is sufficient to produce toxic effects in humans. Glycoalkaloid poisoning may cause headaches, diarrhea, cramps, and, in severe cases, coma and death. However, poisoning from cultivated potato varieties is very rare. Light exposure causes greening from chlorophyll synthesis, giving a visual clue as to which areas of the tuber may have become more toxic. However, this does not provide a definitive guide, as greening and glycoalkaloid accumulation can occur independently of each other.
Different potato varieties contain different levels of glycoalkaloids. The Lenape (potato), Lenape variety was released in 1967 but was withdrawn in 1970 as it contained high levels of glycoalkaloids.{{cite web, url=https://boingboing.net/2013/03/25/the-case-of-the-poison-potato.html, title=The case of the poison potato, publisher=boingboing.net, author=Marggie Koerth-Baker, date=25 March 2013, access-date=8 November 2015, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151108070908/http://boingboing.net/2013/03/25/the-case-of-the-poison-potato.html, archive-date=8 November 2015, url-status=dead Since then, breeders developing new varieties test for this, and sometimes have to discard an otherwise promising cultivar. Breeders try to keep glycoalkaloid levels below {{cvt, 200, mg/kg (200 Parts-per notation, ppmw). However, when these commercial varieties turn green, they can still approach solanine concentrations of {{cvt, 1000, mg/kg (1000 ppmw). In normal potatoes, analysis has shown solanine levels may be as little as 3.5% of the breeders' maximum, with {{cvt, 7–187, mg/kg being found. While a normal potato tuber has {{cvt, 12–20, mg/kg of glycoalkaloid content, a green potato tuber contains {{cvt, 250–280, mg/kg and its skin has {{cvt, 1500–2200, mg/kg.
{{anchor, Growth, Cultivation
{{anchor, Seed potato
New tubers may start growing at the surface of the soil. Since exposure to light leads to an undesirable greening of the skins and the development of solanine as a protection from the sun's rays, growers cover surface tubers. Commercial growers cover them by piling additional soil around the base of the plant as it grows (called "hilling" up, or in British English "earthing up"). An alternative method, used by home gardeners and smaller-scale growers, involves covering the growing area with mulches such as straw or plastic sheets.{{cite web, url=http://suffolk-lamp.cit.cornell.edu/assets/Horticulture-Leaflets/Growing-Potatoes-in-the-Home-Garden.pdf, publisher=Cornell University Cooperative extension service, Extension Service, title=Growing Potatoes in the Home Garden, access-date=27 June 2010
Correct potato husbandry can be an arduous task in some circumstances. Good ground preparation, harrowing, plough, plowing, and rolling are always needed, along with a little grace from the weather and a good source of water. Three successive plowings, with associated harrowing and rolling, are desirable before planting. Eliminating all root-weeds is desirable in potato cultivation. In general, the potatoes themselves are grown from the eyes of another potato and not from seed. Home gardeners often plant a piece of potato with two or three eyes in a hill of mounded soil. Commercial growers plant potatoes as a row crop using seed tubers, young plants or microtubers and may mound the entire row. Seed potato crops are roguing, rogued in some countries to eliminate diseased plants or those of a different variety from the seed crop.
Potatoes are sensitive to heavy frosts, which damage them in the ground. Even cold weather makes potatoes more susceptible to bruising and possibly later rotting, which can quickly ruin a large stored crop.
Insects that commonly transmit potato diseases or damage the plants include the Colorado potato beetle, the potato tuber moth, the green peach aphid (''Myzus persicae''), the potato aphid, ''Tuta absoluta'', beet leafhoppers, thrips, and mites. The potato cyst nematode is a microscopic worm that feeds on the roots, thus causing the potato plants to wilt. Since its eggs can survive in the soil for several years, crop rotation is recommended.
According to an Environmental Working Group analysis of USDA and FDA pesticide residue tests performed from 2000 through 2008, 84% of the 2,216 tested potato samples contained detectable traces of at least one pesticide. A total of 36 unique pesticides were detected on potatoes over the 2,216 samples, though no individual sample contained more than 6 unique pesticide traces, and the average was 1.29 detectable unique pesticide traces per sample. The average quantity of all pesticide traces found in the 2,216 samples was 1.602 Parts per million, ppm. While this was a very low value of pesticide residue, it was the highest amongst the 50 vegetables analyzed.
{{ Visible anchor, Rpi-blb1 is a nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NB-LRR/NLR), an immunoreceptor. It has been introgressed from wild potato, wild relatives (various ''Solanum'' spp.) into the common potato. Rpi-blb1 conveys disease resistance in potato, resistance to Late Blight (''P. infestans'').
{{ Cite journal
, language = en
, year = 2022
, volume = 66
, issue = 5
, department = Review
, publisher = Portland Press Limited (Biochemical Society)
, first2 = Doil
, first1 = Soohyun
, last2 = Choi
, last1 = Oh
, pages = 435–445
, journal = Essays in Biochemistry
, title = Receptor-mediated nonhost resistance in plants
, doi = 10.1042/EBC20210080
, pmid = 35388900
, s2cid = 247999992
, id = {{ORCID, 0000-0002-4366-3627
{{ Clarify, date=December 2022, reason=Is this the same as #blb1 above? If so these two should be next to each other, so this should be moved to that section or vice versa.
At harvest time, gardeners usually dig up potatoes with a long-handled, three-prong "grape" (or graip), i.e., a Garden fork, spading fork, or a potato hook, which is similar to the graip but with tines at a 90Degree (angle), ° angle to the handle. In larger plots, the plow is the fastest implement for unearthing potatoes. Commercial harvesting is typically done with large potato harvesters, which scoop up the plant and surrounding earth. This is transported up an apron chain consisting of steel links several feet wide, which separates some of the dirt. The chain deposits into an area where further separation occurs. Different designs use different systems at this point. The most complex designs use vine choppers and shakers, along with a blower system to separate the potatoes from the plant. The result is then usually run past workers who continue to sort out plant material, stones, and rotten potatoes before the potatoes are continuously delivered to a wagon or truck. Further inspection and separation occurs when the potatoes are unloaded from the field vehicles and put into storage.
Potatoes are usually cured after harvest to improve skin-set. Skin-set is the process by which the skin of the potato becomes resistant to skinning damage. Potato tubers may be susceptible to skinning at harvest and suffer skinning damage during harvest and handling operations. Curing allows the skin to fully set and any wounds to heal. Wound-healing prevents infection and water-loss from the tubers during storage. Curing is normally done at relatively warm temperatures ({{convert, 50, to, 60, °F, °C, order=flip, disp=or) with high humidity and good gas-exchange if at all possible.
Storage facilities need to be carefully designed to keep the potatoes alive and slow the natural process of sprouting which involves the breakdown of starch. It is crucial that the storage area be dark, ventilated well, and, for long-term storage, maintained at temperatures near {{convert, 4, C, F. For short-term storage, temperatures of about {{convert, 7, to, 10, °C, °F are preferred.Potato storage, value Preservation: {{cite web , first = Pawanexh , last = Kohli , year = 2009 , title = Potato storage and value Preservation: The Basics , url = http://crosstree.info/Documents/POTATO_STORAGE.pdf , publisher = CrossTree techno-visors , access-date = 12 July 2009 , archive-date = 6 August 2020 , archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200806192307/http://www.crosstree.info/Documents/POTATO_STORAGE.pdf , url-status = dead
Temperatures below {{convert, 4, °C, °F convert the starch in potatoes into sugar, which alters their taste and cooking qualities and leads to higher acrylamide levels in the cooked product, especially in deep-fried dishes. The discovery of acrylamides in starchy foods in 2002 has led to international health concerns.{{cn, date=October 2022 It is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food causes cancer in humans.{{cite web , url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/cancer-myths/can-eating-burnt-foods-cause-cancer , publisher=Cancer Research UK , title=Can eating burnt foods cause cancer? , date=15 October 2021
Chemicals are used to suppress sprouting of tubers during storage. Chlorpropham (CIPC) is the main chemical used, but toxicity concerns have led to it being banned in the EU.{{cite news , last1=Epp , first1=Melanie , title=The Worry with CIPC , url=https://european-seed.com/2021/04/the-worry-with-cipc/ , access-date=12 June 2021 , work=EuropeanSeed , date=2021-04-12 Alternatives are applying maleic hydrazide to the crop whilst it is still growing or the use of ethylene, spearmint and orange oils and 1,4-dimethylnaphthalene.
Under optimum conditions in commercial warehouses, potatoes can be stored for up to 10–12 months. The commercial storage and retrieval of potatoes involves several phases: first ''drying'' surface moisture; ''wound healing'' at 85% to 95% relative humidity and temperatures below {{convert, 25, °C, °F; a staged ''cooling phase''; a ''holding'' phase; and a ''reconditioning'' phase, during which the tubers are slowly warmed. Ventilation (architecture), Mechanical ventilation is used at various points during the process to prevent condensation and the accumulation of carbon dioxide.
Potatoes are prepared in many ways: skin-on or peeled, whole or cut up, with seasonings or without. The only requirement involves cooking to swell the starch granules. Most potato dishes are served hot but some are first cooked, then served cold, notably potato salad and potato chip, potato chips (crisps). Common dishes are: mashed potatoes, which are first boiled (usually peeled), and then mashed with milk or yogurt and butter; whole baked potatoes; boiling, boiled or steaming, steamed potatoes; French fries, French-fried potatoes or chips; cut into cubes and roasting, roasted; scalloped potatoes, scalloped, diced, or sliced and fried (home fries); grated into small thin strips and fried (hash browns); grated and formed into dumplings, Rösti or potato pancakes. Unlike many foods, potatoes can also be easily cooked in a microwave oven and still retain nearly all of their nutritional value, provided they are covered in ventilated plastic wrap to prevent moisture from escaping; this method produces a meal very similar to a steamed potato, while retaining the appearance of a conventionally baked potato. Potato chunks also commonly appear as a stew ingredient. Potatoes are boiled between 10 and 25 minutes, depending on size and type, to become soft.
Peruvian cuisine naturally contains the potato as a primary ingredient in many dishes, as around 3,000 varieties of this tuber are grown there.
Some of the more notable dishes include boiled potato as a base for several dishes or with ají (sauce), ají-based sauces like in Papa a la Huancaína or ocopa, diced potato for its use in soups like in cau cau, or in Carapulca with dried potato (papa seca). Smashed condimented potato is used in causa Limeña and papa rellena. French-fried potatoes are a typical ingredient in Peruvian stir-fries, including the classic dish lomo saltado.
Chuño is a freeze-drying, freeze-dried potato product traditionally made by Quechuas, Quechua and Aymara people, Aymara communities of Peru and Bolivia, and is known in various countries of South America, including Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. In Chile's Chiloé Archipelago, potatoes are the main ingredient of many dishes, including milcaos, chapaleles, curanto and chochoca. In Ecuador, the potato, as well as being a staple with most dishes, is featured in the hearty ''locro de papas'', a thick soup of potato, squash, and cheese.
In the UK, potatoes form part of the traditional staple, fish and chips. Roast potatoes are commonly served as part of a Sunday roast, Sunday roast dinner and mashed potatoes form a major component of several other traditional dishes, such as shepherd's pie, bubble and squeak, and bangers and mash. New potatoes may be cooked with mentha, mint and are often served with butter.
The Tattie scone is a popular Scottish dish containing potatoes. Colcannon is a traditional Irish food made with mashed potato, shredded kale or cabbage, and onion; champ (food), champ is a similar dish. Boxty pancakes are eaten throughout Ireland, although associated especially with the North, and in Irish diaspora communities; they are traditionally made with grated potatoes, soaked to loosen the starch and mixed with flour, buttermilk and baking powder. A variant eaten and sold in Lancashire, especially Liverpool, is made with cooked and mashed potatoes.
In the UK, game chips are a traditional accompaniment to roast gamebirds such as pheasant, grouse, partridge and quail.
Powdered cooked potato has been sold in the UK since the 1960s as Smash (instant mashed potato), Smash and is used as a food for camping and domestically.
Halušky, Halushky are the national dish of many Slavic nations. Halušky dumplings are made from a batter consisting of flour and grated potatoes. ''Bryndzové halušky'' are associated to Slovakia, Slovak cuisine in particular.
In Germany, Northern Europe, Northern (Finland, Latvia and especially Scandinavia, Scandinavian countries), Eastern Europe (Russia, Belarus and Ukraine) and Poland, newly harvested, early ripening varieties are considered a special delicacy. Boiled whole and served un-peeled with dill, these "new potatoes" are traditionally consumed with pickled herring, Baltic herring. Puddings made from grated potatoes (kugel, kugelis, and potato babka) are popular items of Ashkenazi cuisine, Ashkenazi, Lithuanian cuisine, Lithuanian, and Belarusian cuisine, Belarusian cuisine.{{cite book, author1=von Bremzen, Anya, author2=Welchman, John, title=Please to the Table: The Russian Cookbook, publisher=Workman Publishing, location=New York, year=1990, page
319–20
isbn=978-0-89480-845-6, url=https://archive.org/details/pleasetotablethe00vonb/page/319 German fries, German fried potatoes and various versions of Potato salad are part of German cuisine. Bauernfrühstück (literally ''farmer's breakfast'') is a warm German dish made from fried potatoes, Egg (food), eggs, ham and vegetables.
Cepelinai is the national dish of Lithuania. They are a type of dumpling made from grated raw potatoes boiled in water and usually stuffed with Ground meat, minced meat, although sometimes dry cottage cheese (curd) or mushrooms are used instead.
In Western Europe, especially in Belgium, sliced potatoes are fried to create ''frieten'', the original French fried potatoes. ''Stamppot'', a traditional Dutch meal, is based on mashed potatoes mixed with vegetables.
In France, the most notable potato dish is the ''Hachis Parmentier'', named after Antoine-Augustin Parmentier, a French pharmacist, nutritionist, and agronomist who, in the late 18th century, was instrumental in the acceptance of the potato as an edible crop in the country. ''Pâté aux pommes de terre'' is a regional potato dish from the central Allier and Limousin (region), Limousin regions. ''Gratin dauphinois'', consisting of baked thinly sliced potatoes with cream or milk, and ''tartiflette'', with Reblochon cheese, are also widespread.
In the north of Italy, in particular, in the Friuli region of the northeast, potatoes serve to make a type of pasta called gnocchi. Similarly, cooked and mashed potatoes or potato flour can be used in the Knödel or dumpling eaten with or added to meat dishes all over central and Eastern Europe, but especially in Bavaria and Luxembourg. Potatoes form one of the main ingredients in many soups such as the vichyssoise and Albanian potato and cabbage soup. In western Norway, komle is popular.
Potato pancakes are popular all over Central Europe, and are also known in Scandinavia, and in Jewish cuisine.
A traditional Canary Islands dish is Canarian wrinkly potatoes or ''papas arrugadas''. ''Tortilla de patatas'' (potato omelette) and ''patatas bravas'' (a dish of fried potatoes in a spicy tomato sauce) are near-universal constituent of Spanish tapas.
File:Burger and fries (1).jpg, French fries served with a hamburger
File:OriginalPoutineLaBanquise.jpg, Poutine, a Canadian dish of fried potatoes, cheese curds, and gravy
File:Van-willem-vincent-gogh-die-kartoffelesser-03850.jpg, ''The Potato Eaters'' by Van Gogh, 1885 (Van Gogh Museum)
File:Jean-François Millet - The Potato Harvest - Walters 37115.jpg, ''The Potato Harvest'' by Jean-François Millet, 1855 (Walters Art Museum)
''The Economist'' 28 February 2008 online
* ''Economist''. "The potato: Spud we like", (leader
''The Economist'' 28 February 2008 online
* {{cite journal , last1 = Boomgaard , first1 = Peter , year = 2003 , title = In the Shadow of Rice: Roots and Tubers in Indonesian History, 1500–1950 , journal = Agricultural History , volume = 77 , issue = 4, pages = 582–610 , jstor=3744936 , doi=10.1525/ah.2003.77.4.582 * Hawkes, J.G. (1990). ''The Potato: Evolution, Biodiversity & Genetic Resources'', Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC * {{cite book , last1 = Lang , first1 = James , year = 1975 , title = Notes of a Potato Watcher , series = Texas A&M University Agriculture series , isbn = 978-1-58544-138-9 , url-access = registration , url = https://archive.org/details/notesofpotatowat0000lang * {{Cite journal , last=Langer , first=William L , title=American Foods and Europe's Population Growth 1750–1850 , journal = Journal of Social History , volume = 8 , issue = 2, pages = 51–66 , jstor=3786266 , doi=10.1353/jsh/8.2.51, year=1975 * McNeill, William H. "How the Potato Changed the World's History." ''Social Research'' (1999) 66#1 pp. 67–83. {{ISSN, 0037-783X Fulltext: Ebsco, by a leading historian * {{cite journal , author = McNeill William H , year = 1948 , title = The Introduction of the Potato into Ireland , journal = Journal of Modern History , volume = 21 , issue = 3, pages = 218–21 , jstor=1876068 , doi=10.1086/237272, s2cid = 145099646 * Ó Gráda, Cormac. ''Black '47 and Beyond: The Great Irish Famine in History, Economy, and Memory.'' (1999). 272 pp. * Ó Gráda, Cormac, Richard Paping, and Eric Vanhaute, eds. ''When the Potato Failed: Causes and Effects of the Last European Subsistence Crisis, 1845–1850.'' (2007). 342 pp. {{ISBN, 978-2-503-51985-2. 15 essays by scholars looking at Ireland and all of Europe * Reader, John. ''Propitious Esculent: The Potato in World History'' (2008), 315pp a standard scholarly history * Salaman, Redcliffe N. (1989). ''The History and Social Influence of the Potato'', Cambridge University Press (originally published in 1949; reprinted 1985 with new introduction and corrections by J.G. Hawkes). * Stevenson, W.R., Loria, R., Franc, G.D., and Weingartner, D.P. (2001) ''Compendium of Potato Diseases'', 2nd ed, Amer. Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN. * Zuckerman, Larry. ''The Potato: How the Humble Spud Rescued the Western World.'' (1998). 304 pp. Douglas & McIntyre. {{ISBN, 0-86547-578-4. {{Refend
The World Potato Atlas
released by the International Potato Center in 2006 and regularly updated. Includes current chapters of 15 countries: ** South America: (English and Spanish): Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru ** Africa: Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya ** Eurasia: Armenia, Bangladesh, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Tajikistan ** 38 others as brief "archive" chapters ** Further information links a
Other Materials
* World Geography of the Potato a
UGA.edu
released in 1993.
''Atlas of Wild Potatoes''
(2002), Systematic and Ecogeographic Studies on Crop Genepools 10, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), {{ISBN, 9789290435181 * Gauldie, Enid (1981). The Scottish Miller 1700–1900. Pub. John Donald. {{ISBN, 0-85976-067-7.
''Solanum tuberosum'' (potato, papas): life cycle, tuber anatomy at GeoChemBio
{{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408035017/http://www.geochembio.com/biology/organisms/potato/ , date=8 April 2022 {{Potato cultivars, state=expanded {{Sister bar, d=Q10998, b=Cookbook:Potato, wikt=potato, c=Solanum tuberosum, species=Solanum tuberosum, auto=1 {{Agriculture country lists, state=collapsed {{Bioenergy {{Taxonbar, from=Q10998 {{Authority control Potatoes, Crops originating from Bolivia Crops originating from indigenous Americans Crops originating from Peru Crops originating from South America Cuisine of Northern Ireland Edible Solanaceae Flora of the Andes Irish cuisine Plants described in 1753 Root vegetables Solanum Staple foods Stoloniferous plants Tubers
tuber
Tubers are a type of enlarged structure used as storage organs for nutrients in some plants. They are used for the plant's perennation (survival of the winter or dry months), to provide energy and nutrients for regrowth during the next growin ...
of the plant ''Solanum tuberosum'' and is a root vegetable native to the Americas. The plant is a perennial plant, perennial in the nightshade family Solanaceae.
Wild potato species can be found from the southern United States to southern Chile. The potato was originally believed to have been domesticated by Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Native Americans independently in multiple locations,University of Wisconsin-Madison, ''Finding rewrites the evolutionary history of the origin of potatoes'' (2005/ref> but later genetic studies traced a single origin, in the area of present-day southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia. Potatoes were Domestication, domesticated there approximately 7,000–10,000 years ago, from a species in the ''Solanum brevicaule'' complex. Lay summary: In the Andes region of South America, where the species is Indigenous species, indigenous, some close relatives of the potato are cultivated. Potatoes were introduced to Europe from the Americas by the Spanish in the second half of the 16th century. Today they are a staple food in many parts of the world and an integral part of much of the world's food supply. , potatoes were the world's fourth-largest food crop after maize (corn), wheat, and rice. Following millennia of selective breeding, there are now over 5,000 List of potato cultivars, different types of potatoes. Over 99% of potatoes presently cultivated worldwide descend from varieties that originated in the lowlands of Zona Sur, south-central Chile. The importance of the potato as a food source and culinary ingredient varies by region and is still changing. It remains an essential crop in Europe, especially Northern and Eastern Europe, where per capita production is still the highest in the world, while the most rapid expansion in production since 2000 has occurred in South Asia, southern and eastern Asia, with China and India leading the world in overall production . Like the tomato, the potato is a nightshade in the genus ''Solanum'', and the vegetative and fruiting parts of the potato contain the toxin solanine which is dangerous for human consumption. Normal potato tubers that have been grown and stored properly produce glycoalkaloids in amounts small enough to be negligible to human health, but, if green sections of the plant (namely sprouts and skins) are exposed to light, the tuber can accumulate a high enough concentration of glycoalkaloids to affect human health. The discovery of acrylamides in starchy foods in 2002 led to international health concerns, but subsequent high-quality evidence showed acrylamide is not likely to cause cancer in humans.
Etymology
The English word ''potato'' comes from Spanish (the name used in Spain). The Royal Spanish Academy says the Spanish word is a hybrid of the Taíno language, Taíno ('sweet potato') and the Quechua languages, Quechua ('potato'). The name originally referred to the sweet potato although the two plants are not closely related. The 16th-century English herbalist John Gerard referred to sweet potatoes as ''common potatoes'', and used the terms ''bastard potatoes'' and ''Virginia potatoes'' for the species now known as potato. In many of the chronicles detailing agriculture and plants, no distinction is made between the two. Potatoes are occasionally referred to as ''Irish potatoes'' or ''white potatoes'' in the United States, to distinguish them from sweet potatoes. The name ''spud'' for a potato comes from the digging of soil (or a hole) prior to the planting of potatoes. The word has an unknown origin and was originally () used as a term for a short knife or dagger, probably related to the Latin , a word root meaning "sword"; compare Spanish , English "spade", and ''wikt:spadroon, spadroon''. It subsequently transferred over to a variety of digging tools. Around 1845, the name transferred to the tuber itself, the first record of this usage being in New Zealand English. The origin of the word ''spud'' has erroneously been attributed to an 18th-century activist group dedicated to keeping the potato out of Britain, calling itself the Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet. It was Mario Pei's 1949 ''The Story of Language'' that can be blamed for the word's false etymology, false origin. Pei wrote "the potato, for its part, was in disrepute some centuries ago. Some Englishmen who did not fancy potatoes formed a Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet. The initials of the main words in this title gave rise to spud." Like many other claimed pre-20th century acronymic origins, this is false, and there is no evidence that a Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet ever existed. At least seven languages—Afrikaans, Dutch, French, (West) Frisian, Hebrew, Persian and some variants of German—are known to use a term for "potato" that translates roughly (or literally) into English as "earth apple" or "ground apple".Biology
Taxonomic synonyms
{{collapsible list, * ''Battata tuberosa'' {{small, (L. Hill) * ''Larnax sylvarum'' subsp. ''novogranatensis'' {{small, (N.W.Sawyer) * ''Lycopersicon tuberosum'' {{small, (L. Mill.) * ''Parmentiera edulis'' {{small, (Raf.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' {{small, (Juz. & Bukasov) * ''Solanum andigenum'' convar. ''acutifolium'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' convar. ''adpressipilosum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''alccai-huarmi'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''ancacc-maquin'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''arcuatum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' subsp. ''argentinicum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' subsp. ''australiperuvianum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' subsp. ''aya-papa'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''aymaranum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''basiscopum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''bifidum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''bolivianum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' subsp. ''bolivianum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' convar. ''brachistylum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' convar. ''brevicalyces'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''brevicalyx'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' convar. ''brevipilosum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''caesium'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''caiceda'' {{small, (Bukasov) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''carhua'' {{small, (Vargas) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''ccompetillo'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''ccompis'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''ccusi'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' subsp. ''centraliperuvianum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''cevallosii'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''chalcoense'' {{small, (Bukasov) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''chimaco'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''ckello-huaccoto'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''coeruleum'' {{small, (Lechn. ex Bukasov) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''colombianum'' {{small, (Bukasov) * ''Solanum andigenum'' subsp. ''colombianum'' {{small, ((Bukasov) Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''conicicolumnatum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''cryptostylum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' convar. ''curtibaccatum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''cuzcoense'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''digitotuberosum'' {{small, (Vargas) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''dilatatum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''discolor'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' subsp. ''ecuatorianum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' convar. ''elongatibaccatum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''elongatipedicellatum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''globosum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''grauense'' {{small, (Vargas) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''guatemalense'' {{small, (Bukasov) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''hederiforme'' {{small, (Bukasov) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''herrerae'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''huaca-layra'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''huairuru'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''huallata'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''huaman-uma'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''imilla'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''incrassatum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''juninum'' {{small, (Bukasov) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''lanciacuminatum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''lapazense'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''latius'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''lecke-umo'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''lilacinoflorum'' {{small, (Bukasov) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''lisarassa'' {{small, (Bukasov) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''llutuc-runtum'' {{small, (Lechn. ex Bukasov) * ''Solanum andigenum'' convar. ''longiacuminatum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''longibaccatum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' convar. ''macron'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''magnicorollatum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''mexicanum'' {{small, (Bukasov) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''microstigma'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' convar. ''microstigmatum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''nodosum'' {{small, (Bukasov) * ''Solanum andigenum'' convar. ''nudiculum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' convar. ''obtusiacuminatum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''ovatibaccatum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''pacus'' {{small, (Lechn. ex Bukasov) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''pallidum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''platyantherum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''pomacanchicum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''ppacc-nacha'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''ppaqui'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' convar. ''puca-mata'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''quechuanum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''sihuanum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''socco-huaccoto'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' convar. ''stenon'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' var. ''stenophyllum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''sunchchu'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' subsp. ''tarmense'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''tenue'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''tiahuanacense'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' convar. ''titicacense'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''tocanum'' {{small, (Bukasov) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''tolucanum'' {{small, (Bukasov) * ''Solanum andigenum'' f. ''uncuna'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum apurimacense'' {{small, (Vargas) * ''Solanum aracatscha'' {{small, (Besser) * ''Solanum aracc-papa'' {{small, (Juz. ex Rybin) * ''Solanum ascasabii'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum boyacense'' {{small, (Juz. & Bukasov) * ''Solanum caniarense'' {{small, (Juz. & Bukasov) * ''Solanum cardenasii'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum cayeuxi'' {{small, (Berthault) * ''Solanum chariense'' {{small, (A.Chev.) * ''Solanum chaucha'' {{small, (Juz. & Bukasov) * ''Solanum chaucha'' var. ''ccoe-sulla'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum chaucha'' var. ''ckati'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum chaucha'' var. ''khoyllu'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum chaucha'' var. ''puca-suitu'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum chaucha'' f. ''purpureum'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum chaucha'' f. ''roseum'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum chaucha'' var. ''surimana'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum chiloense'' {{small, ((A.DC.) Berthault) * ''Solanum chilotanum'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum chilotanum'' var. ''angustifurcatum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum chilotanum'' f. ''magnicorollatum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum chilotanum'' f. ''parvicorollatum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum chilotanum'' var. ''talukdarii'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum chocclo'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum churuspi'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum coeruleiflorum'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum cultum'' {{small, ((A.DC.) Berthault) * ''Solanum diemii'' {{small, (E.Brucher) * ''Solanum dubium'' {{small, (E.H.L.Krause) * ''Solanum erlansonii'' {{small, (Anon.) * ''Solanum esculentum'' {{small, (Neck.) * ''Solanum estradea'' {{small, (L.E.López) * ''Solanum goniocalyx'' {{small, (Juz. & Bukasov) * ''Solanum goniocalyx'' var. ''caeruleum'' {{small, (Vargas) * ''Solanum herrerae'' {{small, (Juz.) * ''Solanum hygrothermicum'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum kesselbrenneri'' {{small, (Juz. & Bukasov) * ''Solanum leptostigma'' {{small, (Juz.) * ''Solanum leptostigma'' {{small, (Juz. ex Bukasov) * ''Solanum macmillanii'' {{small, (Bukasov) * ''Solanum maglia'' var. ''chubutense'' {{small, (Bitter) * ''Solanum maglia'' var. ''guaytecarum'' {{small, (Bitter) * ''Solanum mamilliferum'' {{small, (Juz. & Bukasov) * ''Solanum molinae'' {{small, (Juz.) * ''Solanum oceanicum'' {{small, (Brücher) * ''Solanum ochoanum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum paramoense'' {{small, (Bitter ex Pittier) * ''Solanum parmentieri'' {{small, (Molina ex Walp.) * ''Solanum parvicorollatum'' {{small, (Lechn.) * ''Solanum phureja'' {{small, (Juz. & Bukasov) * ''Solanum phureja'' var. ''caeruleum'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum phureja'' var. ''erlansonii'' {{small, ((Bukasov & Lechnovitch) Ochoa) * ''Solanum phureja'' subsp. ''estradae'' {{small, ((L.E.López) Hawkes) * ''Solanum phureja'' var. ''flavum'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum phureja'' subsp. ''hygrothermicum'' {{small, ((Ochoa) Hawkes) * ''Solanum phureja'' var. ''janck'o-phureja'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum phureja'' var. ''macmillanii'' {{small, ((Bukasov & Lechnovitch) Ochoa) * ''Solanum phureja'' f. ''orbiculatum'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum phureja'' var. ''pujeri'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum phureja'' var. ''rubroroseum'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum phureja'' var. ''sanguineum'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum phureja'' f. ''sayhuanimayo'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum phureja'' f. ''timusi'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum phureja'' f. ''viuda'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum riobambense'' {{small, (Juz. & Bukasov) * ''Solanum rybinii'' {{small, (Juz. & Bukasov) * ''Solanum rybinii'' var. ''bogotense'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum rybinii'' var. ''boyacense'' {{small, ((Juz. & Bukasov) Hawkes) * ''Solanum rybinii'' var. ''pastoense'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum rybinii'' var. ''popayanum'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum sabinei'' {{small, ((A.DC.) Berthault) * ''Solanum sanmartinense'' {{small, (Brücher) * ''Solanum sendigena'' {{small, (Juz. & Bukasov) * ''Solanum sinense'' {{small, (Blanco) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' {{small, (Juz. & Bukasov) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''alcay-imilla'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''canasense'' {{small, (Vargas) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''canastilla'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''catari-papa'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''ccami'' {{small, ((Bukasov) Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' var. ''ccami'' {{small, (Bukasov) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' var. ''chapina'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''chilcas'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''chincherae'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''chojllu'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''cochicallo'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''cohuasa'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''cuchipacon'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' var. ''cyaneum'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''eucaliptae'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' subsp. ''goniocalyx'' {{small, ((Juz. & Bukasov) Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''huallata-chinchi'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''huamanpa-uman'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''huanuchi'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' var. ''huicu'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''kamara'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''kantillero'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' var. ''keccrana'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''kehuillo'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''koso-nahui'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' var. ''megalocalyx'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''negrum'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''orcco-amajaya'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''pallidum'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' var. ''peruanum'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''phinu'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''phitu-huayacas'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''piticana'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' var. ''pitiquilla'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''pitoca'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' var. ''poccoya'' {{small, (Vargas) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''puca'' {{small, (Vargas) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' var. ''puca-lunca'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' var. ''putis'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''roseum'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''tiele'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''yana-cculi'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum stenotomum'' f. ''yuracc'' {{small, (Vargas) * ''Solanum subandigenum'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum sylvestre'' {{small, (Audib. ex Dunal) * ''Solanum tarmense'' {{small, (Bukasov) * ''Solanum tascalense'' {{small, (Brücher) * ''Solanum tenuifilamentum'' {{small, (Juz. & Bukasov) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''acuminatum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''aethiopicum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''alaudinum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''album'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''alkka-imilla'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''alkka-silla'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''amajaya'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' subsp. ''andigenum'' {{small, ((Juz. & Bukasov) Hawkes) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''anglicum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''araucanum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''auriculatum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''azul-runa'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''batatinum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''bertuchii'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''borsdorfianum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''brachyceras'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''brachykalukon'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''brevipapillosum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''brevipilosum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''bufoninum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''californicum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''camota'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''cepinum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''chaped'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''chiar-lelekkoya'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''chiar-pala'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' subsp. ''chiloense'' {{small, ((A.DC.) L.I.Kostina) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''chiloense'' {{small, (A.DC.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''chilotanum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''chojo-sajama'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''chubutense'' {{small, ((Bitter) Hawkes) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''conicum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''conocarpum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''contortum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''coraila'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''cordiforme'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''corsicanum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''crassifilamentum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''crassipedicellatum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''cucumerinum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''cultum'' * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''drakeanum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''elegans'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''elongatum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''elongatum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''enode'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''erythroceras'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''fragariinum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''guaytecarum'' {{small, ((Bitter) Hawkes) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''hassicum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''helenanum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''hispanicum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''holsaticum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''huaca-zapato'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''huichinkka'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''indianum'' {{small, (Lechn. ex Bukasov) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''infectum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''isla-imilla'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''jancck'o-kkoyllu'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''janck'o-chockella'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''janck'o-pala'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''julianum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''kaunitzii'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''kunurana'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''laram-lelekkoya'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''latum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''laurentianum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''lelekkoya'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''leonhardianum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''mahuinhue'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''malcachu'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''melanoceras'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''menapianum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''merceri'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''milagro'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''montticum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''multibaccatum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''murukewillu'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''nigrum'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''nobile'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''norfolcicum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''nucinum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''oculosum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''ovatum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''overita'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''palatinatum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''pecorum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''peruvianum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''pichuna'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''pillicuma'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''platyceras'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''polemoniifolium'' {{small, (J.Rémy) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''praecox'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''praedicandum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''pulo'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''putscheanum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''recurvatum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''reniforme'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''rockii'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''rossicum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''rubrisuturatum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''rugiorum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''runa'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''sabinei'' {{small, (A.DC.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''saccharatum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''salamandrinum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''sani-imilla'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''schnittspahnii'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''sebastianum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''sesquimensale'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''sicha'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''sipancachi'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''strobilinum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''surico'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''taraco'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''tener'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''tenuipedicellatum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''thalassinum'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''tinctorium'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''tinguipaya'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''ulmense'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''versicolor'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''villaroella'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''viride'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''vuchefeldicum'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''vulgare'' {{small, (Macloskie) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''vulgare'' {{small, (Hook.f.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''wila-huaycku'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''wila-imilla'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''wila-k'oyu'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''wila-monda'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''wila-pala'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''xanthoceras'' {{small, (Alef.) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' f. ''yurac-taraco'' {{small, (Ochoa) * ''Solanum tuberosum'' var. ''yutuense'' {{small, (Bukasov & Lechn.) * ''Solanum utile'' {{small, (Klotzsch) * ''Solanum yabari'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum yabari'' var. ''cuzcoense'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum yabari'' var. ''pepino'' {{small, (Hawkes) * ''Solanum zykinii'' {{small, (Lechn.)Description
Potato plants are herbaceous perennials that grow about {{cvt, 60, cm, in high, depending on variety, with the leaves plant senescence, dying back after flowering, fruiting and tuber formation. They bear white, pink, red, blue, or purple Flower, flowers with yellow stamens. Potatoes are mostly pollination, cross-pollinated by insects such as bumblebees, which carry pollen from other potato plants, though a substantial amount of self-fertilizing occurs as well. Tubers form in response to decreasing day length, although this tendency has been minimized in commercial varieties.
After flowering, potato plants produce small green Potato fruit, fruits that resemble green cherry tomatoes, each containing about 300 seeds. Like all parts of the plant except the tubers, the fruit contain the toxic alkaloid solanine and are therefore unsuitable for consumption. All new potato varieties are grown from seeds, also called "true potato seed", "TPS" or "botanical seed" to distinguish it from seed tubers. New varieties grown from seed can be vegetative propagation, propagated vegetatively by planting tubers, pieces of tubers cut to include at least one or two eyes, or cuttings, a practice used in greenhouses for the production of healthy seed tubers. Plants propagated from tubers are clones of the parent, whereas those propagated from seed produce a range of different varieties.
Potatoes, both ''S. tuberosum'' and most of its wild relatives, are self-incompatible: they bear no useful fruit when self-pollinated. This trait is problematic for crop breeding, as all sexually-produced plants must be hybrids. The gene responsible for its trait as well as mutations to disable it are now known. Self-compatibility has successfully been introduced both to diploid potatoes (including a special line of ''S. tuberosum'') by CRISPR-Cas9. Plants having a 'Sli' gene produce pollen which is compatible to its own parent and plants with similar S genes.{{cite journal, last1=Hosaka, first1=Kazuyoshi, last2=Hanneman, first2=Robert E. Jr., title=Genetics of self-compatibility in a self-incompatible wild diploid potato species ''Solanum chacoense''. 1. Detection of an S locus inhibitor (Sli) gene , journal=Euphytica, publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC, volume=99, issue=3, year=1998, issn=0014-2336, doi=10.1023/a:1018353613431, pages=191–197, s2cid=40678039 , url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1018353613431 This gene was recently cloned by Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen University and Solynta in 2021, which would allow for faster and more focused breeding.{{cite journal, last1=Eggers, first1=Ernst-Jan, last2=Burgt, first2=van der, last3=Heusden, first3=van, last4=W., first4=Sjaak A., last5=Vries, first5=de, last6=E., first6=Michiel, last7=Visser, first7=Richard G. F., last8=Bachem, first8=Christian W. B., last9=Lindhout, first9=Pim, title=Neofunctionalisation of the Sli gene leads to self-compatibility and facilitates precision breeding in potato, journal=Nature Communications, volume=12, issue=1, date=2021-07-06, page=4141 , issn=2041-1723, doi=10.1038/s41467-021-24267-6, pmid=34230471 , pmc=8260583 , bibcode=2021NatCo..12.4141E
This study...
{{cite journal, last1=Ma, first1=Ling, last2=Zhang, first2=Chunzhi, last3=Zhang, first3=Bo, last4=Tang, first4=Fei, last5=Li, first5=Futing, last6=Liao, first6=Qinggang, last7=Tang, first7=Die, last8=Peng, first8=Zhen, last9=Jia, first9=Yuxin, last10=Gao, first10=Meng, last11=Guo, first11=Han, last12=Zhang, first12=Jinzhe, last13=Luo, first13=Xuming, last14=Yang, first14=Huiqin, last15=Gao, first15=Dongli, last16=Lucas, first16=William J., last17=Li, first17=Canhui, last18=Huang, first18=Sanwen, last19=Shang, first19=Yi, title=A nonS-locus F-box gene breaks self-incompatibility in diploid potatoes, journal=Nature Communications, publisher=Nature Portfolio, volume=12, issue=1, date=2021-07-06, page=4142 , issn=2041-1723, doi=10.1038/s41467-021-24266-7, pmid=34230469 , pmc=8260799 , bibcode=2021NatCo..12.4142M
...is cited by this review:
{{ Cite journal
, language = en
, year = 2022
, volume = 69
, publisher = Elsevier Ltd.
, first4 = Kentaro
, first3 = Kanae
, first2 = Katharina
, first1 = Takashi
, last4 = Shimizu
, last3 = Masuda
, last2 = Jung
, last1 = Akagi
, pages = 102255
, journal = Current Opinion in Plant Biology
, issn = 1369-5266
, title = Polyploidy before and after domestication of crop species
, pmid = 35870416
, s2cid = 250962663
, doi = 10.1016/j.pbi.2022.102255
Diploid hybrid potato breeding is a recent area of potato genetics supported by the finding that homozygous fixation (population genetics), fixation of donor alleles is possible.{{cite journal, last1=Lindhout, first1=Pim, last2=Meijer, first2=Dennis, last3=Schotte, first3=Theo, last4=Hutten, first4=Ronald C. B., last5=Visser, first5=Richard G. F., last6=van Eck, first6=Herman J., title=Towards F1 Hybrid Seed Potato Breeding, journal=Potato Research, publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC, volume=54, issue=4, year=2011, issn=0014-3065, doi=10.1007/s11540-011-9196-z, pages=301–312, s2cid=39719359
Genetics
There are about 5,000 potato varieties worldwide. Three thousand of them are found in the Andes alone, mainly in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, and Colombia. They belong to eight or nine species, depending on the taxonomic school. Apart from the 5,000 cultivated varieties, there are about 200 wild species and subspecies, many of which can be cross-bred with cultivated varieties. Cross-breeding has been done repeatedly to transfer resistances to certain pests and diseases from the gene pool of wild species to the gene pool of cultivated potato species.
The major species grown worldwide is ''Solanum tuberosum'' (a tetraploid with 48 chromosomes), and modern varieties of this species are the most widely cultivated. There are also four diploid species (with 24 chromosomes): ''S.{{nbspstenotomum'', ''S.{{nbspphureja'', ''S.{{nbspgoniocalyx'', and ''S.{{nbspajanhuiri''. There are two triploid species (with 36 chromosomes): ''S.{{nbspchaucha'' and ''S.{{nbspjuzepczukii''. There is one pentaploid cultivated species (with 60 chromosomes): ''S.{{nbspcurtilobum''. There are two major subspecies of ''Solanum tuberosum'': ''andigena'', or Andean; and ''tuberosum'', or Chilean. The Andean potato is adapted to the short-day conditions prevalent in the mountainous equatorial and tropical regions where it originated; the Potatoes of Chiloé, Chilean potato, however, native to the Chiloé Archipelago, is adapted to the long-day conditions prevalent in the higher latitude region of southern Chile.{{cite journal, url=https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0717-34582007000300011 , title=Molecular description and similarity relationships among native germplasm potatoes (''Solanum tuberosum'' ssp. ''tuberosum'' L.) using morphological data and AFLP markers , journal=Electronic Journal of Biotechnology , volume=10 , issue=3 , pages=436–443 , access-date=6 December 2009, doi=10.2225/vol10-issue3-fulltext-14 , date=July 2007 , last1=Anabalón Rodríguez , first1=Leonardo , last2=Morales Ulloa , first2=Daniza , last3=Solano Solis , first3=Jaime , hdl=10925/320 , hdl-access=free
The International Potato Center, based in Lima, Peru, holds 4,870 types of potato germplasm, most of which are traditional landrace cultivars. The international Potato Genome Sequencing Consortium announced in 2009 that they had achieved a draft sequence of the potato genome, containing 12 chromosomes and 860 million base pairs, making it a medium-sized plant genome. More than 99 percent of all current variety (botany), varieties of potatoes currently grown are direct descendants of a subspecies that once grew in the lowlands of south-central Chile.{{cite web , url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/01/080129160727.htm , title=Using DNA, Scientists Hunt For The Roots Of The Modern Potato , author=Story is reprinted (with editorial adaptations by ScienceDaily staff) from materials provided by University of Wisconsin–Madison , publisher=ScienceDaily (with information from a report originally appearing in the American Journal of Botany) , date=4 February 2008 , access-date=27 August 2011 Nonetheless, genetic testing of the wide variety of cultivars and wild species affirms that all potato subspecies derive from a single Indigenous (ecology), origin in the area of present-day southern Peru and extreme Northwestern Bolivia (from a species in the ''Solanum brevicaule'' complex).
Most modern potatoes grown in North America arrived through European settlement and not independently from the South American sources, although at least one wild potato species, ''Solanum fendleri'', naturally ranges from Peru into Texas, where it is used in breeding for resistance to a nematode species that attacks cultivated potatoes. A secondary center of genetic variability of the potato is Mexico, where important wild species that have been used extensively in modern breeding are found, such as the hexaploid ''Solanum demissum'', as a source of resistance to the devastating Phytophthora infestans, late blight disease.{{Cite journal, title=Potato and tomato late blight caused by ''Phytophthora infestans'': An overview of pathology and resistance breeding , last1=Nowicki, first1=Marcin, date=17 August 2011, doi= 10.1094/PDIS-05-11-0458, pmid=30731850, last2=Foolad, first2=Majid R., last3=Nowakowska, first3=Marzena, last4=Kozik , first4=Elzbieta U., journal=Plant Disease (journal), Plant Disease, publisher=American Phytopathological Society (APS), volume=96, issue=1, pages=4–17, display-authors=etal, doi-access=free Another relative native to this region, ''Solanum bulbocastanum'', has been used to genetically engineer the potato to resist potato blight.
Varieties
{{further, List of potato cultivars There are close to 4,000 varieties of potatoes, each of which has specific agricultural or culinary attributes. Around 80 varieties are commercially available in the UK. In general, varieties are categorized into a few main groups based on common characteristics, such as russet potatoes (rough brown skin), red potatoes, white potatoes, yellow potatoes (also called Yukon potatoes) and purple potatoes.
For culinary purposes, varieties are often differentiated by their waxiness: floury or mealy ''baking'' potatoes have more starch (20–22%) than waxy ''boiling'' potatoes (16–18%). The distinction may also arise from variation in the comparative ratio of two different potato starch compounds: amylose and amylopectin. Amylose, a long-chain molecule, diffuses from the starch granule when cooked in water, and lends itself to dishes where the potato is mashed. Varieties that contain a slightly higher amylopectin content, which is a highly branched molecule, help the potato retain its shape after being boiled in water. Potatoes that are good for making potato chips or potato crisps are sometimes called "chipping potatoes", which means they meet the basic requirements of similar varietal characteristics, being firm, fairly clean, and fairly well-shaped.
Immature potatoes may be sold fresh from the field as "creamer" or "new" potatoes{{anchor, creamer potatoes, new potatoes and are particularly valued for their taste. They are typically small in size and tender, with a loose skin, and flesh containing a lower level of starch than other potatoes. In the United States they are generally either a Yukon Gold potato or a red potato, called gold creamers or red creamers respectively.{{cite web, url=http://www.recipetips.com/glossary-term/t--35863/creamer-potato.asp, title=Creamer Potato, publisher=recipetips.com, access-date=18 July 2008 In the UK, the Jersey Royal is a famous type of new potato. They are distinct from "baby", "salad" or "fingerling potato, fingerling" potatoes, which are small and tend to have waxy flesh, but are grown to maturity and can be stored for months before being sold.
The European Cultivated Potato Database (ECPD) is an online collaborative database of potato variety descriptions that is updated and maintained by the Scottish Agricultural Science Agency within the framework of the European Cooperative Programme for Crop Genetic Resources Networks (ECP/GR)—which is run by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI).
Pigmentation
Dozens of potato cultivars have been plant breeding, selectively bred specifically for their skin or, more commonly, flesh biological pigment, color, including gold, red, and blue varieties that contain varying amounts of phytochemicals, including carotenoids for gold/yellow or polyphenols for red or blue cultivars.{{cite journal, last1=Hirsch , first1=C.N., last2=Hirsch, first2=C.D., last3=Felcher, first3=K, last4=Coombs, first4=J, last5=Zarka, first5=D, last6=Van Deynze, first6=A, last7=De Jong, first7=W, last8=Veilleux , first8=R.E. , last9=Jansky, first9=S, year=2013, title=Retrospective View of North American Potato (''Solanum tuberosum'' L.) Breeding in the 20th and 21st Centuries, journal=G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics , volume=3, issue=6, pages=1003–13, doi=10.1534/g3.113.005595, pmc=3689798, last10=Bethke, first10=P, last11=Douches, first11=D.S. , last12=Buell, first12=C.R., pmid=23589519 Carotenoid compounds include provitamin A alpha-carotene and beta-carotene, which are converted to the essential nutrient, vitamin A, during digestion. Anthocyanins mainly responsible for red or blue pigmentation in potato cultivars do not have nutritional significance, but are used for visual variety and consumer appeal. In 2010, potatoes were genetic engineering, bioengineered specifically for these pigmentation traits.
Genetically engineered potatoes
{{Main, Genetically engineered potato Genetic research has produced several genetically modified varieties. 'New Leaf', owned by Monsanto Company, incorporates genes from ''Bacillus thuringiensis'', which confers resistance to the Colorado potato beetle; 'New Leaf Plus' and 'New Leaf Y', approved by US regulatory agencies during the 1990s, also include resistance to viruses. McDonald's, Burger King, Frito-Lay, and Procter & Gamble announced they would not use genetically modified potatoes, and Monsanto published its intent to discontinue the line in March 2001. Potato starch contains two types of glucan, amylose and amylopectin, the latter of which is most industrially useful. Waxy potato varieties produce waxy potato starch, which is almost entirely amylopectin, with little or no amylose. BASF developed the Amflora potato, which was modified to express antisense RNA to inactivate the gene for NDP-glucose—starch glucosyltransferase, granule bound starch synthase, an enzyme which catalyzes the formation of amylose. Amflora potatoes therefore produce starch consisting almost entirely of amylopectin, and are thus more useful for the starch industry. In 2010, the European Commission cleared the way for 'Amflora' to be grown in the European Union for industrial purposes only—not for food. Nevertheless, under EU rules, individual countries have the right to decide whether they will allow this potato to be grown on their territory. Commercial planting of 'Amflora' was expected in the Czech Republic and Germany in the spring of 2010, and Sweden and the Netherlands in subsequent years. Another GM potato variety developed by BASF is 'Fortuna' which was made resistant to Phytophthora infestans, late blight by adding two resistance genes, {{ Visible anchor, blb1 and {{ Visible anchor, blb2, which originate from the Mexican wild potato ''Solanum bulbocastanum''.{{ Clarify, date=December 2022, reason=Is this the same as #Rpi-blb1 below? If so these two should be next to each other, so this should be moved to that section or vice versa. In October 2011 BASF requested cultivation and marketing approval as a feed and food from the EFSA. In 2012, GMO development in Europe was stopped by BASF. In November 2014, the USDA approved a genetically modified potato developed by J.R. Simplot Company, which contains genetic modifications that prevent bruising and produce less acrylamide when fried than conventional potatoes; the modifications do not cause new proteins to be made, but rather prevent proteins from being made via RNA interference. Genetically modified varieties have met public resistance in the United States and in the European Union.{{cite news , title=A genetically modified potato, not for eating, is stirring some opposition in Europe , work=The New York Times , url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/24/business/worldbusiness/24spuds.html , access-date=15 November 2008 , first=Elisabeth , last=Rosenthal , date=24 July 2007Biosynthesis of starch
Sucrose is a product of photosynthesis. Ferreira ''et al.'' (2010) found that the genes for starch biosynthesis start to be gene transcription, transcribed at the same time as sucrose synthase activity begins. This transcription – including starch synthase – also shows a diurnality, diurnal rhythm, correlating with the sucrose supply arriving from the leaves.{{cite journal , last1=Zierer , first1=Wolfgang , last2=Rüscher , first2=David , last3=Sonnewald , first3=Uwe , last4=Sonnewald , first4=Sophia , title=Tuber and Tuberous Root Development , journal=Annual Review of Plant Biology , publisher=Annual Reviews (publisher), Annual Reviews , volume=72 , issue=1 , date=2021-06-17 , issn=1543-5008 , doi=10.1146/annurev-arplant-080720-084456 , pages=551–580, pmid=33788583 , s2cid=232482246History
{{Main, History of the potato The potato was first domesticated in the region of modern-day southern Peru and northwestern Bolivia by pre-Columbian farmers, around Lake Titicaca. It has since spread around the world and become a staple food, staple crop in many countries. The earliest archaeologically verified potato tuber remains have been found at the coastal site of Ancon (archaeological site), Ancon (central Peru), dating to 2500 BC. The most widely cultivated variety, ''Solanum tuberosum tuberosum'', is indigenous to the Chiloé Archipelago, and has been cultivated by the local Indigenous peoples in Chile, indigenous people since before the Conquest of Chile, Spanish conquest. According to conservative estimates, the introduction of the potato was responsible for a quarter of the growth in Old World population and urbanization between 1700 and 1900. In the Altiplano, potatoes provided the principal energy source for the Inca civilization, its predecessors, and its Spanish successor. Following the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, the Spanish introduced the potato to Europe in the second half of the 16th century, part of the Columbian exchange. The staple was subsequently conveyed by European (possibly including Russian-American Company, Russian) mariners to territories and ports throughout the world, especially their colonies.{{cite book , last=Sauer , first=Jonathan , title=Historical Geography of Crop Plants : a Select Roster , publisher=CRC Press , publication-place=Boca Raton, FL , year=2017 , isbn=978-0-203-75190-9 , oclc=1014382952 , page=320 {{isbn, 9780849389016 {{isbn, 9781351440622 {{isbn, 9781351440615 {{isbn, 9781351440639 {{isbn, 9780367449872 The potato was slow to be adopted by European and colonial farmers, but after 1750 it became an important food staple and field crop and played a major role in the European 19th century population boom. However, lack of genetic diversity, due to the very limited number of varieties initially introduced, left the crop vulnerable to disease. In 1845, a plant disease known as late blight, caused by the fungus-like oomycete ''Phytophthora infestans'', spread rapidly through the poorer communities of western Ireland as well as parts of the Scottish Highlands, resulting in the crop failures that led to the Great Irish Famine. However, thousands of varieties still persist in the Andes , where over 100 cultivars might be found in a single valley, and a dozen or more might be maintained by a single agricultural household.Production
{{main, List of countries by potato production {, class="wikitable floatright" style="float:right; clear:left; width:18em;" , - ! colspan=2, Potato production – 2020 , - ! style="background:#ddf; width:75%;", Country ! style="background:#ddf; width:25%;", Production (millions of tonnes) , - , style="text-align: center;" , {{CHN , , style="text-align: center;" , 78.2 , - , style="text-align: center;" , {{IND , , style="text-align: center;" , 51.3 , - , style="text-align: center;" , {{RUS , , style="text-align: center;" , 22.5 , - , style="text-align: center;" , {{UKR , , style="text-align: center;" , 19.6 , - , style="text-align: center;" , {{USA , , style="text-align: center;" , 18.8 , - , style="text-align: center;" , World , , style="text-align: center;" , 359.1 , - , colspan=2 style="text-align: center;" , Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations{{cite web, url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL, title=Potato production in 2020 Region/World/Production Quantity/Crops from pick lists, publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT), date=2022, access-date=7 January 2022
In 2020, world production of potatoes was 359 million tonnes, led by China with 22% of the total (table). Other major producers were India, Russia, Ukraine and the United States. It remains an essential crop in Europe (especially northern and eastern Europe), where per capita production is still the highest in the world, but the most rapid expansion over the past few decades has occurred in southern and eastern Asia.
Nutrition
According to the United States Department of Agriculture, a typical raw potato is 79% water, 17% carbohydrates (88% is starch), 2% protein, and contains negligible fat (see table). In a {{convert, 100, g, oz, frac=2, adj=on portion, raw potato provides {{convert, 322, kJ, kcal, abbr=off of food energy and is a rich source of vitamin B6 and vitamin C (23% and 24% of the Daily Value, respectively), with no other vitamins or minerals in significant amount (see table). The potato is rarely eaten raw because raw potato starch is poorly digested by humans. When a potato is baked, its contents of vitamin B6 and vitamin C decline notably, while there is little significant change in the amount of other nutrients. Potatoes are often broadly classified as having a high glycemic index (GI) and so are often excluded from the diets of individuals trying to follow a low-glycemic index diet, low-GI diet. The GI of potatoes can vary considerably depending on the cultivar, growing conditions and storage, preparation methods (by cooking method, whether it is eaten hot or cold, whether it is mashed or cubed or consumed whole), and accompanying foods consumed (especially the addition of various high-fat or high-protein toppings). Consuming reheated or pre-cooked and cooled potatoes may yield a lower GI effect due to the formation of resistant starch.{{cite journal, vauthors=Fernandes G, Velangi A, Wolever TM , year=2005, title=Glycemic index of potatoes commonly consumed in North America, journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association, volume=105, pages=557–62, doi=10.1016/j.jada.2005.01.003, pmid=15800557, issue=4 In the UK, potatoes are not considered by the National Health Service (NHS) as counting or contributing towards the recommended daily 5 A Day, five portions of fruit and vegetables, the 5-A-Day program.Comparison to other staple foods
This table shows the nutrient content of potatoes next to other major staple foods, each one measured in its respective raw state on a Dry matter#Dry matter basis, dry weight basis to account for their different water contents, even though staple foods are not commonly eaten raw and are usually sprouted or cooked before eating. In sprouted and cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains (or other foods) may be different from the values in this table. Each nutrient (every row) has the highest number highlighted to show the staple food with the greatest amount in a dry {{convert, 100, g portion. {{Comparison of major staple foods
Toxicity
Potatoes contain Toxicity, toxic compounds known as glycoalkaloids, of which the most prevalent are solanine and chaconine. Solanine is found in other plants in the same family, Solanaceae, which includes such plants as deadly nightshade (''Atropa belladonna''), henbane (''Hyoscyamus niger'') and tobacco (''Nicotiana, Nicotiana spp.''), as well as the food plants eggplant and tomato. These compounds, which protect the potato plant from its predators, are generally concentrated in its leaves, flowers, sprouts, and fruits (in contrast to the tubers). In a summary of several studies, the glycoalkaloid content was highest in the flowers and sprouts and lowest in the tuber flesh. (The glycoalkaloid content was, in order from highest to lowest: flowers, sprouts, leaves, tuber skin, roots, berries, peel [skin plus outer cortex of tuber flesh], stems, and tuber flesh).
Exposure to light, physical damage, and age increase glycoalkaloid content within the tuber.{{cite web, url=http://www.csiro.au/resources/green-potatoes, title=Greening of potatoes, year=2005 , publisher=Food Science Australia, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125205141/http://www.csiro.au/resources/green-potatoes, archive-date=25 November 2011, url-status=dead, access-date=15 November 2008 Cooking at high temperatures—over {{cvt, 170, °C, °F—partly destroys these compounds. The concentration of glycoalkaloids in Solanum jamesii, wild potatoes is sufficient to produce toxic effects in humans. Glycoalkaloid poisoning may cause headaches, diarrhea, cramps, and, in severe cases, coma and death. However, poisoning from cultivated potato varieties is very rare. Light exposure causes greening from chlorophyll synthesis, giving a visual clue as to which areas of the tuber may have become more toxic. However, this does not provide a definitive guide, as greening and glycoalkaloid accumulation can occur independently of each other.
Different potato varieties contain different levels of glycoalkaloids. The Lenape (potato), Lenape variety was released in 1967 but was withdrawn in 1970 as it contained high levels of glycoalkaloids.{{cite web, url=https://boingboing.net/2013/03/25/the-case-of-the-poison-potato.html, title=The case of the poison potato, publisher=boingboing.net, author=Marggie Koerth-Baker, date=25 March 2013, access-date=8 November 2015, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151108070908/http://boingboing.net/2013/03/25/the-case-of-the-poison-potato.html, archive-date=8 November 2015, url-status=dead Since then, breeders developing new varieties test for this, and sometimes have to discard an otherwise promising cultivar. Breeders try to keep glycoalkaloid levels below {{cvt, 200, mg/kg (200 Parts-per notation, ppmw). However, when these commercial varieties turn green, they can still approach solanine concentrations of {{cvt, 1000, mg/kg (1000 ppmw). In normal potatoes, analysis has shown solanine levels may be as little as 3.5% of the breeders' maximum, with {{cvt, 7–187, mg/kg being found. While a normal potato tuber has {{cvt, 12–20, mg/kg of glycoalkaloid content, a green potato tuber contains {{cvt, 250–280, mg/kg and its skin has {{cvt, 1500–2200, mg/kg.
{{anchor, Growth, Cultivation
Growth and cultivation
{{anchor, Seed potatoSeed potatoes
Potatoes are generally grown from ''seed potatoes'', tubers specifically grown to be free from disease and to provide consistent and healthy plants. To be disease free, the areas where seed potatoes are grown are selected with care. In the US, this restricts production of seed potatoes to only 15 states out of all 50 states where potatoes are grown. These locations are selected for their cold, hard winters that kill pests and summers with long sunshine hours for optimum growth. In the UK, most seed potatoes originate in Scotland, in areas where westerly winds reduce aphid attack and the spread of Potato virus Y, potato virus pathogens. Potatoes can also be grown from true seeds.Phases of growth
Potato growth can be divided into five phases. During the first phase, sprouts emerge from the seed potatoes and root growth begins. During the second, photosynthesis begins as the plant develops leaves and branches above-ground and stolons develop from lower leaf axils on the below-ground stem. In the third phase the tips of the stolons swell forming new tubers and the shoots continue to grow and flowers typically develop soon after. Tuber bulking occurs during the fourth phase, when the plant begins investing the majority of its resources in its newly formed tubers. At this phase, several factors are critical to a good yield: optimal soil moisture and temperature, soil nutrient availability and balance, and resistance to Pest (organism), pest attacks. The fifth phase is the maturation of the tubers: the leaves and stems senesce and the tuber skins harden.{{cite journal, last1=Jefferies, first1=R. A., last2=Lawson, first2=H. M., title=A key for the stages of development of potato (''Solanum tuberosum''), journal=Annals of Applied Biology, volume=119, issue=2, year=1991, pages=387–399, issn=0003-4746, doi=10.1111/j.1744-7348.1991.tb04879.xChallenges
New tubers may start growing at the surface of the soil. Since exposure to light leads to an undesirable greening of the skins and the development of solanine as a protection from the sun's rays, growers cover surface tubers. Commercial growers cover them by piling additional soil around the base of the plant as it grows (called "hilling" up, or in British English "earthing up"). An alternative method, used by home gardeners and smaller-scale growers, involves covering the growing area with mulches such as straw or plastic sheets.{{cite web, url=http://suffolk-lamp.cit.cornell.edu/assets/Horticulture-Leaflets/Growing-Potatoes-in-the-Home-Garden.pdf, publisher=Cornell University Cooperative extension service, Extension Service, title=Growing Potatoes in the Home Garden, access-date=27 June 2010
Correct potato husbandry can be an arduous task in some circumstances. Good ground preparation, harrowing, plough, plowing, and rolling are always needed, along with a little grace from the weather and a good source of water. Three successive plowings, with associated harrowing and rolling, are desirable before planting. Eliminating all root-weeds is desirable in potato cultivation. In general, the potatoes themselves are grown from the eyes of another potato and not from seed. Home gardeners often plant a piece of potato with two or three eyes in a hill of mounded soil. Commercial growers plant potatoes as a row crop using seed tubers, young plants or microtubers and may mound the entire row. Seed potato crops are roguing, rogued in some countries to eliminate diseased plants or those of a different variety from the seed crop.
Potatoes are sensitive to heavy frosts, which damage them in the ground. Even cold weather makes potatoes more susceptible to bruising and possibly later rotting, which can quickly ruin a large stored crop.
Pests and disease
{{Main, List of potato diseases The historically significant ''Phytophthora infestans'' (late blight) remains an ongoing problem in Europe and the United States. Other potato diseases include ''Rhizoctonia'', ''Sclerotinia'', Pectobacterium carotovorum, black leg, powdery mildew, powdery scab and Potato leafroll virus, leafroll virus.
Insects that commonly transmit potato diseases or damage the plants include the Colorado potato beetle, the potato tuber moth, the green peach aphid (''Myzus persicae''), the potato aphid, ''Tuta absoluta'', beet leafhoppers, thrips, and mites. The potato cyst nematode is a microscopic worm that feeds on the roots, thus causing the potato plants to wilt. Since its eggs can survive in the soil for several years, crop rotation is recommended.
According to an Environmental Working Group analysis of USDA and FDA pesticide residue tests performed from 2000 through 2008, 84% of the 2,216 tested potato samples contained detectable traces of at least one pesticide. A total of 36 unique pesticides were detected on potatoes over the 2,216 samples, though no individual sample contained more than 6 unique pesticide traces, and the average was 1.29 detectable unique pesticide traces per sample. The average quantity of all pesticide traces found in the 2,216 samples was 1.602 Parts per million, ppm. While this was a very low value of pesticide residue, it was the highest amongst the 50 vegetables analyzed.
{{ Visible anchor, Rpi-blb1 is a nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NB-LRR/NLR), an immunoreceptor. It has been introgressed from wild potato, wild relatives (various ''Solanum'' spp.) into the common potato. Rpi-blb1 conveys disease resistance in potato, resistance to Late Blight (''P. infestans'').
{{ Cite journal
, language = en
, year = 2022
, volume = 66
, issue = 5
, department = Review
, publisher = Portland Press Limited (Biochemical Society)
, first2 = Doil
, first1 = Soohyun
, last2 = Choi
, last1 = Oh
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, title = Receptor-mediated nonhost resistance in plants
, doi = 10.1042/EBC20210080
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{{ Clarify, date=December 2022, reason=Is this the same as #blb1 above? If so these two should be next to each other, so this should be moved to that section or vice versa.
Harvest
At harvest time, gardeners usually dig up potatoes with a long-handled, three-prong "grape" (or graip), i.e., a Garden fork, spading fork, or a potato hook, which is similar to the graip but with tines at a 90Degree (angle), ° angle to the handle. In larger plots, the plow is the fastest implement for unearthing potatoes. Commercial harvesting is typically done with large potato harvesters, which scoop up the plant and surrounding earth. This is transported up an apron chain consisting of steel links several feet wide, which separates some of the dirt. The chain deposits into an area where further separation occurs. Different designs use different systems at this point. The most complex designs use vine choppers and shakers, along with a blower system to separate the potatoes from the plant. The result is then usually run past workers who continue to sort out plant material, stones, and rotten potatoes before the potatoes are continuously delivered to a wagon or truck. Further inspection and separation occurs when the potatoes are unloaded from the field vehicles and put into storage.
Potatoes are usually cured after harvest to improve skin-set. Skin-set is the process by which the skin of the potato becomes resistant to skinning damage. Potato tubers may be susceptible to skinning at harvest and suffer skinning damage during harvest and handling operations. Curing allows the skin to fully set and any wounds to heal. Wound-healing prevents infection and water-loss from the tubers during storage. Curing is normally done at relatively warm temperatures ({{convert, 50, to, 60, °F, °C, order=flip, disp=or) with high humidity and good gas-exchange if at all possible.
Storage
Storage facilities need to be carefully designed to keep the potatoes alive and slow the natural process of sprouting which involves the breakdown of starch. It is crucial that the storage area be dark, ventilated well, and, for long-term storage, maintained at temperatures near {{convert, 4, C, F. For short-term storage, temperatures of about {{convert, 7, to, 10, °C, °F are preferred.Potato storage, value Preservation: {{cite web , first = Pawanexh , last = Kohli , year = 2009 , title = Potato storage and value Preservation: The Basics , url = http://crosstree.info/Documents/POTATO_STORAGE.pdf , publisher = CrossTree techno-visors , access-date = 12 July 2009 , archive-date = 6 August 2020 , archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200806192307/http://www.crosstree.info/Documents/POTATO_STORAGE.pdf , url-status = dead
Temperatures below {{convert, 4, °C, °F convert the starch in potatoes into sugar, which alters their taste and cooking qualities and leads to higher acrylamide levels in the cooked product, especially in deep-fried dishes. The discovery of acrylamides in starchy foods in 2002 has led to international health concerns.{{cn, date=October 2022 It is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food causes cancer in humans.{{cite web , url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/cancer-myths/can-eating-burnt-foods-cause-cancer , publisher=Cancer Research UK , title=Can eating burnt foods cause cancer? , date=15 October 2021
Chemicals are used to suppress sprouting of tubers during storage. Chlorpropham (CIPC) is the main chemical used, but toxicity concerns have led to it being banned in the EU.{{cite news , last1=Epp , first1=Melanie , title=The Worry with CIPC , url=https://european-seed.com/2021/04/the-worry-with-cipc/ , access-date=12 June 2021 , work=EuropeanSeed , date=2021-04-12 Alternatives are applying maleic hydrazide to the crop whilst it is still growing or the use of ethylene, spearmint and orange oils and 1,4-dimethylnaphthalene.
Under optimum conditions in commercial warehouses, potatoes can be stored for up to 10–12 months. The commercial storage and retrieval of potatoes involves several phases: first ''drying'' surface moisture; ''wound healing'' at 85% to 95% relative humidity and temperatures below {{convert, 25, °C, °F; a staged ''cooling phase''; a ''holding'' phase; and a ''reconditioning'' phase, during which the tubers are slowly warmed. Ventilation (architecture), Mechanical ventilation is used at various points during the process to prevent condensation and the accumulation of carbon dioxide.
Yield
The world dedicated {{convert, 18.6, e6ha, e6acre, abbr=off to potato cultivation in 2010; the world average yield was {{convert, 17.4, t/ha, ST/acre, abbr=off. The United States was the most productive country, with a nationwide average yield of {{convert, 44.3, t/ha, ST/acre, abbr=off.{{cite web, title=FAOSTAT: Production-Crops, 2010 data , publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations , year=2011 , url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor , url-status=dead , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130114151638/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567 , archive-date=14 January 2013 United Kingdom was a close second. New Zealand farmers have demonstrated some of the best commercial yields in the world, ranging between 60 and 80 tonnes per hectare, some reporting yields of 88 tonnes of potatoes per hectare. There is a big gap among various countries between high and low yields, even with the same variety of potato. Average potato yields in developed economies ranges between {{ Convert, 38 and 44, MT/ha. China and India accounted for over a third of world's production in 2010, and had yields of {{convert, 14.7 and 19.9, MT/ha respectively. The yield gap between farms in developing economies and developed economies represents an opportunity loss of over {{ Convert, 400, e6MT, e6ST e6LT, abbr=off of potato, or an amount greater than 2010 world potato production. Potato crop yields are determined by factors such as the crop breed, seed age and quality, crop management practices and the plant environment. Improvements in one or more of these yield determinants, and a closure of the yield gap, can be a major boost to food supply and farmer incomes in the developing world. The food energy yield of potatoes—about {{convert, 9.2, e6kcal/acre, GJ/ha, abbr=off, order=flip—is higher than that of maize ({{convert, 7.5, e6kcal/acre, GJ/ha, abbr=unit, disp=or, order=flip), rice ({{convert, 7.4, e6kcal/acre, GJ/ha, abbr=unit, disp=or, order=flip), wheat ({{convert, 3, e6kcal/acre, GJ/ha, abbr=unit, disp=or, order=flip), or soybeans ({{convert, 2.8, e6kcal/acre, GJ/ha, abbr=unit, disp=or, order=flip).{{cite book , first1=Audrey , last1=Ensminger , first2=M.E., last2=Ensminger, first3=James E., last3=Konlande, title=Foods & Nutrition Encyclopedia , year=1994 , publisher=CTC Press , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XMA9gYIj-C4C&pg=PA1104, isbn=978-0-8493-8981-8, page=1104Climate change
{{Main, Climate change and potatoes Climate change is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production.{{cite journal, last=Haverkort, first=A. J., author2=Verhagen, A., title=Climate Change and Its Repercussions for the Potato Supply Chain, journal=Potato Research, date=October 2008, volume=51, issue=3–4, pages=223–237, doi=10.1007/s11540-008-9107-0, s2cid=22794078 Like many crops, potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide, temperature and precipitation, as well as interactions between these factors. As well as affecting potatoes directly, climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests.Uses
{{See also, List of potato dishes {{See also, Potato cooking
Potatoes are prepared in many ways: skin-on or peeled, whole or cut up, with seasonings or without. The only requirement involves cooking to swell the starch granules. Most potato dishes are served hot but some are first cooked, then served cold, notably potato salad and potato chip, potato chips (crisps). Common dishes are: mashed potatoes, which are first boiled (usually peeled), and then mashed with milk or yogurt and butter; whole baked potatoes; boiling, boiled or steaming, steamed potatoes; French fries, French-fried potatoes or chips; cut into cubes and roasting, roasted; scalloped potatoes, scalloped, diced, or sliced and fried (home fries); grated into small thin strips and fried (hash browns); grated and formed into dumplings, Rösti or potato pancakes. Unlike many foods, potatoes can also be easily cooked in a microwave oven and still retain nearly all of their nutritional value, provided they are covered in ventilated plastic wrap to prevent moisture from escaping; this method produces a meal very similar to a steamed potato, while retaining the appearance of a conventionally baked potato. Potato chunks also commonly appear as a stew ingredient. Potatoes are boiled between 10 and 25 minutes, depending on size and type, to become soft.
Other than for eating
Potatoes are also used for purposes other than eating by humans, for example: * Potatoes are used to brew alcoholic beverages such as vodka, poitín, or akvavit. * They are also used as fodder for livestock. Livestock-grade potatoes, considered too small and/or blemished to sell or market for human use but suitable for fodder use, have been called ''chats'' in some dialects. They may be stored in bins until use; they are sometimes silage, ensiled.{{Citation , last=Halliday , first=Les , display-authors=etal , title=Ensiling Potatoes , work=Prince Edward Island Agriculture and Fisheries , date=2015 , url=http://www.gov.pe.ca/photos/original/af_fact_ensipot.pdf , access-date=27 January 2018 , postscript=. Some farmers prefer to steam them rather than feed them raw and are equipped to do so efficiently. * Potato starch is used in the food industry as a thickener and binder for soups and sauces, in the textile industry as an adhesive, and for the manufacturing of papers and boards.{{cite book , title=Handbook of Potato Production, Improvement, and Postharvest , author1=Jai Gopal , author2=S.M. Paul Khurana , year=2006 , publisher=Haworth Press , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hxy8pkP26NEC&pg=PA544, isbn=978-1-56022-272-9, page=544 * Potatoes are commonly used in plant research. The consistent parenchyma tissue, the clonal nature of the plant and the low metabolic activity make it an ideal model organism, model tissue for experiments on wound-response studies and electron transport. * Potatoes have been delivered with personalized messages as a novelty. Potato delivery services include Potato Parcel and Mail A Spud.{{cite web, first1=Amy, last1=Atkins, url=http://www.boiseweekly.com/boise/potato-parcel/Content?oid=3739387, title=Potato Parcel, work=Boise Weekly, publisher=Boise Weekly, date=16 March 2016, access-date=11 August 2016, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808070630/http://www.boiseweekly.com/boise/potato-parcel/Content?oid=3739387, archive-date=8 August 2016, url-status=dead {{Anchor, Latin AmericaLatin America
Peruvian cuisine naturally contains the potato as a primary ingredient in many dishes, as around 3,000 varieties of this tuber are grown there.
Some of the more notable dishes include boiled potato as a base for several dishes or with ají (sauce), ají-based sauces like in Papa a la Huancaína or ocopa, diced potato for its use in soups like in cau cau, or in Carapulca with dried potato (papa seca). Smashed condimented potato is used in causa Limeña and papa rellena. French-fried potatoes are a typical ingredient in Peruvian stir-fries, including the classic dish lomo saltado.
Chuño is a freeze-drying, freeze-dried potato product traditionally made by Quechuas, Quechua and Aymara people, Aymara communities of Peru and Bolivia, and is known in various countries of South America, including Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. In Chile's Chiloé Archipelago, potatoes are the main ingredient of many dishes, including milcaos, chapaleles, curanto and chochoca. In Ecuador, the potato, as well as being a staple with most dishes, is featured in the hearty ''locro de papas'', a thick soup of potato, squash, and cheese.
Europe
In the UK, potatoes form part of the traditional staple, fish and chips. Roast potatoes are commonly served as part of a Sunday roast, Sunday roast dinner and mashed potatoes form a major component of several other traditional dishes, such as shepherd's pie, bubble and squeak, and bangers and mash. New potatoes may be cooked with mentha, mint and are often served with butter.
The Tattie scone is a popular Scottish dish containing potatoes. Colcannon is a traditional Irish food made with mashed potato, shredded kale or cabbage, and onion; champ (food), champ is a similar dish. Boxty pancakes are eaten throughout Ireland, although associated especially with the North, and in Irish diaspora communities; they are traditionally made with grated potatoes, soaked to loosen the starch and mixed with flour, buttermilk and baking powder. A variant eaten and sold in Lancashire, especially Liverpool, is made with cooked and mashed potatoes.
In the UK, game chips are a traditional accompaniment to roast gamebirds such as pheasant, grouse, partridge and quail.
Powdered cooked potato has been sold in the UK since the 1960s as Smash (instant mashed potato), Smash and is used as a food for camping and domestically.
Halušky, Halushky are the national dish of many Slavic nations. Halušky dumplings are made from a batter consisting of flour and grated potatoes. ''Bryndzové halušky'' are associated to Slovakia, Slovak cuisine in particular.
In Germany, Northern Europe, Northern (Finland, Latvia and especially Scandinavia, Scandinavian countries), Eastern Europe (Russia, Belarus and Ukraine) and Poland, newly harvested, early ripening varieties are considered a special delicacy. Boiled whole and served un-peeled with dill, these "new potatoes" are traditionally consumed with pickled herring, Baltic herring. Puddings made from grated potatoes (kugel, kugelis, and potato babka) are popular items of Ashkenazi cuisine, Ashkenazi, Lithuanian cuisine, Lithuanian, and Belarusian cuisine, Belarusian cuisine.{{cite book, author1=von Bremzen, Anya, author2=Welchman, John, title=Please to the Table: The Russian Cookbook, publisher=Workman Publishing, location=New York, year=1990, page319–20
isbn=978-0-89480-845-6, url=https://archive.org/details/pleasetotablethe00vonb/page/319 German fries, German fried potatoes and various versions of Potato salad are part of German cuisine. Bauernfrühstück (literally ''farmer's breakfast'') is a warm German dish made from fried potatoes, Egg (food), eggs, ham and vegetables.
Cepelinai is the national dish of Lithuania. They are a type of dumpling made from grated raw potatoes boiled in water and usually stuffed with Ground meat, minced meat, although sometimes dry cottage cheese (curd) or mushrooms are used instead.
In Western Europe, especially in Belgium, sliced potatoes are fried to create ''frieten'', the original French fried potatoes. ''Stamppot'', a traditional Dutch meal, is based on mashed potatoes mixed with vegetables.
In France, the most notable potato dish is the ''Hachis Parmentier'', named after Antoine-Augustin Parmentier, a French pharmacist, nutritionist, and agronomist who, in the late 18th century, was instrumental in the acceptance of the potato as an edible crop in the country. ''Pâté aux pommes de terre'' is a regional potato dish from the central Allier and Limousin (region), Limousin regions. ''Gratin dauphinois'', consisting of baked thinly sliced potatoes with cream or milk, and ''tartiflette'', with Reblochon cheese, are also widespread.
In the north of Italy, in particular, in the Friuli region of the northeast, potatoes serve to make a type of pasta called gnocchi. Similarly, cooked and mashed potatoes or potato flour can be used in the Knödel or dumpling eaten with or added to meat dishes all over central and Eastern Europe, but especially in Bavaria and Luxembourg. Potatoes form one of the main ingredients in many soups such as the vichyssoise and Albanian potato and cabbage soup. In western Norway, komle is popular.
Potato pancakes are popular all over Central Europe, and are also known in Scandinavia, and in Jewish cuisine.
A traditional Canary Islands dish is Canarian wrinkly potatoes or ''papas arrugadas''. ''Tortilla de patatas'' (potato omelette) and ''patatas bravas'' (a dish of fried potatoes in a spicy tomato sauce) are near-universal constituent of Spanish tapas.
North America
In the US, potatoes have become one of the most widely consumed crops and thus have a variety of preparation methods and condiments. French fries and often hash browns are commonly found in typical American fast-food burger "joints" and cafeterias. One popular favourite involves a baked potato with cheddar cheese (or sour cream and chives) on top, and in New England "smashed potatoes" (a chunkier variation on mashed potatoes, retaining the peel) have a great popularity. Potato flakes are popular as an instant variety of mashed potatoes, which reconstitute into mashed potatoes by adding water, with butter or oil and salt to taste. A regional dish of Central New York, salt potatoes are bite-size new potatoes boiled in water saturated with salt then served with melted butter. At more formal dinners, a common practice includes taking small red potatoes, slicing them, and roasting them in an iron skillet. Among American Jews, the practice of eating latkes (fried potato pancakes) is common during the festival of Hanukkah. A traditional Acadian dish from New Brunswick is known as ''poutine râpée''. The Acadian poutine is a ball of grated and mashed potato, salted, sometimes filled with pork in the centre, and boiled. The result is a moist ball about the size of a baseball (ball), baseball. It is commonly eaten with salt and pepper or brown sugar. It is believed to have originated from the German ''Klöße'', prepared by early German settlers who lived among the Acadians. ''Poutine'', by contrast, is a hearty serving of French fries, fresh cheese curds and hot gravy. Tracing its origins to Quebec in the 1950s, it has become a widespread and popular dish throughout Canada. Potato grading for Idaho potatoes is performed in which No. 1 potatoes are the highest quality and No. 2 are rated as lower in quality due to their appearance (e.g. blemishes or bruises, pointy ends). Potato density assessment can be performed by floating them in brines.{{cite book , last=Sivasankar , first=B. , year=2002 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbxGHBUY0BcC&pg=PA175 , title=Food Processing and Preservation , publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. , pages=175–77 , isbn=81-203-2086-7 High-density potatoes are desirable in the production of dehydrated mashed potatoes, potato crisps and french fries.South Asia
In South Asia, the potato is a very popular traditional staple. In India, the most popular potato dishes are ''aloo ki sabzi'', batata vada, and samosa, which is spicy mashed potato mixed with a small amount of vegetable stuffed in conical dough, and deep fried. Potatoes are also a major ingredient as fast food items, such as aloo chaat, where they are deep fried and served with chutney. In Northern India, alu dum and alu paratha are a favourite part of the diet; the first is a spicy curry of boiled potato, the second is a type of stuffed chapati. A dish called masala dosa from South India is very notable all over India. It is a thin pancake of rice and legume, pulse batter rolled over spicy smashed potato and eaten with sambhar and chutney. Poori in south India in particular in Tamil Nadu is almost always taken with smashed potato masal. Other favourite dishes are alu tikki and pakoda items. Vada pav is a popular vegetarian fast food dish in Mumbai and other regions in the Maharashtra in India. Aloo posto (a curry with potatoes and poppy seeds) is immensely popular in East India, especially Bengal. Although potatoes are not native to India, it has become a vital part of food all over the country especially North Indian food preparations. In Tamil Nadu this tuber acquired a name based on its appearance 'urulai-k-kizhangu' (உருளைக் கிழங்கு) meaning cylindrical tuber. The Aloo gosht, Potato and meat curry, is one of the popular dishes in South Asia, especially in Pakistan.East Asia
In East Asia, particularly Southeast Asia, rice is by far the predominant starch crop, with potatoes a secondary crop, especially in China and Japan. However, it is used in northern China where rice is not easily grown, with a popular dish being {{lang, zh-Hans, 青椒土豆丝 (''qīng jiāo tǔ dòu sī''), made with green pepper, vinegar and thin slices of potato. In the winter, roadside sellers in northern China will also sell roasted potatoes. It is also occasionally seen in Korean and Thai cuisines.{{cite book , title=Charmaine Solomon's Encyclopedia of Asian Food , author=Solomon, Charmaine , year=1996 , publisher=William Heinemann Australia , location=Melbourne , isbn=978-0-85561-688-5, page=293Cultural significance
In art
The potato has been an essential crop in the Andes since the pre-Columbian Era. The Moche (culture), Moche culture from Northern Peru made ceramics from the earth, water, and fire. This pottery was a sacred substance, formed in significant shapes and used to represent important themes. Potatoes are represented anthropomorphically as well as naturally. During the late 19th century, numerous images of potato harvesting appeared in European art, including the works of Willem Witsen and Anton Mauve. Van Gogh's 1885 painting ''The Potato Eaters'' portrays a family eating potatoes. Van Gogh said he wanted to depict peasants as they really were. He deliberately chose coarse and ugly models, thinking that they would be natural and unspoiled in his finished work.{{cite web, url=http://www.vggallery.com/visitors/004.htm, title=The Potato Eaters by Vincent van Gogh, last=van Tilborgh, first=Louis , year=2009, work=The Vincent van Gogh Gallery, access-date=11 September 2009 Jean-François Millet's ''The Potato Harvest'' depicts peasants working in the plains between Barbizon and Chailly. It presents a theme representative of the peasants' struggle for survival. Millet's technique for this work incorporated paste-like pigments thickly applied over a coarsely textured canvas.In popular culture
Invented in 1949, and marketed and sold commercially by Hasbro in 1952, Mr. Potato Head is an American toy that consists of a plastic potato and attachable plastic parts, such as ears and eyes, to make a face. It was the first toy ever advertised on television.{{cite web, url=http://www.vam.ac.uk/moc/collections/toys/construction_toys/mr_potato_head/index.html, title=Mr Potato Head, website=Museum of Childhood , publisher=V&A Museum of Childhood, access-date=11 September 2009 In June, 1992 at the Muñoz Rivera Elementary School spelling bee in Trenton, New Jersey, U.S. Vice President Dan Quayle#Potatoe, Dan Quayle was handed a flash card that incorrectly spelled "potato" as "potatoe" and then prompted a 12-year-old student to change his correct spelling.{{cite news, url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/29/nyregion/politics-how-do-you-spell-regret-one-man-s-take-on-it.html, title=How Do You Spell Regret? One Man's Take on It, first=Mark, last=Fass, work=The New York Times, access-date=March 20, 2009, date=August 29, 2004, archive-date=March 23, 2009, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090323093130/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/29/nyregion/politics-how-do-you-spell-regret-one-man-s-take-on-it.html, url-status=live This incident was the subject of widespread ridicule.See also
{{portal, Food * Climate change and potatoes * Irish potato candy * List of potato cultivars * List of potato dishes * List of potato museums * Loy (spade), a form of early spade used in Ireland for the cultivation of potatoes * New World crops * Potato batteryReferences
Citations
{{ReflistGeneral and cited sources
{{Refbegin, 2 * ''Economist''. "Llamas and mash"''The Economist'' 28 February 2008 online
* ''Economist''. "The potato: Spud we like", (leader
''The Economist'' 28 February 2008 online
* {{cite journal , last1 = Boomgaard , first1 = Peter , year = 2003 , title = In the Shadow of Rice: Roots and Tubers in Indonesian History, 1500–1950 , journal = Agricultural History , volume = 77 , issue = 4, pages = 582–610 , jstor=3744936 , doi=10.1525/ah.2003.77.4.582 * Hawkes, J.G. (1990). ''The Potato: Evolution, Biodiversity & Genetic Resources'', Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC * {{cite book , last1 = Lang , first1 = James , year = 1975 , title = Notes of a Potato Watcher , series = Texas A&M University Agriculture series , isbn = 978-1-58544-138-9 , url-access = registration , url = https://archive.org/details/notesofpotatowat0000lang * {{Cite journal , last=Langer , first=William L , title=American Foods and Europe's Population Growth 1750–1850 , journal = Journal of Social History , volume = 8 , issue = 2, pages = 51–66 , jstor=3786266 , doi=10.1353/jsh/8.2.51, year=1975 * McNeill, William H. "How the Potato Changed the World's History." ''Social Research'' (1999) 66#1 pp. 67–83. {{ISSN, 0037-783X Fulltext: Ebsco, by a leading historian * {{cite journal , author = McNeill William H , year = 1948 , title = The Introduction of the Potato into Ireland , journal = Journal of Modern History , volume = 21 , issue = 3, pages = 218–21 , jstor=1876068 , doi=10.1086/237272, s2cid = 145099646 * Ó Gráda, Cormac. ''Black '47 and Beyond: The Great Irish Famine in History, Economy, and Memory.'' (1999). 272 pp. * Ó Gráda, Cormac, Richard Paping, and Eric Vanhaute, eds. ''When the Potato Failed: Causes and Effects of the Last European Subsistence Crisis, 1845–1850.'' (2007). 342 pp. {{ISBN, 978-2-503-51985-2. 15 essays by scholars looking at Ireland and all of Europe * Reader, John. ''Propitious Esculent: The Potato in World History'' (2008), 315pp a standard scholarly history * Salaman, Redcliffe N. (1989). ''The History and Social Influence of the Potato'', Cambridge University Press (originally published in 1949; reprinted 1985 with new introduction and corrections by J.G. Hawkes). * Stevenson, W.R., Loria, R., Franc, G.D., and Weingartner, D.P. (2001) ''Compendium of Potato Diseases'', 2nd ed, Amer. Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN. * Zuckerman, Larry. ''The Potato: How the Humble Spud Rescued the Western World.'' (1998). 304 pp. Douglas & McIntyre. {{ISBN, 0-86547-578-4. {{Refend
Further reading
* {{cite book , editor =Bohl, William H. , editor2 =Johnson, Steven B. , title =Commercial Potato Production in North America: The Potato Association of America Handbook , publisher =The Potato Association of America , series =Second Revision of American Potato Journal Supplement Volume 57 and USDA Handbook 267 , year =2010 , url =http://potatoassociation.org/documents/A_ProductionHandbook_Final_000.pdf , url-status=dead , archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120816144218/http://potatoassociation.org/documents/A_ProductionHandbook_Final_000.pdf , archive-date =16 August 2012 , df =dmy-all * {{Cite news , agency=Reuters , title='Humble' Potato Emerging as World's Next Food Source , work=column , location=Japan , page=20 , date=11 May 2008 * {{Cite journal , last1=Spooner , first1=David M., first2=Karen, last2=McLean, first3=Gavin, last3=Ramsay, first4=Robbie, last4=Waugh, first5=Glenn J., last5=Bryan, date=October 2005 , title=A single domestication for potato based on multilocus amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping , journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS), publisher=National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (NAS), volume=102 , issue=41 , pages=14694–14699 , doi=10.1073/pnas.0507400102 , pmid=16203994 , pmc=1253605, bibcode=2005PNAS..10214694S, doi-access=freeThe World Potato Atlas
released by the International Potato Center in 2006 and regularly updated. Includes current chapters of 15 countries: ** South America: (English and Spanish): Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru ** Africa: Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya ** Eurasia: Armenia, Bangladesh, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Tajikistan ** 38 others as brief "archive" chapters ** Further information links a
Other Materials
* World Geography of the Potato a
UGA.edu
released in 1993.
''Atlas of Wild Potatoes''
(2002), Systematic and Ecogeographic Studies on Crop Genepools 10, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), {{ISBN, 9789290435181 * Gauldie, Enid (1981). The Scottish Miller 1700–1900. Pub. John Donald. {{ISBN, 0-85976-067-7.
External links
''Solanum tuberosum'' (potato, papas): life cycle, tuber anatomy at GeoChemBio
{{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408035017/http://www.geochembio.com/biology/organisms/potato/ , date=8 April 2022 {{Potato cultivars, state=expanded {{Sister bar, d=Q10998, b=Cookbook:Potato, wikt=potato, c=Solanum tuberosum, species=Solanum tuberosum, auto=1 {{Agriculture country lists, state=collapsed {{Bioenergy {{Taxonbar, from=Q10998 {{Authority control Potatoes, Crops originating from Bolivia Crops originating from indigenous Americans Crops originating from Peru Crops originating from South America Cuisine of Northern Ireland Edible Solanaceae Flora of the Andes Irish cuisine Plants described in 1753 Root vegetables Solanum Staple foods Stoloniferous plants Tubers