Marble statue of Isis, the goddess holds a situla and sistrum, ritual implements used in her wo
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Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly
calcite Calcite is a Carbonate minerals, carbonate mineral and the most stable Polymorphism (materials science), polymorph of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). It is a very common mineral, particularly as a component of limestone. Calcite defines hardness 3 on ...
or
dolomite Dolomite may refer to: *Dolomite (mineral), a carbonate mineral *Dolomite (rock), also known as dolostone, a sedimentary carbonate rock *Dolomite, Alabama, United States, an unincorporated community *Dolomite, California, United States, an unincor ...
. Marble is typically not foliated (layered), although there are exceptions. In geology, the term ''marble'' refers to metamorphosed limestone, but its use in
stonemasonry Stonemasonry or stonecraft is the creation of buildings, structures, and sculpture using stone as the primary material. It is one of the oldest activities and professions in human history. Many of the long-lasting, ancient shelters, temples, mo ...
more broadly encompasses unmetamorphosed limestone. Marble is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material.


Etymology

The word "marble" derives from the Ancient Greek (), from (), "crystalline rock, shining stone", perhaps from the verb (), "to flash, sparkle, gleam";
R. S. P. Beekes Robert Stephen Paul Beekes (; 2 September 1937 – 21 September 2017) was a Dutch linguist who was emeritus professor of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics at Leiden University and an author of many monographs on the Proto-Indo-European lang ...
has suggested that a " Pre-Greek origin is probable". This
stem Stem or STEM may refer to: Plant structures * Plant stem, a plant's aboveground axis, made of vascular tissue, off which leaves and flowers hang * Stipe (botany), a stalk to support some other structure * Stipe (mycology), the stem of a mushro ...
is also the ancestor of the English word "marmoreal," meaning "marble-like." While the English term "marble" resembles the
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
, most other European languages (with words like "marmoreal") more closely resemble the original Ancient Greek.


Physical origins

Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks, most commonly limestone or dolomite (rock). Metamorphism causes variable recrystallization of the original carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is typically composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate crystals. Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the original carbonate rock ( protolith) have typically been modified or destroyed. Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure (
silicate In chemistry, a silicate is any member of a family of polyatomic anions consisting of silicon and oxygen, usually with the general formula , where . The family includes orthosilicate (), metasilicate (), and pyrosilicate (, ). The name is al ...
-poor) limestone or dolomite protolith. The characteristic swirls and veins of many colored marble varieties are usually due to various mineral impurities such as clay, silt, sand,
iron oxide Iron oxides are chemical compounds composed of iron and oxygen. Several iron oxides are recognized. All are black magnetic solids. Often they are non-stoichiometric. Oxyhydroxides are a related class of compounds, perhaps the best known of whic ...
s, or chert which were originally present as grains or layers in the limestone. Green coloration is often due to
serpentine Serpentine may refer to: Shapes * Serpentine shape, a shape resembling a serpent * Serpentine curve, a mathematical curve * Serpentine, a type of riding figure Science and nature * Serpentine subgroup, a group of minerals * Serpentinite, a ...
resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolomite with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure and heat of the metamorphism.


Types

Examples of historically notable marble varieties and locations:


Uses


Sculpture

White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times. This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative isotropy and homogeneity, and a relative resistance to shattering. Also, the low
index of refraction In optics, the refractive index (or refraction index) of an optical medium is a dimensionless number that gives the indication of the light bending ability of that medium. The refractive index determines how much the path of light is bent, or ...
of calcite allows light to penetrate 12.7 to 38 millimeters into the stone before being scattered out, resulting in the characteristic waxy look which brings a lifelike luster to marble sculptures of any kind, which is why many sculptors preferred and still prefer marble for sculpting.


Construction

Construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite,
dolomite Dolomite may refer to: *Dolomite (mineral), a carbonate mineral *Dolomite (rock), also known as dolostone, a sedimentary carbonate rock *Dolomite, Alabama, United States, an unincorporated community *Dolomite, California, United States, an unincor ...
or serpentine that is capable of taking a polish. More generally in construction, specifically the
dimension stone Dimension stone is natural stone or rock that has been selected and finished (e.g., trimmed, cut, drilled, ground, or other) to specific sizes or shapes. Color, texture and pattern, and surface finish of the stone are also normal requirements. A ...
trade, the term ''marble'' is used for any crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone, that geologists call the
Holston Formation The Holston Formation, alternately known as the Holston Limestone, is a stratigraphic unit of Ordovician age within the Chickamauga Group in the Ridge-and-Valley physiographic province of the southeastern United States. A long outcrop bel ...
. Ashgabat, the capital city of Turkmenistan, was recorded in the 2013 ''
Guinness Book of Records ''Guinness World Records'', known from its inception in 1955 until 1999 as ''The Guinness Book of Records'' and in previous United States editions as ''The Guinness Book of World Records'', is a reference book published annually, listing world ...
'' as having the world's highest concentration of white marble buildings.


Production

According to the United States Geological Survey, U.S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production (for aggregate and industrial uses) in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was
construction aggregate Construction aggregate, or simply aggregate, is a broad category of coarse- to medium-grained particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates ...
. For comparison, 2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. U.S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for (finished) Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, compared to 10.5% annually for the 2000–2005 period. The largest dimension marble application is tile. In 1998, marble production was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of world production of marble and decorative stone. Italy and
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
were the world leaders, each representing 16% of world production, while Spain and India produced 9% and 8%, respectively. In 2018 Turkey was the world leader in marble export, with 42% share in global marble trade, followed by Italy with 18% and Greece with 10%. The largest importer of marble in 2018 was
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
with a 64% market share, followed by India with 11% and Italy with 5%.


Occupational safety

Dust produced by cutting marble could cause lung disease but more research needs to be carried out on whether dust filters and other safety products reduce this risk. In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit ( permissible exposure limit) for marble exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.


Degradation by acids

Acid In computer science, ACID ( atomicity, consistency, isolation, durability) is a set of properties of database transactions intended to guarantee data validity despite errors, power failures, and other mishaps. In the context of databases, a sequ ...
s damage marble, because the calcium carbonate in marble reacts with them, releasing carbon dioxide (technically speaking, carbonic acid, but that decomposes quickly to CO2 and H2O) and other soluble salts : :CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l) Thus, vinegar or other acidic solutions should never be used on marble. Likewise, outdoor marble statues, gravestones, or other marble structures are damaged by
acid rain Acid rain is rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it has elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). Most water, including drinking water, has a neutral pH that exists between 6.5 and 8.5, but acid ...
whether by carbonation, sulfation or the formation of "black-crust" (accumulation of calcium sulphate, nitrates and carbon particles).


Crystallization

Crystallization refers to a sometimes controversial method of imparting a glossy more durable finish on to a marble floor (CaCO3). It involves polishing the surface with an acidic solution and a steel wool pad on a flooring machine. The chemical reaction below shows a typical process using magnesium fluorosilicate (MgSiF6) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) taking place. :CaCO3(s) + MgSiF6(l) + 2HCl (l) → MgCl2(s) + CaSiF6(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) The resulting calcium hexafluorosilicate (CaSiF6) is bonded to the surface of the marble. This is harder, more glossy and stain resistant compared to the original surface. The other often used method of finishing marble is the use of polishing with oxalic acid (H2C2O4), an organic acid. The resulting reaction is as follows. :CaCO3(s) + H2C2O4(l) → CaC2O4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) In this case the calcium oxalate (CaC2O4) formed in the reaction is washed away with the slurry leaving a surface that has not been chemically changed.


Microbial degradation

The haloalkaliphilic methylotrophic bacterium ''
Methylophaga murata ''Methylophaga muralis'' is a species of Pseudomonadota. It is capable of surviving in saline and alkaline environments and can obtain its carbon from methanol. This species was originally discovered in crumbling marble in the Moscow Kremlin ...
'' was isolated from deteriorating marble in the
Kremlin The Kremlin ( rus, Московский Кремль, r=Moskovskiy Kreml', p=ˈmɐˈskofskʲɪj krʲemlʲ, t=Moscow Kremlin) is a fortified complex in the center of Moscow founded by the Rurik dynasty, Rurik dynasty. It is the best known of th ...
. Bacterial and fungal degradation was detected in four samples of marble from
Milan Cathedral Milan Cathedral ( it, Duomo di Milano ; lmo, Domm de Milan ), or Metropolitan Cathedral-Basilica of the Nativity of Saint Mary ( it, Basilica cattedrale metropolitana di Santa Maria Nascente, links=no), is the cathedral church of Milan, Lombard ...
; black '' Cladosporium'' attacked dried acrylic resin using melanin.


Cultural associations

As the favorite medium for Greek and Roman sculptors and architects (see
classical sculpture Classical sculpture (usually with a lower case "c") refers generally to sculpture from Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, as well as the Hellenized and Romanized civilizations under their rule or influence, from about 500 BC to around 200 AD. It ma ...
), marble has become a cultural
symbol A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different conc ...
of tradition and refined taste. Its extremely varied and colorful patterns make it a favorite decorative material, and it is often imitated in background patterns for computer displays, etc. Places named after the stone include Marblehead, Massachusetts; Marblehead, Ohio; Marble Arch, London; the Sea of Marmara; India's Marble Rocks; and the towns of
Marble, Minnesota Marble is a city in Itasca County, Minnesota, United States. It is part of the chain of small mining towns known as the Iron Range. The population was 701 at the 2010 census. U.S. Highway 169 serves as a main route in the community. Geography ...
; Marble, Colorado; Marble Falls, Texas, and
Marble Hill, Manhattan, New York Marble Hill is the northernmost neighborhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan. It is one of the few areas within the borough of Manhattan not located on Manhattan Island. Marble Hill was occupied as a Dutch colonial settlement in 1646, a ...
. The Elgin Marbles are marble sculptures from the Parthenon in Athens that are on display in the British Museum. They were brought to Britain by the
Earl of Elgin Earl of Elgin is a title in the Peerage of Scotland, created in 1633 for Thomas Bruce, 3rd Lord Kinloss. He was later created Baron Bruce, of Whorlton in the County of York, in the Peerage of England on 30 July 1641. The Earl of Elgin is the ...
.


Gallery

File:Nike of Samothrake Louvre Ma2369 n4.jpg, The
Nike of Samothrace The ''Winged Victory of Samothrace'', or the ''Nike of Samothrace'', is a votive monument originally found on the island of Samothrace, north of the Aegean Sea. It is a masterpiece of Greek sculpture from the Hellenistic era, dating from the beg ...
is made of Parian marble (c. 220–190 BC) File:Laocoon Pio-Clementino Inv1059-1064-1067.jpg, '' Laocoön and His Sons'' in the Vatican File:Treasury_Gate,_Dolmabahçe_Palace,_Istanbul,_Turkey_001.jpg, Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul File:Lens - Inauguration du Louvre-Lens le 4 décembre 2012, la Galerie du Temps, n° 058.JPG, The
Praetorians Relief The ''Praetorians Relief'' is a Roman marble relief dated to AD from the Arch of Claudius in Rome, now housed in the Louvre-Lens. It depicts three soldiers in high relief in the foreground, while two others in the background, accompanied by a s ...
, made from grey veined marble, AD File:Imgp7544.jpg, Ancient marble columns in the prayer hall of the Mosque of Uqba, in Kairouan, Tunisia File:Cleopatra by William Wetmore Story 03.jpg, ''
Cleopatra Cleopatra VII Philopator ( grc-gre, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ}, "Cleopatra the father-beloved"; 69 BC10 August 30 BC) was Queen of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt from 51 to 30 BC, and its last active ruler.She was also a ...
'' by
William Wetmore Story William Wetmore Story (February 12, 1819 – October 7, 1895) was an American sculptor, art critic, poet, and editor. Life and career William Wetmore Story was the son of jurist Joseph Story and Sarah Waldo (Wetmore) Story. He graduated from H ...
was described and admired in Nathaniel Hawthorne's romance, '' The Marble Faun'', and is on display at The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. File:Per Hasselberg Näckrosen Rottneros Park.jpg, ''Näckrosen'' (Water Lily), Stockholm 1892, by Swedish sculptor
Per Hasselberg Per Hasselberg (1 January 1850 – 25 July 1894), until 1870 ''Karl Petter Åkesson'', was a Swedish sculptor. He has received critical acclaim mainly for his delicate and allegorical nudes, copies of which are widely distributed in public pla ...
(1850-1894). Here a copy from 1953 in marble by
Giovanni Ardini Giovanni may refer to: * Giovanni (name), an Italian male given name and surname * Giovanni (meteorology), a Web interface for users to analyze NASA's gridded data * '' Don Giovanni'', a 1787 opera by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, based on the legend ...
(Italy) placed in Rottneros Park near Sunne in Värmland/
Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
. File:Pažaislis Monastery interior 1, Kaunas, Lithuania - Diliff.jpg, Pažaislis Monastery complex has the most marble-decorated
Baroque The Baroque (, ; ) is a style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished in Europe from the early 17th century until the 1750s. In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese empires including t ...
church of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania File:Petropolis-Cathedral1.jpg, The tombs of Emperor
Pedro II of Brazil Don (honorific), Dom PedroII (2 December 1825 – 5 December 1891), nicknamed "the Magnanimity, Magnanimous" ( pt, O Magnânimo), was the List of monarchs of Brazil, second and last monarch of the Empire of Brazil, reigning for over 58 years. ...
and other members of the
Brazilian imperial family The Brazilian Imperial Family (Brazilian Portuguese: ''Família Imperial Brasileira'') is a Brazilian Dynasty of Portuguese origin that ruled the Empire of Brazil from 1822 in Brazil, 1822 to 1889 in Brazil, 1889, after the proclamation of indepe ...
, made from Carrara marble in the
Cathedral of Petrópolis The Cathedral of Saint Peter of Alcantara ( pt, Catedral de São Pedro de Alcântara), also known as the Cathedral of Petrópolis, is a Roman Catholic cathedral in Petrópolis, Brazil, dedicated to the city's patron saint, Peter of Alcantara. The ...
, Brazil


See also

*
Marble sculpture Marble has been the preferred material for stone monumental sculpture since ancient times, with several advantages over its more common geological "parent" limestone, in particular the ability to absorb light a small distance into the surface be ...
*
Marmorino Marmorino Veneziano is a type of plaster or stucco. It is based on calcium oxide and used for interior and exterior wall decorations. Marmorino plaster can be finished via multiple techniques for a variety of matte, satin, and glossy final effects ...
* Paper marbling *
Pietra dura ''Pietra dura'' () or ''pietre dure'' () ( see below), called parchin kari or parchinkari ( fa, ) in the Indian Subcontinent, is a term for the inlay technique of using cut and fitted, highly polished colored stones to create images. It is c ...
, inlaying with marble and other stones *
Ruin marble Ruin marble is a kind of limestone or siltstone that contains light and dark patterns. The name is misleading - it is not a marble. It originates mostly from the city of Florence in Tuscany, in Central Italy. Its color pattern consists mainly of g ...
, marble that contains light and dark patterns, giving the impression of a ruined cityscape * Scagliola, imitating marble with plasterwork *
Verd antique Verd antique (obsolete French, from Italian, ''verde antico'', "ancient green"), also called verde antique, ''marmor thessalicum'', or Ophite, is a serpentinite breccia popular since ancient times as a decorative facing stone. It is a dark, dull ...
, sometimes (erroneously) called "serpentine marble", and often confused with
Connemara marble Connemara marble or "Irish green" is a rare variety of marble found in Connemara, Ireland with a distinct green colour. It is commonly used as a gemstone and for decorations. Due to its colouration, it is commonly associated with the Irish identi ...


References


External links


Dimension Stone Statistics and Information
– United States Geological Survey minerals information for dimension stone
USGS 2005 Minerals Yearbook: Stone, CrushedUSGS 2005 Minerals Yearbook: Stone, DimensionUSGS 2006 Minerals Yearbook: Stone, CrushedUSGS 2006 Minerals Yearbook: Stone, DimensionMarble Institute of America
{{Authority control Sculpture materials Metasedimentary rocks Limestone Stone (material) Symbols of Alabama