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Garlic (''Allium sativum'') is a species of
bulb In botany, a bulb is structurally a short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf basesBell, A.D. 1997. ''Plant form: an illustrated guide to flowering plant morphology''. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K. that function as food storage organs duri ...
ous flowering plant in the genus '' Allium''. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot,
leek The leek is a vegetable, a cultivar of ''Allium ampeloprasum'', the broadleaf wild leek ( syn. ''Allium porrum''). The edible part of the plant is a bundle of leaf sheaths that is sometimes erroneously called a stem or stalk. The genus ''Alli ...
, chive, Welsh onion and Chinese onion. It is native to South Asia, Central Asia and northeastern Iran and has long been used as a seasoning worldwide, with a history of several thousand years of human consumption and use. It was known to ancient Egyptians and has been used as both a food flavoring and a traditional medicine.
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
produces 76% of the world's supply of garlic.


Etymology

The word ''garlic'' derives from
Old English Old English (, ), or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, Anglo ...
, ''garlēac'', meaning ''gar'' ( spear) and
leek The leek is a vegetable, a cultivar of ''Allium ampeloprasum'', the broadleaf wild leek ( syn. ''Allium porrum''). The edible part of the plant is a bundle of leaf sheaths that is sometimes erroneously called a stem or stalk. The genus ''Alli ...
, as a 'spear-shaped leek'.


Description

''Allium sativum'' is a perennial flowering plant growing from a
bulb In botany, a bulb is structurally a short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf basesBell, A.D. 1997. ''Plant form: an illustrated guide to flowering plant morphology''. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K. that function as food storage organs duri ...
. It has a tall, erect flowering stem that grows up to . The leaf blade is flat, linear, solid, and approximately wide, with an acute apex. The plant may produce pink to purple flowers from July to September in the Northern Hemisphere. The bulb is odoriferous and contains outer layers of thin sheathing leaves surrounding an inner sheath that encloses the clove. Often the bulb contains 10 to 20 cloves that are asymmetric in shape, except for those closest to the center. If garlic is planted at the proper time and depth, it can be grown as far north as Alaska. It produces
hermaphrodite In reproductive biology, a hermaphrodite () is an organism that has both kinds of reproductive organs and can produce both gametes associated with male and female sexes. Many Taxonomy (biology), taxonomic groups of animals (mostly invertebrate ...
flowers. It is pollinated by bees, butterflies, moths, and other insects.


Origin and major types

Identification of the wild progenitor of common garlic is difficult due to the sterility of its many
cultivars A cultivar is a type of Horticulture, cultivated plant that people have selected for desired phenotypic trait, traits and when Plant propagation, propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and st ...
, which limits the ability to cross test with wild relatives. Genetically and morphologically, garlic is most similar to the wild species ''Allium longicuspis'', which grows in central and southwestern Asia. However, because ''Allium longicuspis'' is also mostly sterile, it is doubtful that it is the ancestor of ''Allium sativum''. Other candidates that have been suggested include ''
Allium tuncelianum ''Allium tuncelianum'' is a species of wild onion which is endemic to the Munzur Valley in Tunceli, in eastern Turkey.It usually produces a single-bulb white onion, unlike garlic, which has multiple bulbs. It has a garlic odor and taste and is ...
'', ''
Allium macrochaetum ''Allium'' is a genus of monocotyledonous flowering plants that includes hundreds of species, including the cultivated onion, garlic, scallion, shallot, leek, and chives. The generic name ''Allium'' is the Latin word for garlic,Gledhill, David ...
'', and ''
Allium truncatum ''Allium truncatum'' is a plant species found in Israel, Palestine, Lebanon and Turkey Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a list of transcontinental countries, transcon ...
'', all of which are native to the Middle East. ''Allium sativum'' grows in the wild in areas where it has become
naturalized Naturalization (or naturalisation) is the legal act or process by which a non-citizen of a country may acquire citizenship or nationality of that country. It may be done automatically by a statute, i.e., without any effort on the part of the in ...
. The "wild garlic", "crow garlic", and "
field garlic Field garlic is a common name for several plants in the garlic genus, ''Allium'': *'' Allium oleraceum'' *''Allium vineale ''Allium vineale'' (wild garlic, onion grass, crow garlic or stag's garlic) is a perennial, bulb-forming species of wild o ...
" of Britain are members of the species '' Allium ursinum'', ''
Allium vineale ''Allium vineale'' (wild garlic, onion grass, crow garlic or stag's garlic) is a perennial, bulb-forming species of wild onion, native to Europe, northwestern Africa and the Middle East. The species was introduced in Australia and North America ...
'', and ''
Allium oleraceum ''Allium oleraceum'', the field garlic, is a Eurasian species of wild onion. It is a bulbous perennial that grows wild in dry places, reaching in height. It reproduces by seed, bulbs and by the production of small bulblets in the flower head (sim ...
'', respectively. In North America, ''
Allium vineale ''Allium vineale'' (wild garlic, onion grass, crow garlic or stag's garlic) is a perennial, bulb-forming species of wild onion, native to Europe, northwestern Africa and the Middle East. The species was introduced in Australia and North America ...
'' (known as "wild garlic" or "crow garlic") and '' Allium canadense'' (known as "meadow garlic", "wild garlic", or "wild onion") are common weeds in fields. So-called elephant garlic is actually a wild leek ('' Allium ampeloprasum''), and not a true garlic. Single clove garlic (also called pearl or solo garlic) originated in the Yunnan province of China.


Garlic as a geographical indication

Some garlics have protected status in the UK and the EU, including:


Subspecies and varieties

There are two subspecies of ''A. sativum'', ten major groups of varieties, and hundreds of varieties or cultivars. *''A. sativum'' var. ''ophioscorodon'' (Link) Döll, called ''Ophioscorodon'', or hard-necked garlic, includes porcelain garlics, rocambole garlic, and purple stripe garlics. It is sometimes considered to be a separate species, ''Allium ophioscorodon'' G.Don. *''A. sativum'' var. ''sativum'', or soft-necked garlic, includes artichoke garlic, silverskin garlic, and creole garlic. There are at least 120 cultivars originating from Central Asia, making it the main center of garlic biodiversity.


Cultivation

Garlic is easy to grow and can be grown year-round in mild climates. While sexual propagation of garlic is possible, nearly all of the garlic in cultivation is propagated asexually, by planting individual cloves in the ground. In colder climates, cloves are best planted about six weeks before the soil freezes. The goal is to have the bulbs produce only roots and no shoots above the ground. Harvest is in late spring or early summer. Garlic plants can be grown closely together, leaving enough space for the
bulb In botany, a bulb is structurally a short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf basesBell, A.D. 1997. ''Plant form: an illustrated guide to flowering plant morphology''. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K. that function as food storage organs duri ...
s to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth. Garlic does well in loose, dry, well-drained soils in sunny locations, and is hardy throughout
USDA climate zones A hardiness zone is a geographic area defined as having a certain average annual minimum temperature, a factor relevant to the survival of many plants. In some systems other statistics are included in the calculations. The original and most wide ...
4–9. When selecting garlic for planting, it is important to pick large bulbs from which to separate cloves. Large cloves, along with proper spacing in the planting bed, will also increase bulb size. Garlic plants prefer to grow in a soil with a high organic material content, but are capable of growing in a wide range of soil conditions and pH levels. There are different varieties of garlic, most notably split into the subspecies of hardneck garlic and softneck garlic. The latitude where the garlic is grown affects the choice of type, as garlic can be day-length sensitive. Hardneck garlic is generally grown in cooler climates and produces relatively large cloves, whereas softneck garlic is generally grown closer to the equator and produces small, tightly packed cloves. Garlic
scapes Parsons School of Design, known colloquially as Parsons, is a private art and design college located in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of New York City. Founded in 1896 after a group of progressive artists broke away from established Manhatta ...
are removed to focus all the garlic's energy into bulb growth. The scapes can be eaten raw or cooked.


Diseases

Garlic plants are usually hardy and not affected by many pests or diseases. Garlic plants are said to repel
rabbits Rabbits, also known as bunnies or bunny rabbits, are small mammals in the family Leporidae (which also contains the hares) of the order Lagomorpha (which also contains the pikas). ''Oryctolagus cuniculus'' includes the European rabbit specie ...
and moles. The California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA) conducts a certification program to assure freedom from
nematode The nematodes ( or grc-gre, Νηματώδη; la, Nematoda) or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda (also called Nemathelminthes), with plant-Parasitism, parasitic nematodes also known as eelworms. They are a diverse animal phylum inhab ...
and white rot disease caused by '' Stromatinia cepivora'', two pathogens that can both destroy a crop as well as remain in the soil indefinitely, once introduced. Garlic may also suffer from pink root, a typically non-fatal disease that stunts the roots and turns them pink or red; or leek rust. The larvae of the leek moth attack garlic by mining into the leaves or bulbs.
Botrytis Botrytis may refer to: * ''Botrytis'' (fungus), the anamorphs of fungi of the genus ''Botryotinia'' **''Botrytis cinerea'', a mold important in wine making *Botrytis, the cauliflower cultivar group of ''Brassica oleracea ''Brassica oleracea'' is ...
neck and bulb rot is a disease of onion, garlic,
leek The leek is a vegetable, a cultivar of ''Allium ampeloprasum'', the broadleaf wild leek ( syn. ''Allium porrum''). The edible part of the plant is a bundle of leaf sheaths that is sometimes erroneously called a stem or stalk. The genus ''Alli ...
and shallot. ''Botrytis allii'' and ''Botrytis aclada'' cause this disease in onion and ''Botrytis porri'' causes it in garlic. "Initial symptoms usually begin at the neck, where affected tissue softens, becomes water-soaked, and turns brown. In a humid atmosphere, a gray and feltlike growth (where spores are produced) appears on rotting scales, and mycelia may develop between scales. Dark-brown-to-black sclerotia (the resting bodies of the pathogen) may eventually develop in the neck or between scales."


Production

In 2020, world production of garlic was 28 million tonnes, with
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
alone accounting for 74% of the total.


Properties

Fresh or crushed garlic yields the
sulfur Sulfur (or sulphur in British English) is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with a chemical formula ...
-containing compounds
allicin Allicin is an organosulfur compound obtained from garlic, a species in the family Alliaceae. It was first isolated and studied in the laboratory by Chester J. Cavallito and John Hays Bailey in 1944. When fresh garlic is chopped or crushed, the ...
,
ajoene Ajoene is an organosulfur compound found in garlic (''Allium sativum'') extracts. It is a colorless liquid that contains sulfoxide and disulfide functional groups. The name (and pronunciation) is derived from "ajo", the Spanish word for garlic ...
, diallyl polysulfides, vinyldithiins, and ''S''-
allylcysteine ''S''-Allylcysteine (SAC) is an organosulfur compound that is a constituent of fresh garlic. It is a derivative of the amino acid cysteine in which an allyl group replaces the proton on sulfur. A number of related compounds are found in garlic, ...
; as well as enzymes,
saponin Saponins (Latin "sapon", soap + "-in", one of), also selectively referred to as triterpene glycosides, are bitter-tasting usually toxic plant-derived organic chemicals that have a foamy quality when agitated in water. They are widely distributed ...
s,
flavonoid Flavonoids (or bioflavonoids; from the Latin word ''flavus'', meaning yellow, their color in nature) are a class of polyphenolic secondary metabolites found in plants, and thus commonly consumed in the diets of humans. Chemically, flavonoids ...
s, and Maillard reaction products when cooked, which are not sulfur-containing compounds. The phytochemicals responsible for the sharp flavor of garlic are produced when the plant's
cells Cell most often refers to: * Cell (biology), the functional basic unit of life Cell may also refer to: Locations * Monastic cell, a small room, hut, or cave in which a religious recluse lives, alternatively the small precursor of a monastery w ...
are damaged. When a cell is broken by chopping, chewing, or crushing, enzymes stored in cell vacuoles trigger the breakdown of several sulfur-containing compounds stored in the cell fluids ( cytosol). The resultant compounds are responsible for the sharp or hot taste and strong smell of garlic. Some of the compounds are unstable and continue to react over time.McGee, pp. 310–311 Among alliums, garlic has by far the highest concentrations of initial reaction products, making garlic much more potent than onion, shallot, or
leek The leek is a vegetable, a cultivar of ''Allium ampeloprasum'', the broadleaf wild leek ( syn. ''Allium porrum''). The edible part of the plant is a bundle of leaf sheaths that is sometimes erroneously called a stem or stalk. The genus ''Alli ...
s. Although many humans enjoy the taste of garlic, these compounds are believed to have evolved as a defensive mechanism, deterring animals such as birds, insects, and worms from eating the plant. A large number of sulfur compounds contribute to the smell and taste of garlic. Allicin has been found to be the compound most responsible for the "hot" sensation of raw garlic. This chemical opens thermo- transient receptor potential channels that are responsible for the burning sense of heat in foods. The process of cooking garlic removes allicin, thus mellowing its spiciness. Allicin, along with its decomposition products diallyl disulfide and
diallyl trisulfide Diallyl trisulfide (DATS), also known as Allitridin, is an organosulfur compound with the formula S(SCH2CH=CH2)2. It is one of several produced by the hydrolysis of allicin, including diallyl disulfide and diallyl tetrasulfide, DATS is one of the ...
, are major contributors to the characteristic odor of garlic, with other allicin-derived compounds, such as vinyldithiins and
ajoene Ajoene is an organosulfur compound found in garlic (''Allium sativum'') extracts. It is a colorless liquid that contains sulfoxide and disulfide functional groups. The name (and pronunciation) is derived from "ajo", the Spanish word for garlic ...
. Because of its strong odor, garlic is sometimes called the "stinking rose". When eaten in quantity, garlic may be strongly evident in the diner's sweat and garlic breath the following day. This is because garlic's strong-smelling sulfur compounds are metabolized, forming allyl methyl sulfide.
Allyl methyl sulfide Allyl methyl sulfide is an organosulfur compound with the chemical formula CH2=CHCH2SCH3. The molecule features two functional groups, an allyl (CH2=CHCH2) and a sulfide. It is a colourless liquid with a strong odor characteristic of alkyl sulfid ...
(AMS) cannot be digested and is passed into the blood. It is carried to the lungs and the skin, where it is excreted. Since digestion takes several hours, and release of AMS several hours more, the effect of eating garlic may be present for a long time. The well-known phenomenon of "garlic breath" is allegedly alleviated by eating fresh
parsley Parsley, or garden parsley (''Petroselinum crispum'') is a species of flowering plant in the family Apiaceae that is native to the central and eastern Mediterranean region (Sardinia, Lebanon, Israel, Cyprus, Turkey, southern Italy, Greece, Por ...
. The herb is, therefore, included in many garlic recipes, such as '' pistou'', '' persillade'', and the garlic butter spread used in
garlic bread Garlic bread (also called garlic toast) consists of bread (usually a baguette or sour dough like a ciabatta), topped with garlic and olive oil or butter and may include additional herbs, such as oregano or chives. It is then either grilled unt ...
. Abundant sulfur compounds in garlic are also responsible for turning garlic green or blue during pickling and cooking. Under these conditions (''i.e.'', acidity, heat) the sulfur-containing compound
alliin Alliin is a sulfoxide that is a natural constituent of fresh garlic. It is a derivative of the amino acid cysteine. When fresh garlic is chopped or crushed, the enzyme alliinase converts alliin into allicin, which is responsible for the aroma of ...
reacts with common amino acids to make
pyrrole Pyrrole is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound, a five-membered ring with the formula C4 H4 NH. It is a colorless volatile liquid that darkens readily upon exposure to air. Substituted derivatives are also called pyrroles, e.g., ''N''-meth ...
s, clusters of carbon-nitrogen rings. These rings can be linked together into
polypyrrole Polypyrrole (PPy) is an organic polymer obtained by oxidative polymerization of pyrrole. It is a solid with the formula H(C4H2NH)nH. It is an intrinsically conducting polymer, used in electronics, optical, biological and medical fields. History ...
molecules. Ring structures absorb particular wavelengths of light and thus appear colored. The two-pyrrole molecule looks red, the three-pyrrole molecule looks blue, and the four-pyrrole molecule looks green (like
chlorophyll Chlorophyll (also chlorophyl) is any of several related green pigments found in cyanobacteria and in the chloroplasts of algae and plants. Its name is derived from the Greek words , ("pale green") and , ("leaf"). Chlorophyll allow plants to a ...
, a tetrapyrrole). Like chlorophyll, the pyrrole pigments are safe to eat. Upon cutting, similar to a color change in onion caused by reactions of amino acids with sulfur compounds, garlic can turn green. Because of sulfur compounds circulating in blood, consumed garlic may act as a mosquito repellent, but there is no evidence garlic is effective for this purpose. File:Allium sativum 003.JPG, Bulbs (top-setting, grown in lieu of flowers) File:Garlic plate no 6 bv73c1191 bk128b698 crop.jpeg, Garlic, from ''The Book of Health'', 1898, by Henry Munson Lyman File:Alliin Structural Formula V.1.svg,
Alliin Alliin is a sulfoxide that is a natural constituent of fresh garlic. It is a derivative of the amino acid cysteine. When fresh garlic is chopped or crushed, the enzyme alliinase converts alliin into allicin, which is responsible for the aroma of ...
, a
sulfur Sulfur (or sulphur in British English) is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with a chemical formula ...
-containing compound found in garlic.


History


Culinary history

Numerous cuneiform records show that garlic has been cultivated in Mesopotamia for at least 4,000 years. The use of garlic in China and Egypt also dates back thousands of years. Well-preserved garlic was found in the tomb of Tutankhamun (c. 1325 BC). It was consumed by ancient Greek and Roman soldiers, sailors, and rural classes ( Virgil, ''Eclogues'' ii. 11), and, according to Pliny the Elder ('' Natural History'' xix. 32), by the African peasantry. Garlic was placed by the ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at crossroads, as a supper for Hecate ( Theophrastus, ''Characters, The Superstitious Man''). Garlic was rare in traditional English cuisine (though it is said to have been grown in England before 1548) but has been a common ingredient in Mediterranean Europe. Translations of the Assize of Weights and Measures, an English statute generally dated to the 13th century, indicate a passage as dealing with standardized units of garlic production, sale, and taxation—the hundred of 15 ropes of 15 heads each—but the Latin version of the text may refer to
herring Herring are forage fish, mostly belonging to the family of Clupeidae. Herring often move in large schools around fishing banks and near the coast, found particularly in shallow, temperate waters of the North Pacific and North Atlantic Oceans, i ...
rather than garlic..  &  &


Folk medicine

Garlic has been used for traditional medicine in diverse cultures such as in Egypt, Japan, China, Rome, and Greece. In his '' Natural History'', Pliny gave a list of conditions in which garlic was considered beneficial (''N.H.'' xx. 23). Galen, writing in the second century, eulogized garlic as the "rustic's theriac" (cure-all) (see F. Adams' ''Paulus Aegineta'', p. 99).
Avicenna Ibn Sina ( fa, ابن سینا; 980 – June 1037 CE), commonly known in the West as Avicenna (), was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, philosophers, and writers of the Islamic G ...
, in '' The Canon of Medicine'' (1025), recommended garlic for the treatment of
arthritis Arthritis is a term often used to mean any disorder that affects joints. Symptoms generally include joint pain and stiffness. Other symptoms may include redness, warmth, swelling, and decreased range of motion of the affected joints. In som ...
, snake and
insect bites Many species of arthropods (insects, arachnids and others) regularly or occasionally bite or sting human beings. Insect saliva contains anticoagulants and enzymes that cause local irritation and allergic reactions. Insect venoms can be delivered b ...
, parasites, chronic cough, and as an
antibiotic An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and prevention of ...
. Alexander Neckam, a writer of the 12th century (see Wright's edition of his works, p. 473, 1863), discussed it as a
palliative Palliative care (derived from the Latin root , or 'to cloak') is an interdisciplinary medical caregiving approach aimed at optimizing quality of life and mitigating suffering among people with serious, complex, and often terminal illnesses. Wit ...
for the heat of the sun in field labor. In the 17th century, Thomas Sydenham valued it as an application in confluent smallpox, and William Cullen's ''Materia Medica'' of 1789 found some dropsies cured by it alone.


Uses


Culinary uses

Garlic is widely used around the world for its pungent flavor as a seasoning or condiment. The garlic plant's
bulb In botany, a bulb is structurally a short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf basesBell, A.D. 1997. ''Plant form: an illustrated guide to flowering plant morphology''. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K. that function as food storage organs duri ...
is the most commonly used part of the plant. With the exception of the single clove types, garlic bulbs are normally divided into numerous fleshy sections called cloves. Garlic cloves are used for consumption (raw or cooked) or for medicinal purposes. They have a characteristic pungent, spicy flavor that mellows and sweetens considerably with cooking. The distinctive aroma is mainly due to organosulfur compounds including
allicin Allicin is an organosulfur compound obtained from garlic, a species in the family Alliaceae. It was first isolated and studied in the laboratory by Chester J. Cavallito and John Hays Bailey in 1944. When fresh garlic is chopped or crushed, the ...
present in fresh garlic cloves and
ajoene Ajoene is an organosulfur compound found in garlic (''Allium sativum'') extracts. It is a colorless liquid that contains sulfoxide and disulfide functional groups. The name (and pronunciation) is derived from "ajo", the Spanish word for garlic ...
which forms when they are crushed or chopped. A further metabolite
allyl methyl sulfide Allyl methyl sulfide is an organosulfur compound with the chemical formula CH2=CHCH2SCH3. The molecule features two functional groups, an allyl (CH2=CHCH2) and a sulfide. It is a colourless liquid with a strong odor characteristic of alkyl sulfid ...
is responsible for garlic breath. Other parts of the garlic plant are also edible. The
leaves A leaf (plural, : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant plant stem, stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", wh ...
and flowers ( bulbils) on the head (
spathe In botany, a bract is a modified or specialized leaf, especially one associated with a reproductive structure such as a flower, inflorescence axis or cone scale. Bracts are usually different from foliage leaves. They may be smaller, larger, or of ...
) are sometimes eaten. They are milder in flavor than the bulbs, and are most often consumed while immature and still tender. Immature garlic is sometimes pulled, rather like a scallion, and sold as "green garlic". When green garlic is allowed to grow past the "scallion" stage, but not permitted to fully mature, it may produce a garlic "round", a bulb like a boiling onion, but not separated into cloves like a mature bulb. Green garlic imparts a garlic flavor and aroma in food, minus the spiciness. Green garlic is often chopped and stir-fried or cooked in
soup Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm or hot (but may be cool or cold), that is made by combining ingredients of meat or vegetables with stock, milk, or water. Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling solid ing ...
or hot pot in Southeast Asian (i.e. Vietnamese,
Thai Thai or THAI may refer to: * Of or from Thailand, a country in Southeast Asia ** Thai people, the dominant ethnic group of Thailand ** Thai language, a Tai-Kadai language spoken mainly in and around Thailand *** Thai script *** Thai (Unicode block ...
,
Myanmar Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John C. Wells, Joh ...
, Lao,
Cambodian Cambodian usually refers to: * Something of, from, or related to the country of Cambodia ** Cambodian people (or Khmer people) ** Cambodian language (or Khmer language) ** For citizens and nationals of Cambodia, see Demographics of Cambodia ** Fo ...
, Singaporean), and Chinese cookery, and is very abundant and low-priced. Additionally, the immature flower stalks (
scapes Parsons School of Design, known colloquially as Parsons, is a private art and design college located in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of New York City. Founded in 1896 after a group of progressive artists broke away from established Manhatta ...
) of the hardneck and elephant types are sometimes marketed for uses similar to asparagus in
stir-fries Stir frying () is a cooking technique in which ingredients are fried in a small amount of very hot oil while being stirred or tossed in a wok. The technique originated in China and in recent centuries has spread into other parts of Asia and th ...
. Inedible or rarely eaten parts of the garlic plant include the "skin" covering each clove and root cluster. The papery, protective layers of "skin" over various parts of the plant are generally discarded during preparation for most culinary uses, though in Korea immature whole heads are sometimes prepared with the tender skins intact. The root cluster attached to the basal plate of the bulb is the only part not typically considered palatable in any form. An alternative is to cut the top off the bulb, coat the cloves by dribbling
olive oil Olive oil is a liquid fat obtained from olives (the fruit of ''Olea europaea''; family Oleaceae), a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin, produced by pressing whole olives and extracting the oil. It is commonly used in cooking: f ...
(or other oil-based seasoning) over them, and roast them in an oven. Garlic softens and can be extracted from the cloves by squeezing the (root) end of the bulb, or individually by squeezing one end of the clove. In Korea, heads of garlic are heated over the course of several weeks; the resulting product, called
black garlic Black garlic is a type of aged garlic that is colored deep brownish-black. The process is of East Asian origin. It is made by placing garlic (''Allium sativum'') in a warm, moist, controlled environment over the course of several weeks, a pro ...
, is sweet and syrupy, and is exported to the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia. Garlic may be applied to different kinds of bread, usually in a medium of butter or oil, to create a variety of classic dishes, such as
garlic bread Garlic bread (also called garlic toast) consists of bread (usually a baguette or sour dough like a ciabatta), topped with garlic and olive oil or butter and may include additional herbs, such as oregano or chives. It is then either grilled unt ...
,
garlic toast Texas toast is a toasted bread that is typically made from sliced bread that has been sliced at double the usual thickness of packaged bread. Texas toast is prepared by spreading butter on both sides of the bread and broiling or grilling it unti ...
,
bruschetta Bruschetta (, , ) is an antipasto (starter dish) from Italy consisting of grilled bread rubbed with garlic and topped with olive oil and salt. Variations may include toppings of tomato, vegetables, beans, cured meat, or cheese. In Italy, bruschet ...
,
crostini Crostini (meaning "little crusts" in Italian; singular ''crostino'') are an Italian appetizer consisting of small slices of grilled or toasted bread and toppings. The toppings may include a variety of different cheeses, meats, vegetables and c ...
, and canapé. The flavor varies in intensity and aroma with the different cooking methods. It is often paired with onion, tomato, or
ginger Ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') is a flowering plant whose rhizome, ginger root or ginger, is widely used as a spice A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices ...
. Immature scapes are tender and edible. They are also known as "garlic spears", "stems", or "tops". Scapes generally have a milder taste than the cloves. They are often used in stir frying or braised like asparagus. Garlic leaves are a popular vegetable in many parts of Asia. The leaves are cut, cleaned, and then stir-fried with eggs, meat, or vegetables. Garlic powder is made from dehydrated garlic and can be used as a substitute for fresh garlic, though the taste is not quite the same. Garlic salt combines garlic powder with table salt.


Regions

Garlic is a fundamental component in many or most dishes of various regions, including eastern Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, northern Africa, southern Europe, and parts of Latin America. Latin American seasonings, particularly, use garlic in
sofrito (Spanish, ), (Catalan), (Italian, ), or (Portuguese, ) is a basic preparation in Mediterranean, Latin American, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese cooking. It typically consists of aromatic ingredients cut into small pieces and sautéed or ...
s and mofongos. Oils can be flavored with garlic cloves. These infused oils are used to season all categories of vegetables, meats, breads, and pasta. Garlic, along with fish sauce, chopped fresh chilis, lime juice, sugar, and water, is a basic essential item in dipping fish sauce, a highly used dipping sauce condiment used in Indochina. In East and Southeast Asia,
chili oil Chili oil is a condiment made from vegetable oil that has been infused with chili peppers. Different types of oil and hot peppers are used, and other components may also be included. It is commonly used in Chinese cuisine, Southeast Asian cuisi ...
with garlic is a popular
dipping sauce A dip or dipping sauce is a common condiment for many types of food. Dips are used to add flavor or texture to a food, such as pita bread, dumplings, crackers, chopped raw vegetables, fruits, seafood, cubed pieces of meat and cheese, potato chi ...
, especially for meat and seafood.
Tuong ot toi Viet Nam Huy Fong Foods is an American hot sauce company based in Irwindale, California. It was founded by David Tran, a Vietnamese-born immigrant, beginning in 1980 on Spring Street in Los Angeles's Chinatown. It has grown to one of the leaders in the ...
(Vietnam chili garlic sauce) is a highly popular condiment and dip across North America and Asia. In some cuisines, the young bulbs are pickled for three to six weeks in a mixture of sugar, salt, and spices. In eastern Europe, the shoots are pickled and eaten as an appetizer.
Laba garlic Laba, Łaba, or LABA may refer to: Places *Laba River, in Russia *Bolshaya Laba River, in Russia *Wadi Laba River, in Eritrea *Laba Forest, protected forest in Burkina Faso *Laba Township, in Lancang Lahu Autonomous County, Yunnan, China People ...
, prepared by soaking garlic in vinegar, is a type of pickled garlic served with
dumpling Dumpling is a broad class of dishes that consist of pieces of dough (made from a variety of starch sources), oftentimes wrapped around a filling. The dough can be based on bread, flour, buckwheat or potatoes, and may be filled with meat, fi ...
s in northern China to celebrate the
Chinese New Year Chinese New Year is the festival that celebrates the beginning of a New Year, new year on the traditional lunisolar calendar, lunisolar and solar Chinese calendar. In Sinophone, Chinese and other East Asian cultures, the festival is commonly r ...
. Garlic is essential in Middle Eastern and Arabic cooking, with its presence in many food items. In Levantine countries such as Jordan and Lebanon, garlic is traditionally crushed together with olive oil, and occasionally salt, to create a Middle Eastern garlic sauce called Toum (تُوم; meaning "garlic" in Arabic). While not exclusively served with meats, toum is commonly paired with chicken or other meat dishes such as shawarma. Garlic is also a key component in some
hummus Hummus (, ; ar, حُمُّص, 'chickpeas'; full Arabic name: ''ḥummuṣ bi-ṭ-ṭaḥīna'' ar, حمص بالطحينة, 'chickpeas with tahini'), also spelled hommus or houmous, is a Middle Eastern dip, spread, or savory dish made fr ...
varieties, an Arabic dip composed of chickpeas, tahini, garlic, lemon juice, and salt. Lightly
smoked Smoking is the process of flavoring, browning, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood. Meat, fish, and ''lapsang souchong'' tea are often smoked. In Europe, alder is the tradi ...
garlic is used in British and other European cuisine. It is particularly prized for stuffing poultry and game, and in soups and stews. Emulsifying garlic with olive oil produces ''
aioli Aioli, allioli or aïoli ( or ; Provençal oc, alhòli or ''aiòli'' ; ca, allioli ; es, alioli ) is a cold sauce consisting of an emulsion of garlic and olive oil; it is found in the cuisines of the northwest Mediterranean, from Andalusia ...
''. Garlic, oil, and a chunky base produce '' skordalia''. Blending garlic,
almond The almond (''Prunus amygdalus'', syn. ''Prunus dulcis'') is a species of tree native to Iran and surrounding countries, including the Levant. The almond is also the name of the edible and widely cultivated seed of this tree. Within the genus ...
, oil, and soaked bread produces '' ajoblanco''. '' Tzatziki'', yogurt mixed with garlic and salt, is a common sauce in Eastern Mediterranean cuisines.


Storage

Domestically, garlic is stored warm bove 18 °C (64 °F)and dry to keep it dormant (to inhibit sprouting). It is traditionally hung; softneck varieties are often braided in strands called plaits or ''grappes''. Peeled cloves may be stored in wine or vinegar in the refrigerator. Commercially, garlic is stored at 0 °C (32 °F), in a dry, low- humidity environment. Garlic will keep longer if the tops remain attached. Garlic is often kept in oil to produce flavored oil; however, the practice requires measures to be taken to prevent the garlic from spoiling which may include rancidity and growth of '' Clostridium botulinum''. Acidification with a mild solution of vinegar minimizes bacterial growth. Refrigeration does not assure the safety of garlic kept in oil, requiring use within one month to avoid bacterial spoilage. Garlic is also dried at low temperatures, to preserve the enzymatic activity and sold and kept as garlic granules, and can be rehydrated to reactivate it. Stored garlic can be affected by '' Penicillium'' decay known as "blue mold" (or "green mold" in some locales), especially in high humidity. Infection may first appear as soft or water-soaked spots, followed by white patches (of mycelium) which turn blue or green with sporulation. As sporulation and
germination Germination is the process by which an organism grows from a seed or spore. The term is applied to the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm, the growth of a sporeling from a spore, such as the spores of fungi, fer ...
are delayed at low temperature, and at −4 deg. C are inhibited entirely, in refrigerated cloves one may only see the white mycellium during early stages. ''
Penicillium hirsutum A species of the genus of '' Penicillium'' which causes Blue Mold of Garlic on ''Allium sativum L''. The genus name is derived from the Latin root ''penicillum'', meaning "painter's brush", and refers to the chains of conidia this fungus produces ...
'' and ''
Penicillium allii ''Penicillium allii'' is an anamorph fungus species of the genus of '' Penicillium''. ''Penicillium allii'' is a pathogen of garlic (Allium sativum).''First report of Penicillium allii as a field pathogen of garlic (Allium sativum)'' ''J.G. Valde ...
'' are two of the predominant species identified in blue mold.


Medical research


Cardiovascular

As of 2016, clinical research found that consuming garlic produces only a small reduction in
blood pressure Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure of circulating blood against the walls of blood vessels. Most of this pressure results from the heart pumping blood through the circulatory system. When used without qualification, the term "blood pressure" r ...
(4 mmHg), and there is no clear long-term effect on
hypertension Hypertension (HTN or HT), also known as high blood pressure (HBP), is a long-term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. High blood pressure usually does not cause symptoms. Long-term high bl ...
, cardiovascular morbidity or
mortality Mortality is the state of being mortal, or susceptible to death; the opposite of immortality. Mortality may also refer to: * Fish mortality, a parameter used in fisheries population dynamics to account for the loss of fish in a fish stock throug ...
. A 2016 meta-analysis indicated there was no effect of garlic consumption on blood levels of lipoprotein(a), a biomarker of atherosclerosis. Because garlic might reduce platelet aggregation, people taking
anticoagulant Anticoagulants, commonly known as blood thinners, are chemical substances that prevent or reduce coagulation of blood, prolonging the clotting time. Some of them occur naturally in blood-eating animals such as leeches and mosquitoes, where the ...
medication are cautioned about consuming garlic.


Cancer

A 2016 meta-analysis of case-control and cohort studies found a moderate inverse association between garlic intake and some cancers of the upper digestive tract. Another meta-analysis found decreased rates of
stomach cancer Stomach cancer, also known as gastric cancer, is a cancer that develops from the lining of the stomach. Most cases of stomach cancers are gastric carcinomas, which can be divided into a number of subtypes, including gastric adenocarcinomas. Lymph ...
associated with garlic intake, but cited confounding factors as limitations for interpreting these studies. Further meta-analyses found similar results on the incidence of stomach cancer by consuming allium vegetables including garlic. A 2014 meta-analysis of
observational Observation is the active acquisition of information from a primary source. In living beings, observation employs the senses. In science, observation can also involve the perception and recording of data via the use of scientific instruments. The ...
epidemiological studies found that garlic consumption was associated with a lower risk of stomach cancer in Korean people. A 2016 meta-analysis found no effect of garlic on
colorectal cancer Colorectal cancer (CRC), also known as bowel cancer, colon cancer, or rectal cancer, is the development of cancer from the colon or rectum (parts of the large intestine). Signs and symptoms may include blood in the stool, a change in bowel m ...
. A 2014 meta-analysis found garlic supplements or allium vegetables to have no effect on colorectal cancers. A 2013 meta-analysis of case-control and cohort studies found limited evidence for an association between higher garlic consumption and reduced risk of
prostate cancer Prostate cancer is cancer of the prostate. Prostate cancer is the second most common cancerous tumor worldwide and is the fifth leading cause of cancer-related mortality among men. The prostate is a gland in the male reproductive system that sur ...
, but the studies were suspected as having
publication bias In published academic research, publication bias occurs when the outcome of an experiment or research study biases the decision to publish or otherwise distribute it. Publishing only results that show a significant finding disturbs the balance o ...
.


Common cold

A 2014 review found insufficient evidence to determine the effects of garlic in preventing or treating the
common cold The common cold or the cold is a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract that primarily affects the respiratory mucosa of the nose, throat, sinuses, and larynx. Signs and symptoms may appear fewer than two days after exposu ...
. Other reviews concluded a similar absence of high-quality evidence for garlic having a significant effect on the common cold.


Other uses

The sticky juice within the bulb cloves is used as an
adhesive Adhesive, also known as glue, cement, mucilage, or paste, is any non-metallic substance applied to one or both surfaces of two separate items that binds them together and resists their separation. The use of adhesives offers certain advant ...
in mending glass and porcelain. An environmentally benign garlic-derived polysulfide product is approved for use in the European Union (under Annex 1 of 91/414) and the UK as a nematicide and
insecticide Insecticides are substances used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are claimed to b ...
, including for use in the control of
cabbage root fly ''Delia radicum'', known variously as the cabbage fly, cabbage root fly, root fly or turnip fly, is a pest of crops. The larvae of the cabbage root fly are sometimes known as the cabbage maggot or root maggot. The adult flies are about 1 c ...
and
red mite ''Dermanyssus gallinae'' (also known as the red mite) is a haematophagous ectoparasite of poultry. It has been implicated as a vector of several major pathogenic diseases. Despite its common names, it has a wide range of hosts including sever ...
in poultry. Garlic has
antioxidant Antioxidants are compounds that inhibit oxidation, a chemical reaction that can produce free radicals. This can lead to polymerization and other chain reactions. They are frequently added to industrial products, such as fuels and lubricant ...
and anti-inflammatory properties, which give it great therapeutic potential against a number of diseases.


Adverse effects and toxicology

Garlic is known to cause bad breath ( halitosis) and body odor, described as a pungent garlicky smell to sweat. This is caused by
allyl methyl sulfide Allyl methyl sulfide is an organosulfur compound with the chemical formula CH2=CHCH2SCH3. The molecule features two functional groups, an allyl (CH2=CHCH2) and a sulfide. It is a colourless liquid with a strong odor characteristic of alkyl sulfid ...
(AMS). AMS is a volatile liquid which is absorbed into the blood during the metabolism of garlic-derived sulfur compounds; from the blood it travels to the lungs (and from there to the mouth, causing bad breath; see garlic breath) and skin, where it is exuded through skin pores. Washing the skin with soap is only a partial and imperfect solution to the smell. Studies have shown sipping milk at the same time as consuming garlic can significantly neutralize bad breath. Mixing garlic with milk in the mouth before swallowing reduced the odor better than drinking milk afterward. Plain water, mushrooms, and basil may also reduce the odor; the mix of fat and water found in milk, however, was the most effective. The green, dry "folds" in the center of the garlic clove are especially pungent. The
sulfur Sulfur (or sulphur in British English) is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with a chemical formula ...
compound
allicin Allicin is an organosulfur compound obtained from garlic, a species in the family Alliaceae. It was first isolated and studied in the laboratory by Chester J. Cavallito and John Hays Bailey in 1944. When fresh garlic is chopped or crushed, the ...
, produced by crushing or chewing fresh garlic, produces other sulfur compounds:
ajoene Ajoene is an organosulfur compound found in garlic (''Allium sativum'') extracts. It is a colorless liquid that contains sulfoxide and disulfide functional groups. The name (and pronunciation) is derived from "ajo", the Spanish word for garlic ...
, allyl polysulfides, and vinyldithiins. Aged garlic lacks allicin, but may have some activity due to the presence of S-allylcysteine. Some people suffer from allergies to garlic and other species of '' Allium''. Symptoms can include
irritable bowel Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a "disorder of gut-brain interaction" characterized by a group of symptoms that commonly include abdominal pain and or abdominal bloating and changes in the consistency of bowel movements. These symptoms may ...
, diarrhea, mouth and throat ulcerations, nausea, breathing difficulties, and, in rare cases, anaphylaxis. Garlic-sensitive people show positive tests to diallyl disulfide, allylpropyldisulfide, allylmercaptan, and allicin, all of which are present in garlic. People who suffer from garlic allergies are often sensitive to many other plants, including onions, chives,
leek The leek is a vegetable, a cultivar of ''Allium ampeloprasum'', the broadleaf wild leek ( syn. ''Allium porrum''). The edible part of the plant is a bundle of leaf sheaths that is sometimes erroneously called a stem or stalk. The genus ''Alli ...
s, shallots, garden lilies,
ginger Ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') is a flowering plant whose rhizome, ginger root or ginger, is widely used as a spice A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices ...
, and
banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus ''Musa''. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called "plantains", distinguis ...
s. Several reports of serious burns resulting from garlic being applied topically for various purposes, including naturopathic uses and acne treatment, indicate care must be taken for these uses, usually testing a small area of skin using a low concentration of garlic. On the basis of numerous reports of such burns, including burns to children, topical use of raw garlic, as well as insertion of raw garlic into body cavities, is discouraged. In particular, topical application of raw garlic to young children is not advisable. The side effects of long-term garlic supplementation are largely unknown. Possible side effects include gastrointestinal discomfort, sweating, dizziness, allergic reactions, bleeding, and menstrual irregularities. Some breastfeeding mothers have found, after consuming garlic, that their babies can be slow to feed, and have noted a garlic odor coming from them. If higher-than-recommended doses of garlic are taken with
anticoagulant Anticoagulants, commonly known as blood thinners, are chemical substances that prevent or reduce coagulation of blood, prolonging the clotting time. Some of them occur naturally in blood-eating animals such as leeches and mosquitoes, where the ...
medications, this can lead to a higher risk of bleeding. Garlic may interact with warfarin, saquinavir,
antihypertensives Antihypertensives are a class of drugs that are used to treat hypertension (high blood pressure). Antihypertensive therapy seeks to prevent the complications of high blood pressure, such as stroke and myocardial infarction. Evidence suggests that r ...
,
calcium channel blockers Calcium channel blockers (CCB), calcium channel antagonists or calcium antagonists are a group of medications that disrupt the movement of calcium () through calcium channels. Calcium channel blockers are used as antihypertensive drugs, i.e., as ...
, the quinolone family of antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin, and
hypoglycemic Hypoglycemia, also called low blood sugar, is a fall in blood sugar to levels below normal, typically below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L). Whipple's triad is used to properly identify hypoglycemic episodes. It is defined as blood glucose belo ...
drugs, as well as other medications. The
American Veterinary Medical Association The American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA), founded in 1863, is a not-for-profit association representing more than 99,500 veterinarians in the US. The AVMA provides information resources, continuing education opportunities, publicatio ...
does not recommend feeding garlic to your pets.


Spiritual and religious uses

Garlic is present in the folklore of many cultures. In Europe, many cultures have used garlic for protection or white magic, perhaps owing to its reputation in folk medicine. Central European folk beliefs considered garlic a powerful ward against
demon A demon is a malevolent supernatural entity. Historically, belief in demons, or stories about demons, occurs in religion, occultism, literature, fiction, mythology, and folklore; as well as in media such as comics, video games, movies, ani ...
s, werewolves, and vampires. To ward off vampires, garlic could be worn, hung in windows, or rubbed on chimneys and keyholes. In the foundation myth of the ancient Korean kingdom of Gojoseon, eating nothing but 20 cloves of garlic and a bundle of Korean mugwort for 100 days let a bear be transformed into a woman. In celebration of Nowruz (Persian calendar New Year), garlic is one of the essential items in a Haft-sin ("seven things beginning with 'S'") table, a traditional New Year's display: the name for garlic in Persian is سیر (''seer''), which begins with "س" (''sin'', pronounced "seen") the Perso-Arabic letter corresponding to "S". In
Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
, it is recommended not to eat raw garlic prior to going to the mosque. This is based on several hadith.


Nutrition

In the typical serving size of 1–3 cloves (3–9 grams), garlic provides no significant nutritional value, with the content of all essential nutrients below 10% of the Daily Value (DV) (table). When expressed per 100 grams, garlic contains several nutrients in rich amounts (20% or more of the DV), including vitamins B6 and C, and the
dietary mineral In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life. However, the four major structural elements in the human body by weight (oxygen, hydrogen, carbon ...
s manganese and phosphorus. Per 100 gram serving, garlic is also a moderate source (10–19% DV) of certain B vitamins, including thiamin and pantothenic acid, as well as the dietary minerals calcium, iron, and zinc (table). The composition of raw garlic is 59% water, 33%
carbohydrates In organic chemistry, a carbohydrate () is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula (where ''m'' may or may ...
, 6% protein, 2%
dietary fiber Dietary fiber (in British English fibre) or roughage is the portion of plant-derived food that cannot be completely broken down by human digestive enzymes. Dietary fibers are diverse in chemical composition, and can be grouped generally by the ...
, and less than 1% fat.


Gallery

File:All Garlic Ail Ajo.jpg, Chopped garlic File:Knoblauch Bluete 3.JPG, Garlic plant File:Korea-Goheunggun-Garlic harvest 4196-06.JPG, Harvested garlic left to dry File:A garlic clove and its head.jpg, A garlic bulb File:Blended garlic confit.jpg, Blended garlic confit


See also

*''
Garlic Is as Good as Ten Mothers ''Garlic Is as Good as Ten Mothers'' is a 1980 documentary film about garlic directed by Les Blank. In 2004, the film was selected for preservation in the United States’ National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being “culturally, hi ...
''. Directed by Les Blank. * Garlic oil * Garlic powder * Garlic salt *
Garlic sauce Garlic sauce is a sauce prepared using garlic as a primary ingredient. It is typically a pungent sauce, with the depth of garlic flavor determined by the amount of garlic used. The garlic is typically crushed or finely diced. Simple garlic sauce ...
* Herbalism * International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants * List of garlic dishes *
List of garlic festivals A garlic festival is a food festival focused on garlic. Examples include: United States *Gilroy Garlic Festival, an annual food festival in Gilroy, California *Hudson Valley Garlic Festival, in Saugerties, New York *Connecticut Garlic and Har ...
*
Pyruvate scale The pyruvate scale measures pungency in onions and garlic with units of μmol/gfw (micromoles per gram fresh weight). It is named after pyruvic acid, the alpha-keto acid co-product created in the biochemical pathway that forms ''syn''-propanethial ...


Notes


Explanatory notes


Citations


General and cited references

*


External links

* * {{Authority control Allium Belizean cuisine Italian cuisine Objects believed to protect from evil Plants described in 1753 Romani cuisine Root vegetables Spices