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Deportation is the expulsion of a person or group of people from a place or country. The term ''expulsion'' is often used as a
synonym A synonym is a word, morpheme, or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word, morpheme, or phrase in a given language. For example, in the English language, the words ''begin'', ''start'', ''commence'', and ''initiate'' are all ...
for deportation, though expulsion is more often used in the context of international law, while deportation is more used in national (municipal) law.
Forced displacement Forced displacement (also forced migration) is an involuntary or coerced movement of a person or people away from their home or home region. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, UNHCR defines 'forced displacement' as follows: dis ...
or forced migration of an individual or a group may be caused by deportation, for example
ethnic cleansing Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal of ethnic, racial, and religious groups from a given area, with the intent of making a region ethnically homogeneous. Along with direct removal, extermination, deportation or population transfer ...
, and other reasons. A person who has been deported or is under sentence of deportation is called a ''deportee''.


Definition

Definitions of deportation apply equally to nationals and foreigners. Nonetheless, in the common usage the expulsion of foreign nationals is usually called deportation, whereas the expulsion of nationals is called extradition, banishment,
exile Exile is primarily penal expulsion from one's native country, and secondarily expatriation or prolonged absence from one's homeland under either the compulsion of circumstance or the rigors of some high purpose. Usually persons and peoples suf ...
, or
penal transportation Penal transportation or transportation was the relocation of convicted criminals, or other persons regarded as undesirable, to a distant place, often a colony, for a specified term; later, specifically established penal colonies became their ...
. For example, in the United States:
"Strictly speaking, transportation, extradition, and deportation, although each has the effect of removing a person from the country, are different things, and have different purposes. Transportation is by way of punishment of one convicted of an offense against the laws of the country. Extradition is the surrender to another country of one accused of an offense against its laws, there to be tried, and, if found guilty, punished. Deportation is the removal of an alien out of the country, simply because his presence is deemed inconsistent with the public welfare and without any punishment being imposed or contemplated either under the laws of the country out of which he is sent or of those of the country to which he is taken."
Expulsion is an act by a public authority to remove a person or persons against his or her will from the territory of that state. A successful expulsion of a person by a country is called a deportation. According to the European Court of Human Rights, collective expulsion is any measure compelling non-nationals, as a group, to leave a country, except where such a measure is taken on the basis of a reasonable and objective examination of the particular case of each individual non-national of the group. Mass expulsion may also occur when members of an ethnic group are sent out of a state regardless of nationality. Collective expulsion, or expulsion en masse, is prohibited by several instruments of international law.


History

Deportations widely occurred in ancient history, and is well-recorded particularly in ancient Mesopotamia.


Deportation in the Assyrian Empire

* Mass deportations of conquered nations, including Jewish Assyrian captivity.


Deportation in the Achaemenid Empire

Deportation was practiced as a policy toward rebellious people in
Achaemenid Empire The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire (; peo, 𐎧𐏁𐏂, , ), also called the First Persian Empire, was an ancient Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC. Based in Western Asia, it was contemporarily the largest em ...
. The precise legal status of the deportees is unclear; but ill-treatment is not recorded. Instances include:
A. Shapur Shahbazi ) , image = Shahbazi 3.jpg , image_size = 220px , alt = , caption = , birth_date = , birth_place = Shiraz, Iran , death_date = , death_place = Washington D.C., United ...
, Erich Kettenhofen, John R. Perry, “DEPORTATIONS,” Encyclopædia Iranica, VII/3, pp. 297-312, available online at (accessed on 30 December 2012).


Deportation in the Parthian Empire

Unlike in the Achaemenid and Sassanian periods, records of deportation are rare during the Arsacid Parthian period. One notable example was the deportation of the Mards in
Charax Charax (Χάραξ) may refer to: * Charax, alternate name of Acharaca, an ancient oracle site in Lydia, Anatolia * Charax, alternate name of Charakipolis, an ancient town in Lydia, Anatolia * Charax, alternate name of Tralles, an ancient city in Ly ...
, near
Rhages Shahr-e Ray ( fa, شهر ری, ) or simply Ray (Shar e Ray; ) is the capital of Ray County in Tehran Province, Iran. Formerly a distinct city, it has now been absorbed into the metropolitan area of Greater Tehran as the 20th district of munici ...
(Ray) by
Phraates I Phraates I ( xpr, 𐭐𐭓𐭇𐭕 ''Frahāt'') was king of the Arsacid dynasty from 170/168 BC to 165/64 BC. He subdued the Mardians, conquered their territory in the Alborz mountains, and reclaimed Hyrcania from the Seleucid Empire. He died in ...
. The 10,000 Roman prisoners of war after the Battle of Carrhae appear to have been deported to
Alexandria Margiana Merv ( tk, Merw, ', مرو; fa, مرو, ''Marv''), also known as the Merve Oasis, formerly known as Alexandria ( grc-gre, Ἀλεξάνδρεια), Antiochia in Margiana ( grc-gre, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐν τῇ Μαργιανῇ) and ...
(Merv) near the eastern border in 53 BC, who are said to married to local people. It is hypothesized that some of them founded the Chinese city of
Li-Jien Liqian () was a county established during the Western Han dynasty and located in the south of modern Yongchang County, Jinchang, in Gansu province of Northwest China. The Western Han inhabitants of the county had migrated to the area from western ...
after becoming soldiers for the
Hsiung-nu The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 209& ...
, but this is doubted. Hyrcanus II, the Jewish king of Judea (Jerusalem), was settled among the Jews of
Babylon ''Bābili(m)'' * sux, 𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠 * arc, 𐡁𐡁𐡋 ''Bāḇel'' * syc, ܒܒܠ ''Bāḇel'' * grc-gre, Βαβυλών ''Babylṓn'' * he, בָּבֶל ''Bāvel'' * peo, 𐎲𐎠𐎲𐎡𐎽𐎢 ''Bābiru'' * elx, 𒀸𒁀𒉿𒇷 ''Babi ...
in Parthia after being taken as captive by the Parthian-Jewish forces in 40 BC. Roman POWs in the Antony's Parthian War may have suffered deportation.


Deportation in the Sasanian Empire

Deportation was widely used by the Sasanians, especially during the wars with the Romans. During Shapur I's reign, the Romans (including Valerian) who were defeated at the Battle of Edessa were deported to Persis. Other destinations were Parthia,
Khuzestan Khuzestan Province (also spelled Xuzestan; fa, استان خوزستان ''Ostān-e Xūzestān'') is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. It is in the southwest of the country, bordering Iraq and the Persian Gulf. Its capital is Ahvaz and it covers ...
, and Asorestan. There were cities which were founded and were populated by Romans prisoners of war, including Shadh-Shapur ( Dayr Mikhraq) in Meshan, Bishapur in Persis, Wuzurg-Shapur (
Ukbara ʿUkbarā (عكبرا) was a medieval city on the left bank of the Tigris between Samarra and Baghdad. The Tigris has changed course since, and its ruins now lie some distance from the river. Its name may possibly have inspired the "Uqbar" of Bo ...
; Marw-Ḥābūr), and
Gundeshapur Gundeshapur ( pal, 𐭥𐭧𐭩𐭠𐭭𐭣𐭩𐭥𐭪𐭱𐭧𐭯𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭩, ''Weh-Andiōk-Šābuhr''; New Persian: , ''Gondēshāpūr'') was the intellectual centre of the Sassanid Empire and the home of the Academy of Gundishapur, founde ...
. Agricultural land were also given to the deportees. These deportations initiated the spread Christianity in the Sassanian empire. In Rēw-Ardashīr (
Rishahr Reishahr ( fa, ری شهر) or Rev Ardashir () was a city on the Persian Gulf in medieval Iran and is currently an archaeological site near Bushehr. It may be identical to the Antiochia-in-Persis of the Seleucid Empire, Seleucid period, but was refo ...
; Yarānshahr), Persis, there was a church for the Romans and another one for
Carmanians Carmania ( grc-gre, Καρμανία, ''Karmanía'', Old Persian: 𐎣𐎼𐎶𐎴𐎠 ''Karmanā'',Lendering (1997) Middle Persian: ''Kirmān'') is a historical region that approximately corresponds to the modern Iranian province of Kerman, an ...
. Their hypothesized decisive role in the spread of Christianity in Persia and their major contribution to Persian economy has been recently criticized by Mosig-Walburg (2010). In the mid-3rd century, Greek-speaking deportees from north-western Syria were settled in Kashkar, Mesopotamia. After the Arab incursion into Persia during Shapur II's reign, he scattered the defeated Arab tribes by deporting them to other regions. Some were deported to Bahrain and
Kirman Kerman is the capital city of Kerman Province, Iran. Kerman or Kirman may also refer to: Places *Kirman (Sasanian province), province of the Sasanian Empire * Kerman Province, province of Iran **Kerman County *Kerman, California People * Josep ...
, possibly to both populate these unattractive regions (due to their climate) and bringing the tribes under control. In 395 AD, 18,000 Roman populations of Sophene, Armenia, Mesopotamia,
Syria Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
, and Cappadocia were captured and deported by the " Huns". the prisoners were freed by the Persians as they reached Persia, and were settled in Slōk ( Wēh Ardashīr) and Kōkbā (Kōkhē). The author of the text ''
Liber Calipharum Thomas the Presbyter (floruit, fl. 640) was a Syriac Orthodox Church, Syriac Orthodox priest from the vicinity of Reshaina in Upper Mesopotamia who wrote the Syriac language , Syriac ''Chronicle of 640'', which is also known by many other names. Th ...
'' has praised the king Yazdegerd I (399–420) for his treatment of the deportees, who also allowed some to return. Major deportations occurred during the
Anastasian War The Anastasian War was fought from 502 to 506 between the Byzantine Empire and the Sasanian Empire. It was the first major conflict between the two powers since 440, and would be the prelude to a long series of destructive conflicts between the tw ...
, including Kavad I's deportation of the populations of Theodosiopolis and Amida to Arrajan (Weh-az-Amid Kavad). Major deportations occurred during the campaigns of Khosrau I from the Roman cities of
Sura A ''surah'' (; ar, سورة, sūrah, , ), is the equivalent of "chapter" in the Qur'an. There are 114 ''surahs'' in the Quran, each divided into '' ayats'' (verses). The chapters or ''surahs'' are of unequal length; the shortest surah ('' Al-K ...
, Beroea, Antioch,
Apamea Apamea or Apameia ( grc, Απάμεια) is the name of several Hellenistic cities in western Asia, after Apama, the Sogdian wife of Seleucus I Nicator, several of which are also former bishoprics and Catholic titular see. Places called Apamea in ...
, Callinicum, and
Batnai Batnaya ( ar, باطنايا, syr, ܒܛܢܝܐ) is a village in Nineveh Governorate, Iraq. It is located in the Tel Kaif District in the Nineveh Plains. In the village, there are Chaldean Catholic churches of Mar Quriaqos and Mart Maryam. T ...
in Osrhoene, to Wēh-Antiyōk-Khosrow (also known as Rūmagān; in Arabic: al-Rūmiyya). The city was founded near
Ctesiphon Ctesiphon ( ; Middle Persian: 𐭲𐭩𐭮𐭯𐭥𐭭 ''tyspwn'' or ''tysfwn''; fa, تیسفون; grc-gre, Κτησιφῶν, ; syr, ܩܛܝܣܦܘܢThomas A. Carlson et al., “Ctesiphon — ܩܛܝܣܦܘܢ ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modi ...
especially for them, and Khosrow reportedly "did everything in his power to make the residents want to stay". The number of the deportees is recorded to be 292,000 in another source.


Military occupation

Article 49 of the
Fourth Geneva Convention The Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, more commonly referred to as the Fourth Geneva Convention and abbreviated as GCIV, is one of the four treaties of the Geneva Conventions. It was adopted in Augus ...
prohibits the deportation of people into or out of occupied territory under
belligerent military occupation Military occupation, also known as belligerent occupation or simply occupation, is the effective military control by a ruling power over a territory that is outside of that power's sovereign territory.Eyāl Benveniśtî. The international law ...
:


External deportation

All countries reserve the right to deport persons without right of abode even those who are longtime residents or possess permanent residency. In general, foreigners who have committed serious crimes, entered the country illegally, overstayed or broken the conditions of their visa, or otherwise lost their legal status to remain in the country may be administratively removed or deported. In some cases, even citizens can be deported; some of the countries in the Persian Gulf have deported their own citizens. They have paid the
Comoros The Comoros,, ' officially the Union of the Comoros,; ar, الاتحاد القمري ' is an independent country made up of three islands in southeastern Africa, located at the northern end of the Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean. It ...
to give them passports and accept them. In many cases, deportation is done by the government's executive apparatus, and as such is often subject to a simpler legal process (or none), with reduced or no right to trial, legal representation or
appeal In law, an appeal is the process in which cases are reviewed by a higher authority, where parties request a formal change to an official decision. Appeals function both as a process for error correction as well as a process of clarifying and ...
due to the subject's lack of citizenship. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, more stringent enforcement of immigration laws were ordered by the executive branch of the U.S. government, which led to increased deportation and repatriation to Mexico. In the 1930s, during the
Great Depression The Great Depression (19291939) was an economic shock that impacted most countries across the world. It was a period of economic depression that became evident after a major fall in stock prices in the United States. The economic contagio ...
, between 355,000 and 2 million Mexicans and Mexican Americans were deported or repatriated to Mexico, an estimated 40 to 60% of whom were U.S. citizens - overwhelmingly children. At least 82,000 Mexicans were formally deported between 1929 and 1935 by the government. Voluntary repatriations were more common than deportations. In 1954, the executive branch of the U.S. government implemented Operation Wetback, a program created in response to public hysteria about immigration and immigrants from Mexico. Operation Wetback led to the deportation of nearly 1.3 million Mexicans from the United States. Between 2009 and 2016, about 3.2 million people were deported from the United States. Since 1997 U.S. mass deportations of non-citizens particularly convicted felons have risen steadily with the passing into law by the U.S. Congress of the 1996 Illegal Immigration Reform and Responsibility Act (IIRRA) which brought sweeping changes to the threshold for deportation of convicted felons that have been criticized by some as having human rights abuses. Since this time, the former U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Services (INS) has been transformed into Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) and has renamed deportation as "expedited removal". The ICE website publishes removal statistics annually on its website. According to recent numbers ICE removed a total of 240,255 aliens in FY 2016, a two percent increase over FY 2015, but a 24 percent decrease from FY 2014. Already in natural law of the 18th century, philosophers agreed that expulsion of a nation from the territory that it historically inhabits is not allowable. In the late 20th century, the United Nations drafted a code related to
crimes against humanity Crimes against humanity are widespread or systemic acts committed by or on behalf of a ''de facto'' authority, usually a state, that grossly violate human rights. Unlike war crimes, crimes against humanity do not have to take place within the ...
; Article 18 of the ''Draft Code of Crimes Against the Peace and Security of Mankind'' declares "large scale" arbitrary or forcible deportation to be a crime against humanity. Deportation often requires a specific process that must be validated by a court or senior government official. It should not be confused with administrative removal, which is the process of a country denying entry to individuals at a port of entry and expelling them.


Internal deportation

Deportation can also happen within a state, when (for example) an individual or a group of people is forcibly resettled to a different part of the country. If ethnic groups are affected by this, it may also be referred to as population transfer. The rationale is often that these groups might assist the enemy in war or insurrection. For example, the American state of Georgia deported 400 female mill workers during the Civil War on the suspicion they were Northern sympathizers. In the 18th Century the Tipu Sultan, of Mysore, deported tens of thousands of civilians, from lands he had annexed, to serve as slave labour in other parts of his empire, for example the:
Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam The Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam (1784–1799) was a 15-year imprisonment of Mangalorean Catholics and other Christians at Seringapatam, in the Carnataca region of India by Tippu Sultan, the ''de facto'' ruler of the Kingdo ...
. During World War II, Joseph Stalin (see
Population transfer in the Soviet Union From 1930 to 1952, the government of the Soviet Union, on the orders of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin under the direction of the NKVD official Lavrentiy Beria, forcibly transferred populations of various groups. These actions may be classified ...
) ordered the deportation of Volga Germans, Chechens, Crimean Tatars, Ukrainians and others to areas away from the front, including central and western Soviet Union. Some historians have estimated the number of deaths from the deportation to be as high as 1 in 3 among some populations. On February 26, 2004 the European Parliament characterized deportations of the Chechens as an act of genocide. The Soviet Union also used deportation, as well as instituting the Russian language as the only working language and other such tactics, to achieve
Russification Russification (russian: русификация, rusifikatsiya), or Russianization, is a form of cultural assimilation in which non-Russians, whether involuntarily or voluntarily, give up their culture and language in favor of the Russian cultur ...
of its occupied territories (such as the
Baltic nations The Baltic states, et, Balti riigid or the Baltic countries is a geopolitical term, which currently is used to group three countries: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. All three countries are members of NATO, the European Union, the Eurozone, ...
and
Bessarabia Bessarabia (; Gagauz: ''Besarabiya''; Romanian: ''Basarabia''; Ukrainian: ''Бессара́бія'') is a historical region in Eastern Europe, bounded by the Dniester river on the east and the Prut river on the west. About two thirds of Be ...
). In this way, it removed the historical ethnic populations and repopulated the areas with Russian nationals. The deported people were sent to remote, scarcely populated areas or to GULAG labour camps. It has been estimated that, in their entirety, internal forced migrations affected some 6 million people. Of these, some 1 to 1.5 million perished. After World War II approximately 50,000 Hungarians were deported from South Slovakia by Czechoslovak authorities to the Czech borderlands in order to alter the ethnic composition of the region. Between 110,000 and 120,000 Japanese and Japanese Americans on the
West Coast West Coast or west coast may refer to: Geography Australia * Western Australia *Regions of South Australia#Weather forecasting, West Coast of South Australia * West Coast, Tasmania **West Coast Range, mountain range in the region Canada * Britis ...
, as well as about 3,000
Italian American Italian Americans ( it, italoamericani or ''italo-americani'', ) are Americans who have full or partial Italian ancestry. The largest concentrations of Italian Americans are in the urban Northeast and industrial Midwestern metropolitan areas, ...
and about 11,500
German American German Americans (german: Deutschamerikaner, ) are Americans who have full or partial German ancestry. With an estimated size of approximately 43 million in 2019, German Americans are the largest of the self-reported ancestry groups by the Unite ...
families, were forcibly resettled from the coasts to internment camps in interior areas of the United States of America by President
Franklin Roosevelt Franklin Delano Roosevelt (; ; January 30, 1882April 12, 1945), often referred to by his initials FDR, was an American politician and attorney who served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. As the ...
. In the late 19th and early 20th century, deportation of union members and labor leaders was not uncommon in the United States during
strikes Strike may refer to: People *Strike (surname) Physical confrontation or removal *Strike (attack), attack with an inanimate object or a part of the human body intended to cause harm *Airstrike, military strike by air forces on either a suspected ...
or labor disputes. For an example, see the Bisbee Deportation.


Colonial deportations

Deporting individuals to an overseas colony is a special case that is neither completely internal nor external. For example, from 1717 onwards, Great Britain deported around 40,000 British religious objectors and "criminals" to America before the practice ceased in 1776. Jailers sold the "criminals" to shipping contractors, who then sold them to plantation owners. The "criminals" worked for the plantation owner for the duration of their sentence. After Britain lost control of the area which became the United States, Australia became the destination for "criminals" deported to British colonies. Britain
transported ''Transported'' is an Australian convict melodrama film directed by W. J. Lincoln. It is considered a lost film. Plot In England, Jessie Grey is about to marry Leonard Lincoln but the evil Harold Hawk tries to force her to marry him and she wou ...
more than 160,000 British "criminals" to the Australian colonies between 1787 and 1855. It may help deporting authorities to have access to a far-flung empire. During the Second Boer War of 1899-1902 the British deported about 26,000 Boer prisoners-of-war to overseas POW camps in
Saint Helena Saint Helena () is a British overseas territory located in the South Atlantic Ocean. It is a remote volcanic tropical island west of the coast of south-western Africa, and east of Rio de Janeiro in South America. It is one of three constitu ...
,
Ceylon Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්‍රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
, Bermuda and India.


Medical deportation

Russia expelled dozens of Chinese for violating their terms of quarantine in 2020.


Deportation during World War II


Deportation in Nazi Germany

Nazi policies deported homosexuals, Jews,
Poles Poles,, ; singular masculine: ''Polak'', singular feminine: ''Polka'' or Polish people, are a West Slavic nation and ethnic group, who share a common history, culture, the Polish language and are identified with the country of Poland in Ce ...
, and
Romani Romani may refer to: Ethnicities * Romani people, an ethnic group of Northern Indian origin, living dispersed in Europe, the Americas and Asia ** Romani genocide, under Nazi rule * Romani language, any of several Indo-Aryan languages of the Roma ...
from their established places of residence to Nazi concentration camps or extermination camps set up at a considerable distance from their original residences. During the Holocaust, the Nazis made heavy use of
euphemism A euphemism () is an innocuous word or expression used in place of one that is deemed offensive or suggests something unpleasant. Some euphemisms are intended to amuse, while others use bland, inoffensive terms for concepts that the user wishes ...
s, where "deportation" frequently meant the victims were subsequently murdered, as opposed to simply being relocated.


Deportation in the Soviet Union

Under orders of Joseph Stalin the Soviet Union carried out a forced transfer of various groups before, during and after World War II (from 1930s up to the 1950s). During the June deportation of 1941, after the occupation of the Baltic countries, Eastern Poland and Moldavia, as was agreed by the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, in an attempt to subdue the countries for their forced incorporation into the Soviet Union, the Soviet Union deported tens-of-thousands of innocent people to Siberia.


Deportation in the Independent State of Croatia

An estimated 120,000 Serbs were deported from the Independent State of Croatia to German-occupied Serbia, and 300,000 fled by 1943.


Noteworthy deportees

Alexander Berkman,
Emma Goldman Emma Goldman (June 27, 1869 – May 14, 1940) was a Russian-born anarchist political activist and writer. She played a pivotal role in the development of anarchist political philosophy in North America and Europe in the first half of the ...
,
C.L.R. James Cyril Lionel Robert James (4 January 1901 – 31 May 1989),Fraser, C. Gerald, ''The New York Times'', 2 June 1989. who sometimes wrote under the pen-name J. R. Johnson, was a Trinidadian historian, journalist and Marxist. His works are in ...
,
Claudia Jones Claudia Vera Jones (; 21 February 1915 – 24 December 1964) was a Trinidad and Tobago-born journalist and activist. As a child, she migrated with her family to the US, where she became a Communist political activist, feminist and black national ...
,
Fritz Julius Kuhn Fritz Julius Kuhn (May 15, 1896 – December 14, 1951) was a German Nazi activist who served as elected leader of the German American Bund before World War II. He became a naturalized United States citizen in 1934, but his citizenship was can ...
,
Lucky Luciano Charles "Lucky" Luciano (, ; born Salvatore Lucania ; November 24, 1897 – January 26, 1962) was an Italian-born gangster who operated mainly in the United States. Luciano started his criminal career in the Five Points gang and was instrumenta ...
, and
Anna Sage Anna may refer to: People Surname and given name * Anna (name) Mononym * Anna the Prophetess, in the Gospel of Luke * Anna (wife of Artabasdos) (fl. 715–773) * Anna (daughter of Boris I) (9th–10th century) * Anna (Anisia) (fl. 1218 to 1221) ...
were all deported from the United States by being arrested and brought to the federal immigration control station on Ellis Island in New York Harbor and, from there, forcibly removed from the United States on ships.


Opposition

Many criticize deportations, calling them inhuman, as the questioning the effectiveness of deportations. Some are completely opposed towards any deportations, while others state it is inhuman to take somebody to a foreign land without their consent.


In popular culture

In literature, deportation appears as an overriding theme in the 1935 novel, ''Strange Passage'' by Theodore D. Irwin. Films depicting or dealing with fictional cases of deportation are many and varied. Among them are '' Ellis Island'' (1936), ''
Exile Express ''Exile Express'' is a 1939 American drama film directed by Otis Garrett and starring Anna Sten, Alan Marshal and Jerome Cowan. Plot After being wrongly implicated in the murder of her scientist boss by foreign agents, a young immigrant woman ...
'' (1939), ''
Five Came Back ''Five Came Back'' is a 1939 American black-and-white melodrama from RKO Radio Pictures produced by Robert Sisk, directed by John Farrow, written by Jerry Cady, Dalton Trumbo, and Nathanael West, and starring Chester Morris and Lucille Ball. ...
'' (1939), '' Deported'' (1950), and '' Gambling House'' (1951). More recently, '' Shottas'' (2002) treated the issue of U.S. deportation to the Caribbean post-1997.


See also

*
Ethnic cleansing Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal of ethnic, racial, and religious groups from a given area, with the intent of making a region ethnically homogeneous. Along with direct removal, extermination, deportation or population transfer ...
* Forced migration *
Acadian deportation The Expulsion of the Acadians, also known as the Great Upheaval, the Great Expulsion, the Great Deportation, and the Deportation of the Acadians (french: Le Grand Dérangement or ), was the forced removal, by the British, of the Acadian peo ...
*
Diaspora A diaspora ( ) is a population that is scattered across regions which are separate from its geographic place of origin. Historically, the word was used first in reference to the dispersion of Greeks in the Hellenic world, and later Jews after ...
* Depopulation of Diego Garcia *
Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50) Flight or flying is the process by which an object moves through a space without contacting any planetary surface, either within an atmosphere (i.e. air flight or aviation) or through the vacuum of outer space (i.e. spaceflight). This can be ...
*
Impediment to expulsion Impediment to expulsion, or prohibition of deportation, are practical or legal barriers that prevents a country from enforcing an deportation, expulsion or deportation decision of a non-national. In some countries and cases, a person who has been as ...
* Indian Removal Act * Israelite deportation * June deportation * Operation Priboi *
Penal transportation Penal transportation or transportation was the relocation of convicted criminals, or other persons regarded as undesirable, to a distant place, often a colony, for a specified term; later, specifically established penal colonies became their ...
* Population transfer *
Population transfer in the Soviet Union From 1930 to 1952, the government of the Soviet Union, on the orders of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin under the direction of the NKVD official Lavrentiy Beria, forcibly transferred populations of various groups. These actions may be classified ...
* Prussian deportations of 1885–1890 * Seminole Wars * Soviet deportations from Estonia


Further reading

* Garrity, Meghan (2022). " Introducing the Government-Sponsored Mass Expulsion Dataset". ''Journal of Peace Research.''


References

Notes Bibliography * Aguila, Jaime R. "Book Reviews: Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s. By Francisco E. Balderrama and Raymond Rodríguez". ''Journal of San Diego History''. 52:3–4 (Summer-Fall 2006). * Balderrama, Francisco and Rodriguez, Raymond. ''Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995. .
Campana, Aurélie. "Case Study: The Massive Deportation of the Chechen People: How and why Chechens were Deported". Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence. November 2007.
Accessed August 11, 2008. * Christensen, Peter. ''The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environments in the History of the Middle East, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1500'' Copenhagen, Denmark: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1993. . * Conquest, Robert. ''The Nation Killers''. New York: Macmillan, 1970. * Daniels, Roger. ''Coming to America: A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life''. New York: HarperCollins, 2002. * Dillman, Caroline Matheny. ''The Roswell Mills and A Civil War Tragedy: Excerpts From Days Gone by in Alpharetta and Roswell, Georgia''. Vol. 1. Roswell, Ga.: Chattahoochee Press, 1996. * Fischer, Ruth and Leggett, John C. ''Stalin and German Communism: A Study in the Origins of the State Party''. Edison, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2006. * Forsythe, David P. and Lawson, Edward. ''Encyclopedia of Human Rights''. 2d ed. Florence, Ky.: Taylor & Francis, 1996. * Fragomen, Austin T. and Bell, Steven C. ''Immigration Fundamentals: A Guide to Law and Practice''. New York: Practising Law Institute, 1996. * García, Juan Ramon. ''Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954''. Westport, Ct.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1980. . * Gibney,Matthew J. and Hansen, Randall. "Deportation and the Liberal State: The Involuntary Return of Asylum Seekers and Unlawful Migrants in Canada, the UK, and Germany". ''New Issues in Refugee Research: Working Paper Series No. 77. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2003. * Gutiérrez, David G. ''Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity''. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1995. * * Hing, Bill Ong. ''Defining America Through Immigration Policy''. Philadelphia, Pa.: Temple University Press, 2004. * Hitt, Michael D. ''Charged with Treason: The Ordeal of 400 Mill Workers During Military Operations in Roswell, Georgia, 1864–1865''. Monroe, N.Y.: Library Research Associates, 1992. * International Law Commission. United Nations. ''Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1996: Report of the Commission to the General Assembly on the Work of Its 48th Session''. New York: United Nations Publications, 2000. * * Jaimoukha, Amjad M. ''The Chechens: A Handbook''. Florence, Ky.: Routledge, 2005. * * Kleveman, Lutz. ''The New Great Game: Blood and Oil in Central Asia''. Jackson, Tenn.: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2003. * "The Law of Necessity As Applied in the Bisbee Deportation Case". ''Arizona Law Review''. 3:2 (1961). * "Lewis Attacks Deportation of Leaders by West Virginia Authorities". ''The New York Times''. July 17, 1921. * Lindquist, John H. and Fraser, James. "A Sociological Interpretation of the Bisbee Deportation". ''Pacific Historical Review''. 37:4 (November 1968). * López, Ian F. Haney. ''Racism on Trial: The Chicano Fight for Justice''. New ed. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press, 2004. * Martin, MaryJoy. ''The Corpse On Boomerang Road: Telluride's War on Labor, 1899–1908''. Lake City, Colo.: Western Reflections Publishing Co., 2004. * Mata, Albert G. "Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954 by Juan Ramon García". ''Contemporary Sociology''. 1:5 (September 1983) * Mawdsley, Evan. ''The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union 1929–1953''. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 2003. * McCaffray, Susan Purves and Melancon, Michael S. ''Russia in the European Context, 1789–1914: A Member of the Family''. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. * McKay, Robert R. "The Federal Deportation Campaign in Texas: Mexican Deportation from the Lower Rio Grande Valley during the Great Depression". ''Borderlands Journal''. (Fall 1981). * Naimark, Norman M. ''Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2001.

* * President's Mediation Commission. ''Report on the Bisbee Deportations Made by the President's Mediation Commission to the President of the United States''. Washington, D.C.: President's Mediation Commission, November 6, 1917. * Silverberg, Louis G. "Citizens' Committees: Their Role in Industrial Conflict". ''Public Opinion Quarterly''. 5:1 (March 1941). * * Suggs, Jr., George G. ''Colorado's War on Militant Unionism: James H. Peabody and the Western Federation of Miners''. 2nd ed. Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991. * * Valenciana, Christine. "Unconstitutional Deportation of Mexican Americans During the 1930s: A Family History and Oral History". ''Multicultural Education''. Spring 2006.


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