Ferdinand Tönnies (; 26 July 1855 – 9 April 1936) was a

German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...

sociologist,

economist An economist is a professional and practitioner in the social sciences, social science discipline of economics. The individual may also study, develop, and apply theories and concepts from economics and write about economic policy. Within this ...

, and

philosopher A philosopher is a person who practices or investigates philosophy. The term ''philosopher'' comes from the grc, φιλόσοφος, , translit=philosophos, meaning 'lover of wisdom'. The coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek th ...

. He was a significant contributor to sociological theory and field studies, best known for distinguishing between two types of social groups, Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (''community and society''). He co-founded the

German Society for Sociology The German Sociological Association (''Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie'', DGS) is a professional organization of social scientists in Germany. Established in Berlin on January 3, 1909, its founding members included Rudolf Goldscheid, Ferdina ...

together with

Max Weber Maximilian Karl Emil Weber (; ; 21 April 186414 June 1920) was a German sociologist, historian, jurist and political economist, who is regarded as among the most important theorists of the development of modern Western society. His ideas p ...

and

Georg Simmel Georg Simmel (; ; 1 March 1858 – 26 September 1918) was a German sociologist, philosopher, and critic. Simmel was influential in the field of sociology. Simmel was one of the first generation of German sociologists: his neo-Kantian approac ...

and many other founders. He was president of the society from 1909 to 1933, after which he was ousted for having criticized the Nazis. Tönnies was regarded as the first proper German sociologist and published over 900 works, contributing to many areas of sociology and philosophy. Tönnies,

, and

are considered the founding fathers of classical German sociology. Though there has been a resurgence of interest in Weber and Simmel, Tönnies has not drawn as much attention.

Biography

Early life

He was born on 26 July 1855 on the Haubuarg "De Reap,"

Oldenswort Oldenswort ( da, Oldensvort) is a municipality in the district of Nordfriesland, in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, next to the river Eider. Personalities The earliest atheist known by name in modern Europe, Matthias Knutzen, was born here someti ...

on the

Eiderstedt Eiderstedt (german: Eiderstedt, ; da, Ejdersted; North Frisian: ''Ääderstää'') is a peninsula in the district of Nordfriesland in the German federal state of Schleswig-Holstein. Overview It is approximately 30 km in length and 15& ...

Peninsula into a wealthy farmer's family in North Frisia, Schleswig, then under Danish rule. Tönnies was the only sociologist of his generation who came from the countryside. He was the third child of church chief and farmer August Ferdinand Tönnies (1822–1883), and his wife Ida Frederica (born Mau, 1826–1915), came from a theological family from East Holstein. His father, of Frisian ancestry, was a successful farmer and cattle rancher, while his mother hailed from a line of Lutheran ministers. The two had seven children, four sons and three daughters. On the day he was born, Ferdinand Tönnies received the baptismal name of Ferdinand Julius and moved to Husum, on the North Sea, after his father retired in 1864.

Education and Academic Career

Tönnies enrolled at the University of Strasbourg after graduating from high school in 1872. They took the time to utilize his freedom to travel, exploring the academic fields of the University of

Jena Jena () is a German city and the second largest city in Thuringia. Together with the nearby cities of Erfurt and Weimar, it forms the central metropolitan area of Thuringia with approximately 500,000 inhabitants, while the city itself has a po ...

Bonn The federal city of Bonn ( lat, Bonna) is a city on the banks of the Rhine in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia, with a population of over 300,000. About south-southeast of Cologne, Bonn is in the southernmost part of the Rhine-Ru ...

Leipzig Leipzig ( , ; Upper Saxon: ) is the most populous city in the German state of Saxony. Leipzig's population of 605,407 inhabitants (1.1 million in the larger urban zone) as of 2021 places the city as Germany's eighth most populous, as ...

Berlin Berlin ( , ) is the capital and largest city of Germany by both area and population. Its 3.7 million inhabitants make it the European Union's most populous city, according to population within city limits. One of Germany's sixteen constitu ...

, and Tübingen. At age 22, he received a doctorate in philology at the

University of Tübingen The University of Tübingen, officially the Eberhard Karl University of Tübingen (german: Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen; la, Universitas Eberhardina Carolina), is a public research university located in the city of Tübingen, Baden-W� ...

in 1877 (with a

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...

thesis on the ancient Siwa Oasis). However, by this time, his main interests had switched to political philosophy and social issues. After completing postdoctoral work at the University of Berlin, he traveled to London to continue his studies on the seventeenth-century English political thinker Thomas Hobbes. Tönnies earned a Privatdozent in philosophy at the University of Kiel from 1909 to 1933 after submitting a draft of his major book, Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, as his Habilitationsschrift in 1881.He held this post at the University of

Kiel Kiel () is the capital and most populous city in the northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein, with a population of 246,243 (2021). Kiel lies approximately north of Hamburg. Due to its geographic location in the southeast of the Jutland ...

for only three years. Because he sympathized with the

Hamburg Hamburg (, ; nds, label=Hamburg German, Low Saxon, Hamborg ), officially the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg (german: Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg; nds, label=Low Saxon, Friee un Hansestadt Hamborg),. is the List of cities in Germany by popul ...

dockers' strike of 1896, the conservative Prussian government considered him to be a social democrat, and Tönnies would not be called to a professorial chair until 1913. He returned to Kiel as a

professor emeritus ''Emeritus'' (; female: ''emerita'') is an adjective used to designate a retired chair, professor, pastor, bishop, pope, director, president, prime minister, rabbi, emperor, or other person who has been "permitted to retain as an honorary title ...

in 1921 where he took on a teaching position in sociology and taught until 1933 when he was ousted by the

Nazis Nazism ( ; german: Nazismus), the common name in English for National Socialism (german: Nationalsozialismus, ), is the far-right totalitarian political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in N ...

, due to earlier publications in which he had criticized them. Remaining in Kiel, he died three years later in 1936.

Sociological Contributions

Many of his writings on sociological theories furthered pure sociology, including ''Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft'' (1887). He coined the metaphysical term '' Voluntarism''. Tönnies also contributed to the study of

social change Social change is the alteration of the social order of a society which may include changes in social institutions, social behaviours or social relations. Definition Social change may not refer to the notion of social progress or soci ...

, particularly on public opinion,

customs Customs is an authority or agency in a country responsible for collecting tariffs and for controlling the flow of goods, including animals, transports, personal effects, and hazardous items, into and out of a country. Traditionally, customs ...

and

technology Technology is the application of knowledge to reach practical goals in a specifiable and reproducible way. The word ''technology'' may also mean the product of such an endeavor. The use of technology is widely prevalent in medicine, scien ...

crime In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term ''crime'' does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition,Farmer, Lindsay: "Crime, definitions of", in C ...

, and

suicide Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Mental disorders (including depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, personality disorders, anxiety disorders), physical disorders (such as chronic fatigue syndrome), and ...

. He also had a vivid interest in methodology, especially

statistics Statistics (from German: '' Statistik'', "description of a state, a country") is the discipline that concerns the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data. In applying statistics to a scientific, indust ...

, and sociological research, inventing his own technique of

statistical Statistics (from German: '' Statistik'', "description of a state, a country") is the discipline that concerns the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data. In applying statistics to a scientific, industr ...

association. After publishing Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, Tönnies focused aspects of the social life such as morals, folkways, and public opinion. However he is best known for his published work on Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft because his later works applied the same concepts to aspects of social life.

Chronological Timeline of his Life and Career

* 1855: Born, 26 July, Oldenswort, in the Duchy of Schleswig * 1864: Dannish annexation of Schleswig, followed by Prusso-Austrian invasion and absorption of Schleswig-Holstein into Prussia. * 1865: Tönnies family moved to Husum, where his father took up merchant banking. * 1867: Tönnies entered the local grammar school, studied Greek, Latin and German classical literature. * 1870: Franco-Prussian War; creation of German empire. Tönnies met Schleswegian poet and folk-hero, Theodor Storm, who became a life-long influence. * 1871-7: Studied at the universities of Strasbourg, Jena, Leipzig, Berlin, Kiel and Tübingen. Gained doctorate in Greek philology at Tübingen. Became a close friend of Friedrich Paulsen, an admirer of Kant, Lassalle and Hobbes. * 1878: First visit to England. Worked on Hobbes' manuscripts at the British Museum, Oxford and Hardwick. * 1879–81: Published 'Remarks on the Philosophy of Thomas Hobbes', in ''Vierteljahrsschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie.'' * 1881: An early version of ''Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft'' submitted as his ''Habilitationsschrift'' at university of Kiel. * 1887: First edition of ''Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft'' (sub-titled 'An Essay on Communism and Socialism as Historical Social Systems'). * 1889: After prolonged delay, Tönnies's editions of Hobbes' Elements of Law Natural and Politic and Behemoth published in English. * 1890: Failed to obtain a university professorship; became a ''Privatdozent'' at Kiel. * 1892: Helped found Society for Ethical Culture, the vehicle for his life-long involvement in various co-operative, social reform and self-improvement movements. * 1893: Offered a university chair, on condition that he gave up Society for Ethical Culture, which he refused. * 1894: Marriage to Marie Sieck, daughter of a Protestant minister from the Schleswegian town of Eutin. Five children born over the next ten years. * 1896: First edition of ''Thomas Hobbes. Leben und Lehre'' . Tönnies' support for Hamburg dock strike compounded his difficulties in gaining a university chair. * 1899–1900: Tönnies' prize essay on 'Philosophical Terminology' published in an English translation by Helen Bosanquet in ''Mind.'' * 1904: Visited America for International Arts and Sciences Congress at St Louis. Contacts with sociologists of the Chicago School. * 1908: House guest of Max and Marianne Weber during the International Philosophy Congress at Heidelberg. * 1909: First edition of his book on Custom ( Die Sitte ). With Weber and Georg Simmel a founder member of the German Society for Sociology. Tönnies was to be president of this body for most of his life. * 1912: Second editions of Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (now subtitled 'Basic Concepts in Pure Sociology') and of Tönnies's study of Hobbes (re-titled Thomas Hobbes. Der Mann und der Denkin) * 1913: His first permanent chair, a professorship of 'economic political science', at the university of Kiel. * 1917: Publication of Der englische Staat und der deutsche Staat . * 1920: Third edition of Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft . * 1921: Publication of Marx, Leben und Lehre . * 1922: Publication of Kritik der öffentlichen Meinung . * 1923: Autobiographical sketch published in Die Philosophie der Gegenwart in Selbstdarstellung . * 1925: Tönnies's major writings collected in Soziologische Studien und Kritiken (  vols.). Third edition of Hobbes. * 1931: Publication of Einführung in die Soziologie . * 1932: Joined the Social Democratic party to support resistance to the rise of fascism. * 1933: Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany. Tönnies stripped of his honorary professorship at Kiel, academic pension and personal library by local Nazi administration. * 1935: A major conference at Leipzig in honour of Tönnies's eightieth birthday. Eighth edition of Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft . Publication of his final work, Geist der Neuzeit . * 1936: Death of Tönnies.

''Gemeinschaft'' and ''Gesellschaft''

Tönnies distinguished between two types of social groupings. ''Gemeinschaft''—often translated as ''

community A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as place, norms, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a country, village, t ...

'' (or left untranslated)—refers to groups based on feelings of togetherness and mutual bonds, which are felt like a goal to be kept up, their members being means for this goal. ''Gesellschaft''—often translated as ''

society A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Soc ...

''—on the other hand, refers to groups that are sustained by it being instrumental for their members' aims and goals. The equilibrium in ''Gemeinschaft'' is achieved through means of social control, such as morals, conformism, and exclusion, while ''Gesellschaft'' keeps its balance through police, laws, tribunals, and prisons. Amish and Hasidic communities are examples of ''Gemeinschaft'', while states are types of ''Gesellschaft''. Rules in ''Gemeinschaft'' are implicit, while ''Gesellschaft'' has explicit rules (written laws). ''Gemeinschaft'' may be exemplified historically by a

family Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Idea ...

or a

neighborhood A neighbourhood (British English, Irish English, Australian English and Canadian English) or neighborhood (American English; see spelling differences) is a geographically localised community within a larger city, town, suburb or rural area, ...

in a pre-modern (rural) society; ''Gesellschaft'' by a joint-stock company or a state in a modern society, i.e. the society when Tönnies lived. ''Gesellschaft'' relationships arose in an urban and capitalist setting, characterized by

individualism Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology and social outlook that emphasizes the intrinsic worth of the individual. Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and to value independence and self-reli ...

and impersonal monetary connections between people. Social ties were often instrumental and superficial, with self-interest and exploitation increasingly the norm. Examples are

corporation A corporation is an organization—usually a group of people or a company—authorized by the state to act as a single entity (a legal entity recognized by private and public law "born out of statute"; a legal person in legal context) and ...

s, states, or

voluntary association A voluntary group or union (also sometimes called a voluntary organization, common-interest association, association, or society) is a group of individuals who enter into an agreement, usually as volunteers, to form a body (or organization) to ac ...

s. In his book ''Einteilung der Soziologie'' (Classification of Sociology) he distinguished between three disciplines of sociology, being Pure or Theoretical (''reine, theoretische'') Sociology, Applied (''angewandte'') Sociology, and Empirical (''emprische'') Sociology. His distinction between social groupings is based on the assumption that there are only two primary forms of an actor's will to approve of other men. For Tönnies, such approval is by no means self-evident; he is pretty influenced by

Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes ( ; 5/15 April 1588 – 4/14 December 1679) was an English philosopher, considered to be one of the founders of modern political philosophy. Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book '' Leviathan'', in which he expounds an influ ...

. Following his "essential will" ("Wesenwille"), an actor will see himself as a means to serve the goals of social grouping; very often, it is an underlying, subconscious force. Groupings formed around an essential will are called a Gemeinschaft. The other will is the "arbitrary will" ("Kürwille"): An actor sees a social grouping as a means to further his individual goals, so it is purposive and future-oriented. Groupings around the latter are called Gesellschaft. Whereas the membership in a Gemeinschaft is self-fulfilling, a Gesellschaft is instrumental for its members. In pure sociology—theoretically—these two standard types of will are to be strictly separated; in applied sociology—empirically—they are always mixed. Gender Polarity in "''Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft"'' What is less well-known when discussing the work of Tonnies is that he frequently uses gender concepts to explain his main ideas. Essential will-arbitrary will, Gemeinschaft-Gesellschaft, are all thought of in terms of the polarity of feminine-masculine. Gemeinschaft, for example, is feminine: "the eternal-feminine," since motherliness is the basis of all being together. Essential will is also feminine, whereas Gesellschaft and arbitrary choice are masculine. Tonnies' theory appears to consign him to a nineteenth-century view of the public world belonging to males, while women are relegated to the private realm, as it links together Gemeinschaft/home/woman as opposed to Gesellschaft/marketplace/man. Views on Family In his article "''Funfzehn Thesen zur Erneuerung eines Familienlebens''," published in 1893, he claims that the dissolution of family life has tainted modern society's blood. Tonnies believed that one of the most important ways to resurrect Gemeinschaft in the modern world would be to improve and prolong family life. The demise of the family is caused by modern capitalism and its consequences: low pay, excessive hours of labor for men and women alike, and terrible living conditions. He believes family life has to be revitalized since it is the foundation of all culture and morals. In this case, he proposed two solutions that revolved around the idea of unions devoted to aid and nurture, as he would claim, "the family spirit." Two Solutions # The first would be groupings of organically linked families who, in order to strengthen family life, would preserve family documents, correspond regularly, gather at family festivals, and assist one another by pooling resources. A family fund would be set up to help those who had fallen on hard times or who required money to develop unique skills. # The second version would bring together unrelated families and be dedicated to a simpler and healthier way of life, a more serious and reasonable method of social interaction, and a better comprehension of masculine and feminine thought. Three to five families would choose to band together to achieve these goals; eventually, they might live together in a common residence, engage in cooperative purchasing, and even share products. Groups may eventually band together in order to gain greater economic and moral power.

Criticisms

Tönnies' distinction between ''Gemeinschaft'' and ''Gesellschaft'', like others between tradition and modernity, has been criticized for over-generalizing differences between societies and implying that all societies were following a similar evolutionary path, an argument which Tönnies himself never actually proclaimed.''Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft'', Leipzig 1887, §§ 1–40

Published works (selection)

Ferdinand Toennies Bueste Husum-Ausschnitt

* 1887: ''Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft'', Leipzig: Fues's Verlag, 2nd ed. 1912, 8th edition, Leipzig: Buske, 1935 (reprint 2005, Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft; latest edition: Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft. 1880–1935., hrsg. v. Bettina Clausen und Dieter Haselbach, De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston 2019 = Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe, Band 2); his basic and never essentially changed study of social man; translated in 1957 as "''Community and Society''", * 1896: ''Hobbes. Leben und Lehre'', Stuttgart: Frommann, 1896, 3rd edn 1925; a philosophical study that reveals his indebtedness to Hobbes, many of whose writings he has edited * 1897: ''Der Nietzsche-Kultus'' (), Leipzig: Reisland * 1905: "The Present Problems of Social Structure", in: ''American Journal of Sociology'', 10(5), p. 569–588 (newly edited, with annotations, in: ''Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe'', tom. 7, Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter 2009, p. 269–285) * 1906: ''Philosophische Terminologie in psychologischer Ansicht'', Leipzig: Thomas * 1907: ''Die Entwicklung der sozialen Frage'', Leipzig: Göschen * 1909: ''Die Sitte'', Frankfurt on Main: Rütten & Loening * 1915: ''Warlike England as seen by herself'', New York: Dillingha

* 1917: ''Der englische Staat und der deutsche Staat'', Berlin: Curius; pioneering political sociology * 1921: '' Marx. Leben und Lehre'', Jena: Lichtenstein * 1922: ''Kritik der öffentlichen Meinung'', Berlin: Springer; 2nd ed. 2003, Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter (Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe, tom. 14); translated as ''On Public Opinion''. Applied sociology revealing Tönnies' thorough scholarship and his commitment as an analyst and critic of modern public opinion * 1924, 1926, and 1929: ''Soziologische Studien und Kritiken'', 3 vols, Jena: Fischer, a collection in three volumes of those papers he considered most relevant * 1925, Tönnies, F. ''Einteilung der Soziologie. Zeitschrift Für Die Gesamte Staatswissenschaft''. English translation: Classification of Sociology. Journal of the Complete Political Science/ Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 79(1), 1–15. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40744384 * 1926: ''

Fortschritt Fortschritt ( German for "Progress") was an East German brand of tractors, combine harvesters and other agricultural machines made by VEB Fortschritt (part of the IFA) in Neustadt, Saxony. It was the largest agricultural machinery manufacture ...

und soziale Entwicklung'', Karlsruhe: Braun * 1927: ''Der Selbstmord in Schleswig-Holstein'', Breslau: Hirt * 1931: ''Einführung in die Soziologie'', Stuttgart: Enke. His fully elaborated introduction into sociology as a social science (latest edition Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe Band 21, herausgegeben von Dieter Haselbach, De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston 2021, ISBN 978-3-11-015853-3). * 1935: ''Geist der Neuzeit'', Leipzig: Buske; 2nd ed. 1998 (in: ''Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe'', tom. 22); a study in applied sociology, analysing the transformation from European Middle Ages to modern times * 1971: ''On Sociology: Pure, Applied, and Empirical.'' Selected writings edited and with an introd. by Werner J. Cahnman and Rudolf Heberle. The University of Chicago Press. * 1974: ''On Social Ideas and Ideologies.'' Edited, Translated, and Annotated by E. G. Jacoby, Harper & Row * 1998–: Tönnies' Complete Works ('' Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe''), 24 vols., critically edited by

Lars Clausen Lars Michael Clausen (8 April 1935, Berlin – 20 May 2010, Hamburg) was a German sociologist and professor at the University of Kiel. Life and work During World War II, the family lived on the Darß (in Pomerania). 1944 his father Jürgen C ...

Alexander Deichsel Alexander Deichsel (born 23 February 1935) is a German sociologist and professor at the University of Hamburg (Germany). Deichsel completed his abitur at the Christianeum Hamburg. He is the founder of sociology of brand ( Markensoziologie) and ...

, Cornelius Bickel, Rolf Fechner (until 2006), Carsten Schlüter-Knauer, and Uwe Carstens (2006– ), Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter (1998– ) * Materialien der Ferdinand-Tönnies-Arbeitsstelle am Institut für Technik- und Wissenschaftsforschung der Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt, edited by Arno Bammé: ** 2008: ''Soziologische Schriften 1891–1905'', ed. Rolf Fechner, Munich/Vienna: Profil ** 2009: ''Schriften und Rezensionen zur Anthropologie'', ed. Rolf Fechner, Munich/Vienna: Profil ** 2009: ''Schriften zu Friedrich von Schiller'', ed. Rolf Fechner, Munich/Vienna: Profil ** 2010: ''Schriften und Rezensionen zur Religion'', ed. Rolf Fechner, Profil, Munich/Vienna: Profil ** 2010: ''Geist der Neuzeit'', ed. Rolf Fechner, Profil-Verlag, Munich/Vienna: Profil ** 2010: ''Schriften zur Staatswissenschaft'', ed. Rolf Fechner, Profil, Munich/Vienna: Profil ** 2011: ''Schriften zum Hamburger Hafenarbeiterstreik'', ed. Rolf Fechner, Munich/Vienna: Profl

Notes

References

* Adair-Toteff, C., ''Ferdinand Tönnies: Utopian Visionar'', in: Sociological Theory, vol. 13, 1996, p. 58–65 * Bickel, Cornelius: ''Ferdinand Tönnies: Soziologie als skeptische Aufklärung zwischen Historismus und Rationalismus'', Opladen: Westdt. Verlag, 1991. * Bond, Niall, "Ferdinand Tönnies's Romanticism," ''The European Legacy'', 16.4 (2011), 487–504. *Bond, N. "Ferdinand Tönnies' Appraisal of Karl Marx: Debts and Distance." ''Journal of Classical Sociology'', vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 136–162. *Braeman, John. "Ferdinand Julius Tönnies." Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, 2021. * Cahnman, Werner J. (ed.), ''Ferdinand Tönnies: A New Evaluation'', Leiden, Brill, 1973. * Cahnman, Werner J., ''Weber and Toennies: Comparative Sociology in Historical Perspective.'' New Brunswick: Transaction, 1995. * Cahnman, Werner J./Heberle, Rudolf: ''Ferdinand Toennies on Sociology: Pure, Applied and Empirical'', 1971. * Carstens, Uwe: ''Ferdinand Tönnies: Friese und Weltbürger'', Norderstedt: Books on Demand 2005, iography, German* Clausen, Lars: ''The European Revival of Tönnies'', in: Cornelius Bickel/Lars Clausen, ''Tönnies in Toronto'', C.A.U.S.A. 26 (''Christian-Albrechts-Universität • Soziologische Arbeitsberichte''), Kiel 1998, p. 1–11 * Clausen, Lars: ''Tönnies, Ferdinand'', in: '' Deutsche Biographische Enzyklopädie'', tom. X, Munich: K. G. Saur 2008,

* Clausen, Lars/Schlüter, Carsten (eds.): ''Hundert Jahre " Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft"'', Opladen: Leske + Budrich 1991

* Deflem, Mathieu
"Ferdinand Tönnies on Crime and Society: An Unexplored Contribution to Criminological Sociology."
''History of the Human Sciences'' 12(3):87–116, 1999 * Deflem, Mathieu,

In the ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Online'', edited by Edward Craig. London: Routledge, 2001. * Fechner, Rolf: ''Ferdinand Tönnies – Werkverzeichnis'', Berlin/New York (Walter de Gruyter) 1992, ibliography, German* Fechner, Rolf: ''Ferdinand Tönnies (1855–1936)'', in: Handbuch der Politischen Philosophie und Sozialphilosophie, Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter 2008, , * Ionin, Leonid: "Ferdinand Tönnies' Sociological Conception", translated by H. Campbell Creighton, in:

Igor Kon Igor Semyonovich Kon (russian: Игорь Семёнович Кон; 21 May 1928 – 27 April 2011) was a Soviet and Russian philosopher, psychologist, and sexologist. His scientific publications have been translated into many languages, su ...

(ed.), ''A History of Classical Sociology'' (pp. 173–188). Moscow:

Progress Publishers Progress Publishers was a Moscow-based Soviet publisher founded in 1931. Publishing program Progress Publishers published books in a variety of languages: Russian, English, and many other European and Asian languages. They issued many scientific ...

, 1989. * Jacoby, Eduard Georg: ''Die moderne Gesellschaft im sozialwissenschaftlichen Denken von Ferdinand Tönnies'', Stuttgart: Enke 1971

* Merz-Benz, Peter-Ulrich: ''Tiefsinn und Scharfsinn: Ferdinand Tönnies' begriffliche Konstitution der Sozialwelt'', Frankfurt on Main 1995 (same year: Amalfi Prize)

* Podoksik, Efraim: ''Overcoming the Conservative Disposition: Oakeshott vs. Tönnies''. ''Political Studies'' 56(4):857–880, 2008. *Stafford, William. "Ferdinand Tonnies on Gender, Women and the Family." ''History of Political Thought'', vol. 16, no. 3, Sept. 1995, p. 391. *Tönnies, Ferdinand. ''Tönnies: Community and Civil Society : Community and Civil Society'', edited by Jose Harris, Cambridge University Press, 2001. *External links * * * *
Ferdinand-Tönnies-Gesellschaft
*
Famous Scholars from Kiel: Ferdinand Tönnies
{{DEFAULTSORT:Tonnies, Ferdinand 1855 births 1936 deaths 19th-century anthropologists 19th-century German economists 19th-century essayists 19th-century German male writers 19th-century German philosophers 20th-century anthropologists 20th-century German economists 20th-century essayists 20th-century German male writers 20th-century German non-fiction writers 20th-century German philosophers Continental philosophers Cultural critics Epistemologists German anthropologists German anti-fascists German ethicists German Frisians German male essayists German male non-fiction writers German resistance to Nazism German social democrats German sociologists Hobbes scholars Humboldt University of Berlin alumni Lecturers Leipzig University alumni Metaphysicians Metaphysics writers Moral philosophers National-Social Association politicians Nietzsche scholars North Frisians Ontologists People from Nordfriesland People from the Duchy of Schleswig Philosophers of culture Philosophers of economics Philosophers of education Philosophers of ethics and morality Philosophers of history Philosophers of psychology Philosophers of science Philosophers of social science Philosophers of war Philosophy academics Philosophy teachers Philosophy writers Political philosophers Scholars of Marxism German social commentators Social critics Social Democratic Party of Germany politicians Social philosophers Theorists on Western civilization University of Bonn alumni University of Jena alumni University of Kiel faculty University of Tübingen alumni Urban theorists Writers about activism and social change Writers about globalization

Biography

Early life

Education and Academic Career

Sociological Contributions

Chronological Timeline of his Life and Career

''Gemeinschaft'' and ''Gesellschaft''

Criticisms

Published works (selection)

See also

Notes

References