Epsilon cell
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Epsilon cells (ε-cells) are one of the five types of
endocrine The endocrine system is a messenger system comprising feedback loops of the hormones released by internal glands of an organism directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neu ...
cells Cell most often refers to: * Cell (biology), the functional basic unit of life Cell may also refer to: Locations * Monastic cell, a small room, hut, or cave in which a religious recluse lives, alternatively the small precursor of a monastery w ...
found in regions of the
pancreas The pancreas is an organ of the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in the abdomen behind the stomach and functions as a gland. The pancreas is a mixed or heterocrine gland, i.e. it has both an end ...
called Islets of Langerhans. Epsilon cells produce the hormone
ghrelin Ghrelin (; or lenomorelin, INN) is a hormone produced by enteroendocrine cells of the gastrointestinal tract, especially the stomach, and is often called a "hunger hormone" because it increases the drive to eat. Blood levels of ghrelin are highe ...
that induces hunger. They were first discovered in mice. In humans, these cells compose less than 1% of all islet cells. They are connected by
tight junctions Tight junctions, also known as occluding junctions or ''zonulae occludentes'' (singular, ''zonula occludens''), are multiprotein junctional complexes whose canonical function is to prevent leakage of solutes and water and seals between the epith ...
that allow impermeability to water-soluble compounds.


Discovery

Researchers investigating pancreatic islets in mice compared normal mice pancreatic tissue during development to that of
knockout A knockout (abbreviated to KO or K.O.) is a fight-ending, winning criterion in several full-contact combat sports, such as boxing, kickboxing, muay thai, mixed martial arts, karate, some forms of taekwondo and other sports involving striking, a ...
mice. They found that a normal mouse pancreas includes a population of ghrelin-producing cells. Before further investigation took place, it was thought that '' Nkx2.2'' and '' Pax4'' genes promote cell differentiation of β-cells, but in their absence they instead form ε-cells. This was later confirmed by the findings that in the absence of both ''Nkx2.2'' and ''Pax4'' genes, β-cells fail to form and are replaced by ε-cells. Overall, the findings were that there is a population of ghrelin-producing ε-cells in the mouse pancreas, and that knockout of
insulin Insulin (, from Latin ''insula'', 'island') is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets encoded in humans by the ''INS'' gene. It is considered to be the main anabolic hormone of the body. It regulates the metabolism o ...
-producing β-cells leads to an enormous amount of ε-cells. The cells are round or oval in shape and usually in the perimeter of the islets, sometimes with cytoplasmic extensions. ε-cells have also been proposed to be from a similar cell lineage to both α-cells and β-cells, but have been found to be more closely related to α-cells. ε-cells have been found in pancreas of
Xenopus ''Xenopus'' () (Gk., ξενος, ''xenos''=strange, πους, ''pous''=foot, commonly known as the clawed frog) is a genus of highly aquatic frogs native to sub-Saharan Africa. Twenty species are currently described within it. The two best-known ...
frogs, cat fish, and zebrafish among other animals. This suggests that this islet cell is evolutionarily conserved. A separate study used
In situ hybridization ''In situ'' hybridization (ISH) is a type of hybridization that uses a labeled complementary DNA, RNA or modified nucleic acids strand (i.e., probe) to localize a specific DNA or RNA sequence in a portion or section of tissue (''in situ'') or ...
for ghrelin mRNA and similarly concluded that there is a separate, previously unrecognised, islet cell population that are the ε-cells. Researchers are hopeful that their novel knowledge on ghrelin-producing ε-cells will aid in therapeutic treatment to block formation of ε-cells, which could potentially block a cellular cascade that could aid in treatment of
Type II Diabetes Type 2 diabetes, formerly known as adult-onset diabetes, is a form of diabetes mellitus that is characterized by high blood sugar, insulin resistance, and relative lack of insulin. Common symptoms include increased thirst, frequent urination, ...
. These islet cells are also being studied in pancreatic cancer, where it is hoped that they can act as markers to previously silent tumors.


Epsilon cells during development

In human fetal pancreases, single ε-cells scatter in primitive exocrine tissue and are observed to start aggregating into clusters after gestational week 13. Peak ghrelin levels are observed at week 14 of gestation. From gestational week 21, ε-cells are observed around developing islets in humans, forming an almost continuous layer at the rim of the islets. ε-cells are found centralized in the mouse fetal pancreas, with a few also observed in the stomach. These results in mice pancreas were discovered and confirmed with the use of
confocal microscopy Confocal microscopy, most frequently confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) or laser confocal scanning microscopy (LCSM), is an optical imaging technique for increasing optical resolution and contrast of a micrograph by means of using a sp ...
, which is able to collect images of thick specimens and exclude fluorescent areas outside of the focal plane. These islet cells are the main source of ghrelin during development. Ghrelin released from ε-cells have been found to promote cell growth and proliferation while also inhibiting apoptosis of pancreatic beta cells in the human pancreas. Some ε-cells express cytokeratin 20, a marker of duct cells and islet precursor cells, hinting that these islet cells originate from the ductal epithelium. The development of these cells derive from the '' Ngn3'' transcription factor. Mice with mutant Nkx2.2 genes show an increase of ε-cells. On a cellular level, ε-cells co-produce both
NKX2-2 Homeobox protein Nkx-2.2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''NKX2-2'' gene. Homeobox protein Nkx-2.2 contains a homeobox domain and may be involved in the morphogenesis of the central nervous system. This gene is found on chromosome ...
and
ISL1 Insulin gene enhancer protein ISL-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''ISL1'' gene. Function This gene encodes a transcription factor containing two N-terminal LIM domains and one C-terminal homeodomain. The encoded protein play ...
, but not NKS6-1 and
PAX6 Paired box protein Pax-6, also known as aniridia type II protein (AN2) or oculorhombin, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''PAX6'' gene. Function PAX6 is a member of the Pax gene family which is responsible for carrying the geneti ...
as was previously hypothesized. Furthermore, this type of cell co-produces ISL1 which plays a role in the development of the
mesenchyme Mesenchyme () is a type of loosely organized animal embryonic connective tissue of undifferentiated cells that give rise to most tissues, such as skin, blood or bone. The interactions between mesenchyme and epithelium help to form nearly every o ...
of the dorsal pancreatic bud, and the differentiation of the dorsal pancreatic epithelium into endocrine cells. A total of 36 genes are significantly enriched in ε-cells that aid in proteinase inhibition, processing of hormones, cell migration, and immune activity that differentiates them from α-, β-, δ- and PP-cells. Additionally, the secretory vesicles of ε-cells (110±3 nm) are much smaller than those of α-cells (185±7 nm). Unlike the other pancreatic islet cells, ε-cells also do not produce other pancreatic hormones (insulin, glucagon, homeostatic) and they do not express th
CART peptide
Examples of specific genes that influence ε-cells are acyl-coenzyme A synthetase long chain family member 1 (ACSL1) and defensin beta 1. ACSL1 is thought to play a role in the processing of ghrelin while defensin beta 1 produces a protein that can kill bacteria, viruses, and yeast to regulate immunity. After birth, the number of ε-cells decrease and become rare into adulthood. Studies in mice, desert gerbil, and African ice rats have all yielded closely related results on this topic.


Epsilon cells in adults

Humans are the only species known to keep ghrelin-producing ε-cells in the pancreas into adulthood. As a result, there are difficulties to study this cell type in adults since it can only be observed in the human pancreas. During the weeks 15-26 of the fetus during development, ε-cells compose about 10% of the islet cells, but following birth, their composition decreases to only 1% of adult islet cells. Estimates of the average number of ε-cells per islet in adults vary in number with differing results. One study found that there are about 3 to 5 ε-cells present in each islet of the adult pancreas, which includes a total of about 1,000 islets. Another study observed an average of 12±1.2 ε-cells per islet. In adult pancreas samples, they are observed to be round or oval shaped and remain localized on the mantle of the islets in different amounts, both in clusters and or single cells. In mice, ε-cells are present in the pancreatic islets and stomach during development, but are found strictly in the stomach after birth. In both humans and mice, results have varied on whether or not ghrelin is co-localized with other hormones in stages of adulthood or development. Because of the scarcity of ε-cells in an adult pancreas, it is predicted that they do not continue to produce large amounts of ghrelin that circulates throughout the body. The human adult pancreas has an ε-cell composition of about 0.13 grams. Sex and age do not affect the average number of ε-cells in islets. However, an inverse relationship between BMI and number of ε-cells is noted: as body weight increases, ε-cells decrease in number. Loss of these cells due to increase in BMI leads to an increase in insulin secretion, and increased risk of
apoptosis Apoptosis (from grc, ἀπόπτωσις, apóptōsis, 'falling off') is a form of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes (morphology) and death. These changes incl ...
and inflammation in pancreatic islets. Cell membrane receptors in adult ε-cells include short-chained fatty acid receptor
FFAR3 Free fatty acid receptor 3 (FFA3) is a G-protein coupled receptor that in humans is encoded by the ''FFAR3'' gene In biology, the word gene (from , ; "... Wilhelm Johannsen coined the word gene to describe the Mendelian units of heredity.. ...
, G protein–coupled bile acid receptor 1 ( GPCR)
interferon-α and interferon-β receptor subunit 1
interferon-γ receptor 2, a receptor known for its regulation of
immunoglobulin G Immunoglobulin G (Ig G) is a type of antibody. Representing approximately 75% of serum antibodies in humans, IgG is the most common type of antibody found in blood circulation. IgG molecules are created and released by plasma B cells. Each IgG a ...
uptake,
plasminogen Plasmin is an important enzyme () present in blood that degrades many blood plasma proteins, including fibrin clots. The degradation of fibrin is termed fibrinolysis. In humans, the plasmin protein (in the zymogen form of plasminogen) is encode ...
receptor, and a CD320 receptor. The variety of receptors allow hormones, nutrients, lipids, and cytokine ligands to bind. The primary cellular metabolic pathway factor present in ε-cells are members that compose the fatty acid metabolism pathway,
ACSL1 Long-chain-fatty-acid—CoA ligase 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ''ACSL1'' gene. Structure Gene The ACSL1 gene is located on the 4th chromosome, with its specific location being 4q35.1. The gene contains 28 exons. ...
. ACSL1 is an enzyme involved in the first step of fatty acid oxidation, and this pathway functions in this islet cell specifically to modify ghrelin acyl modification. Transcription factors that are necessary ε-cell maturation and preservation are numbered to a total of 366. The functions of each individual transcription factor have not yet been studied. See also *
List of human cell types derived from the germ layers This is a list of cells in humans derived from the three embryonic germ layers – ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Cells derived from ectoderm Surface ectoderm Skin * Trichocyte * Keratinocyte Anterior pituitary * Gonadotrope * Corticotro ...
* Ghrelin and the endocrine system


References


External links

* https://web.archive.org/web/20101128140558/http://www.diamap.eu/report/DIAMAP-Chapter-2.pdf * * * * * http://www.copewithcytokines.de/cope.cgi?key=Epsilon%20cells * * http://www.biolcell.org/boc/098/0667/0980667.pdf * http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/epsilon_toxin_clostridium.pdf * http://www.abcam.com/TCP1-epsilon-antibody-ab82778.pdf * https://web.archive.org/web/20070927093559/http://www.ihop-net.org/UniPub/iHOP/pm/10257219.html?pmid=14970313 Endocrine pancreas {{cell-biology-stub