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Barristers in England and Wales are one of the two main categories of
lawyer A lawyer is a person who practices law. The role of a lawyer varies greatly across different legal jurisdictions. A lawyer can be classified as an advocate, attorney, barrister, canon lawyer, civil law notary, counsel, counselor, solicit ...
in
England and Wales England and Wales () is one of the three legal jurisdictions of the United Kingdom. It covers the constituent countries England and Wales and was formed by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. The substantive law of the jurisdiction is En ...
, the other being
solicitor A solicitor is a legal practitioner who traditionally deals with most of the legal matters in some jurisdictions. A person must have legally-defined qualifications, which vary from one jurisdiction to another, to be described as a solicitor and ...
s.
Barrister A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation. Their tasks include taking cases in superior courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching law and givin ...
s have traditionally had the role of handling cases for representation in court, both defence and prosecution. (The word "lawyer" is a generic one, referring to a person who practises in law, which could also be deemed to include other legal practitioners such as chartered legal executives.)


Origin of the profession

The work of senior legal professionals in
England and Wales England and Wales () is one of the three legal jurisdictions of the United Kingdom. It covers the constituent countries England and Wales and was formed by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. The substantive law of the jurisdiction is En ...
is divided between
solicitors A solicitor is a legal practitioner who traditionally deals with most of the legal matters in some jurisdictions. A person must have legally-defined qualifications, which vary from one jurisdiction to another, to be described as a solicitor and ...
and
barristers A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation. Their tasks include taking cases in superior courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching law and givin ...
. Both are trained in law but serve differing functions in the
practice of law In its most general sense, the practice of law involves giving legal advice to clients, drafting legal documents for clients, and representing clients in legal negotiations and court proceedings such as lawsuits, and is applied to the profes ...
. Historically, the superior courts were based in
London London is the capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary dow ...
, the capital city. To dispense justice throughout the country, a judge and court personnel would periodically travel a regional circuit to deal with cases that had arisen there. From this developed a body of lawyers who were on socially familiar terms with the judges, had training and experience in the superior courts, and had access to a greater corpus of research material and accumulated knowledge on the interpretation and application of the law. Some would go "on circuit" with the court to act on behalf of those requiring representation. By contrast, solicitors were essentially local to one place, whether London or a provincial town. Lawyers who practised in the courts in this way came to be called "barristers" because they were "called to the Bar", the symbolic barrier separating the public—including solicitors and law students—from those admitted to the well of the Court. They became specialists either in appearing in court to represent clients, or in the process of using the courts, which would include giving oral or written advice on the strength of a case and the best way to conduct it. For those who had the means and preference to engage a solicitor, it became useful, then normal and then compulsory, for the solicitor, in turn, to select and engage a barrister to represent the client before the courts. Likewise, it became either useful or normal (but not compulsory) to engage an appropriate barrister when highly specialist advice was required. Many barristers have largely "paper practices" and rarely or (in some cases) never make court appearances. Historically, practising at the bar (or in court) was a more socially prestigious profession than working as a solicitor. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the bar was one of the limited number of professions considered suitable for upper-class men; politics, the
Army An army (from Old French ''armee'', itself derived from the Latin verb ''armāre'', meaning "to arm", and related to the Latin noun ''arma'', meaning "arms" or "weapons"), ground force or land force is a fighting force that fights primarily on ...
and
Navy A navy, naval force, or maritime force is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations and related functions. It in ...
, the established clergy, and the civil and diplomatic services being the others. Many leading eighteenth and nineteenth-century politicians were barristers; few were solicitors. In the 20th century, solicitors closed the gap greatly, especially in terms of earnings, and by the early 21st century the social gap was far less important than formerly.


Key differences from the profession of solicitor

Until recently, the most obvious differences between the two professions was that, firstly, only barristers had exclusive and wide rights of audience (that is, a right to plead) in all courts in England and Wales, and secondly, only solicitors could be directly engaged by clients for payment. These differences have been eroded by recent deliberate changes, although in many fields of legal practice, the distinction is largely retained in practice. Barristers have full rights of audience to appear in all courts, from highest to lowest. Solicitors, on the other hand, have traditionally been able to appear only as advocates in the lower courts (that is, the magistrates' and county courts) and
tribunal A tribunal, generally, is any person or institution with authority to judge, adjudicate on, or determine claims or disputes—whether or not it is called a tribunal in its title. For example, an advocate who appears before a court with a single ...
s. The bulk of such work continues to be handled by solicitors. Under section 17 of the
Courts and Legal Services Act 1990 The Courts and Legal Services Act 1990 (c. 41) was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that reformed the legal profession and courts of England and Wales. The Act was the culmination of a series of reports and reforms that started with ...
, solicitors with appropriate advocacy experience are entitled to acquire higher "rights of audience", enabling them to appear in the superior courts. Solicitors who attain these rights are known as solicitor-advocates. But, in practice, the number of solicitor-advocates exercising their right to do so remains fairly small, and solicitors often continue to engage a barrister to undertake any required advocacy in court. Not only is this division traditional; in higher-value civil or more serious criminal cases, it is often tactically imperative to engage a specialist advocate (because if one side does not the other might). Until 2004, barristers were prohibited from seeking or accepting "instructions" (that is, being hired) directly by the clients whom they represent. The involvement of a solicitor was compulsory. The rationale was that solicitors could investigate and gather
evidence Evidence for a proposition is what supports this proposition. It is usually understood as an indication that the supported proposition is true. What role evidence plays and how it is conceived varies from field to field. In epistemology, evidenc ...
and instructions and filter them – according to the interests of the client – before presenting them to the barrister; in return the barrister, being one step removed from the client, could reach a more objective opinion of the merits of the case, working strictly from the evidence that would be admissible in court. In addition, being less involved in the current affairs of clients, including many matters that might never come to court, barristers had more time for research and for keeping up to date with the law and the decisions (
precedent A precedent is a principle or rule established in a previous legal case that is either binding on or persuasive for a court or other tribunal when deciding subsequent cases with similar issues or facts. Common-law legal systems place great v ...
) of the courts. Theoretically, this prohibition has been removed. In certain areas (but not crime or
conveyancing In law, conveyancing is the transfer of legal title of real property from one person to another, or the granting of an encumbrance such as a mortgage or a lien. A typical conveyancing transaction has two major phases: the exchange of contrac ...
), barristers may now accept instructions from a client directly ("Direct Access"). Only a solicitor, however, may undertake any work that requires funds to be held on behalf of a client. A barrister is in principle required to act for any client offering a proper fee, regardless of the attractions or disadvantages of a case and the personal feelings of the barrister towards the client. This is known as the " cab-rank rule", since the same rule applies to licensed taxi-cabs. Modifying conditions include that the barrister is available to take the case and feels competent to handle the work. A barrister who specialises in, for example, crime is not obliged to take on employment law work if they are offered it. They are entitled (and, even, obliged) to reject a case which they feel is too complicated for them to deal with properly.


Manner of work

Barristers work in two main contexts: in self-employed practice (formerly known as "independent practice") or in "employed" practice (i.e. salaried). Most barristers are in self-employed practice, but operate within the framework of a set of Chambers. Under a tenancy agreement, they pay a certain amount per month ("rent") or a percentage of their incomes, or a mixture of the two, to their chambers, which provides accommodation and clerical support (including the crucial function of booking, and sometimes of finding, work). The Head of Chambers, usually a
King's Counsel In the United Kingdom and in some Commonwealth countries, a King's Counsel (post-nominal initials KC) during the reign of a king, or Queen's Counsel (post-nominal initials QC) during the reign of a queen, is a lawyer (usually a barrister or ...
(also referred to as "KC" or "Silk") or a "senior junior", may exercise a powerful influence on the members, and members often offer informal help and guidance to each other. They are not liable for each other's business (as partners are). Members of the same set of chambers may appear on opposite sides in the same case. Each barrister remains an independent practitioner, being solely responsible for the conduct of his own practice and keeping what he earns. He does not receive a salary from anyone. A barrister in independent practice will be instructed by a number of different solicitors ("professional clients") to act for various individuals, government departments, agencies or companies ("lay clients"). By contrast, an "employed" barrister is a barrister who works as an employee within a larger organisation, either in the public or private sector. For example, employed barristers work within government departments or agencies (such as the
Crown Prosecution Service The Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) is the principal public agency for conducting criminal prosecutions in England and Wales. It is headed by the Director of Public Prosecutions. The main responsibilities of the CPS are to provide legal advi ...
), the legal departments of companies, and in some cases for firms of solicitors. Employed barristers will typically be paid a salary, and in most circumstances may do work only on behalf of their employer, rather than accepting instructions on behalf of third parties (such as their employers' customers). They remain subject to the Bar Council's Code of Professional Conduct, and their advice is entitled to professional privilege against disclosure. New entrants to the employed bar must have completed
pupillage A pupillage, in England and Wales, Northern Ireland, Kenya, Malaysia, Pakistan and Hong Kong, is the final, vocational stage of training for those wishing to become practising barristers. Pupillage is similar to an apprenticeship, during which bar ...
in the same way as those in independent practice. The Bar Council produces exhaustive guidance regulating the way in which both groups operate, although in 2006 some of the regulatory authority was passed over to the independent Bar Standards Board. In 2011 there were around 12,000 barristers in independent practice, of which about ten per cent were KC. A further group (about 3,300) were employed in companies as "in-house" counsel, or by local or national government, or in academic institutions.


Appearance and forms of address

The appearance and form of address of a barrister is bound by a number of conventions. A barrister's appearance in court depends on whether the hearing is "robed" or not. In England and Wales, criminal cases in the Crown Court are almost invariably conducted with the barristers' wearing robes, but there is an increasing tendency in civil cases to dispense with them. The vast majority of County Court hearings are now conducted without robes, although the traditional attire continues to be worn in High Court proceedings. At a robed hearing, barristers wear a horsehair wig, an open black gown, dark suit and a shirt, with strips of white cotton called "bands" or "tabs" worn over a winged collar, instead of a tie. Female barristers wear either the same shirt or a special collar which includes the bands and tucks inside a suit jacket. KCs wear slightly different silk gowns over short embroidered black jackets and striped trousers. Solicitors wear a black gown (of a distinct style), wing collar and band and a wig. The question of barristers' and judges' clothing in the civil courts was the subject of review, and there is some pressure to adopt a more "modern" style of dress, with European-style gowns worn over lounge suits. Guidance from the Bar Council has resulted in robes being worn for trials and appeals in the County Court more than formerly. In court, barristers refer to each other as "my learned friend". When referring to an opponent who is a solicitor, the term used is "my friend" – irrespective of the relative ages and experiences of the two. In an earlier generation, barristers would not shake hands or address each other formally. The rule against shaking hands is no longer generally observed, though the rule regarding formal address is still sometimes observed: at
Gray's Inn The Honourable Society of Gray's Inn, commonly known as Gray's Inn, is one of the four Inns of Court (professional associations for barristers and judges) in London. To be called to the bar in order to practise as a barrister in England and W ...
, when toasting other barristers, a barrister will address another only by surname, without using a prefix such as "Miss".


Regulation

Beginning in January 2006, standards for admission to the bar and disciplinary proceedings are administered by the
Bar Standards Board The Bar Standards Board regulates barristers in England and Wales for the public interest. It is responsible for: * Setting standards of conduct for barristers and authorising barristers to practise; * Monitoring the service provided by barrist ...
(BSB), a regulatory board of the
General Council of the Bar The General Council of the Bar, commonly known as the Bar Council, is the representative body for barristers in England and Wales. Established in 1894, the Bar Council is the 'approved regulator' of barristers, but discharges its regulatory functi ...
. The BSB is not legally separate from the General Council of the Bar, but is set up so as to be independent of it. Previously, barristers were governed by the General Council of the Bar and the individual
Inns of Court The Inns of Court in London are the professional associations for barristers in England and Wales. There are four Inns of Court – Gray's Inn, Lincoln's Inn, Inner Temple and Middle Temple. All barristers must belong to one of them. They have ...
. There are four Inns, all situated in the area of London close to the Law Courts in the
Strand Strand may refer to: Topography *The flat area of land bordering a body of water, a: ** Beach ** Shoreline * Strand swamp, a type of swamp habitat in Florida Places Africa * Strand, Western Cape, a seaside town in South Africa * Strand Street ...
.
Gray's Inn The Honourable Society of Gray's Inn, commonly known as Gray's Inn, is one of the four Inns of Court (professional associations for barristers and judges) in London. To be called to the bar in order to practise as a barrister in England and W ...
is off
High Holborn High Holborn ( ) is a street in Holborn and Farringdon Without, Central London, which forms a part of the A40 route from London to Fishguard. It starts in the west at the eastern end of St Giles High Street and runs past the Kingsway and S ...
,
Lincoln's Inn The Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn is one of the four Inns of Court in London to which barristers of England and Wales belong and where they are called to the Bar. (The other three are Middle Temple, Inner Temple and Gray's Inn.) Lincol ...
off
Chancery Lane Chancery Lane is a one-way street situated in the ward of Farringdon Without in the City of London. It has formed the western boundary of the City since 1994, having previously been divided between the City of Westminster and the London Boro ...
, the Middle and
Inner Temple The Honourable Society of the Inner Temple, commonly known as the Inner Temple, is one of the four Inns of Court and is a professional associations for barristers and judges. To be called to the Bar and practise as a barrister in England and ...
s, situated between
Fleet Street Fleet Street is a major street mostly in the City of London. It runs west to east from Temple Bar at the boundary with the City of Westminster to Ludgate Circus at the site of the London Wall and the River Fleet from which the street was n ...
and the
Embankment Embankment may refer to: Geology and geography * A levee, an artificial bank raised above the immediately surrounding land to redirect or prevent flooding by a river, lake or sea * Embankment (earthworks), a raised bank to carry a road, railway ...
. The Inns provide a social and professional hub where barristers and jurists can meet. They comprise a grand hall where barristers dine and attend social functions, and include an extensive library. Several rooms are available for conferences and a place for trainee barristers to engage in advocacy practice. Two of the Inns have chapels, and Middle Temple and Inner Temple share Temple Church. All four Inns are set in well-tended gardens and are surrounded by chambers often organised in courtyards and squares.


Direct public access to barristers

Members of the public may engage the services of the barrister directly under the
Public Access Scheme The Public Access Scheme (a.k.a. "Direct Access") allows members of the public in England and Wales to instruct a barrister directly. In the past, it was necessary for clients to use a solicitor or other third party in order to instruct a barris ...
; a solicitor is not involved at any stage. Barristers undertaking public access work can provide legal advice and representation in court in all areas of law and are entitled to represent clients in any court or tribunal in England and Wales. Once instructions from a client are accepted, it is the barrister (rather than the solicitor) who advises and guides the client through the relevant legal procedure or litigation. Barrister must completed a special course before undertaking Public Access work. At present, about 1 in 20 barristers has so qualified. "Licensed Access" is a separate scheme available to certain nominated classes of professional client; it is not open to the general public. It is an early 21st-century development to enable barristers to accept instructions directly from clients; it results from a change in the rules set down by the General Council of the Bar in July 2004. The
Public Access Scheme The Public Access Scheme (a.k.a. "Direct Access") allows members of the public in England and Wales to instruct a barrister directly. In the past, it was necessary for clients to use a solicitor or other third party in order to instruct a barris ...
has been introduced as part of a larger effort to open up the legal system to the public, and to make it easier and cheaper for individuals to obtain access to legal advice. It reduces the distinction between solicitors and barristers. The distinction remains, however, because a solicitor's role has certain aspects which a barrister is not able to undertake.


Education and training

A prospective barrister must first complete the academic component of their legal education by obtaining a law degree. In lieu of a formal law degree, however, the individual may undertake a one-year law conversion course, formerly known as the CPE (
Common Professional Examination The Common Professional Examination/Postgraduate Diploma in Law (CPE/PGDL) is a postgraduate law course in England and Wales that is taken by non-law graduates (graduates who have a degree in a discipline that is not law or not a qualifying law ...
) or PGDL (Postgraduate Diploma in Law), and now known simply as a GDL (Graduate Diploma in Law), having initially graduated in a subject other than law. The student joins one of the Inns of Court and takes the ocational componentat one of the accredited providers. Formerly known as the Bar Professional Training Course (BPTC), the vocational component can now be taken through four different routes: * Three-step pathway – the academic component, followed by the vocational component, followed by the work-based learning component (pupillage) * Four-step pathway – the academic component, followed by the vocational component in two parts, followed by the work-based learning component (pupillage). * Integrated academic and vocational pathway – combined academic component and vocational component, followed by the work-based learning component (pupillage). * Apprenticeship pathway – combined academic component, vocational component, and work-based learning component (pupillage). It is still mandatory to "keep terms" before the student can be
called to the bar The call to the bar is a legal term of art in most common law jurisdictions where persons must be qualified to be allowed to argue in court on behalf of another party and are then said to have been "called to the bar" or to have received "call to ...
. The student must participate in 10 qualifying sessions. It used to be a prerequisite that 24 dinners were eaten before call, but the number was reduced to twelve and now ten. Dining credits are available for participating in specified training events (e.g., a weekend at Cumberland Lodge organised by one of the Inns credits attendees with three dinners). It is also possible to "double-dine" on various special occasions, by which the student is credited with two sessions. The origins of this date from the time when both students and practitioners dined together; students learned elements of their education from their fellow diners and from readings given by a senior member of the Inn (Master Reader) after the meal. At the successful completion of the vocational component (where continuous assessment, as well as examinations, are now the rule), and completion of the requisite number of dining nights, students are entitled, subject to various formalities, to be "called to the Bar" at a ceremony in their Inn. This is conducted by the Masters of the Bench, or
Bencher A bencher or Master of the Bench is a senior member of an Inn of Court in England and Wales or the Inns of Court in Northern Ireland, or the Honorable Society of King's Inns in Ireland. Benchers hold office for life once elected. A bencher ca ...
s, who are generally senior practising barristers or judges. Once called to the bar, the new barrister has a choice whether or not to pursue a career in practice. As there are far more applicants for "tenancy" in barristers' "Chambers" (see below) than there are places, many barristers are unable to obtain a tenancy and choose to go into commercial or academic work. Those choosing not to practice continue to be recognised as "barristers", although may not provide legal services under this label, and remain subject to some limited regulation by the Bar Standards Board. One who wishes to become a practising barrister must first obtain a "
pupillage A pupillage, in England and Wales, Northern Ireland, Kenya, Malaysia, Pakistan and Hong Kong, is the final, vocational stage of training for those wishing to become practising barristers. Pupillage is similar to an apprenticeship, during which bar ...
". This is a competitive process which involves some 3,000 students applying for some 300 places each year at Authorised Education and Training Organisations (AETOs). The online pupillage application system, the Pupillage Gateway , enables applicants to submit their details to up to AETOs (chambers or employers). The Pupillage Gateway system is used by most AETOs to recruit their pupils; many, however, do not, and such AETOs must be contacted directly by applicants. There is no limit to the number of non-Gateway AETOs that an applicant can contact. The application timetable runs between November and May each year, and AETOs must follow that timetable unless they have a waiver from the Bar Standards Board. Pupillage consists of a period of 12 months, where the pupil studies with and under a practising barrister of at least 5 years' experience. The time is traditionally served in two six-month periods under different pupil supervisors(three-month periods are becoming increasingly common), usually in the same AETO. Traditionally, the pupil was paid nothing and could earn no fees until the second six-month period, when he or she was entitled to undertake work independently. All sets are now required to pay their pupils in line with the Living Wage (higher in London). Some pay considerably more than that. The Bar is a highly varied profession, both in terms of the specialism (or otherwise) of individual sets of chambers, and in the financial rewards available. For sets doing predominantly publicly funded work, earnings are low for new practitioners. In more specialised areas serving private clients, such as commercial, tax, or chancery work, earnings are far higher, and at least comparable to those of similarly experienced solicitors in big city firms. After pupillage, the new barrister must find a seat or "tenancy" in a set of chambers or an employed position. Chambers are groups of barristers and tend to comprise between 20 and 60 barristers. The members of a Chambers share the rent and facilities, such as the service of "clerks" (who combine some of the functions of agents, administrators and diary managers), secretaries and other support staff. Most chambers operate a system whereby the members contribute to these common expenses by paying a certain percentage of their gross income. However, there is no
profit-sharing Profit sharing is various incentive plans introduced by businesses that provide direct or indirect payments to employees that depend on company's profitability in addition to employees' regular salary and bonuses. In publicly traded companies thes ...
as in a
business partnership A partnership is an arrangement where parties, known as business partners, agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests. The partners in a partnership may be individuals, businesses, interest-based organizations, schools, governments o ...
. Individual barristers keep the fees they earn, beyond what they have to pay towards professional expenses. The Bar remains a highly individualistic profession, and earnings vary widely – from some newly qualified (usually criminal) juniors who are lucky to earn £25,000 per year to the top
King's Counsel In the United Kingdom and in some Commonwealth countries, a King's Counsel (post-nominal initials KC) during the reign of a king, or Queen's Counsel (post-nominal initials QC) during the reign of a queen, is a lawyer (usually a barrister or ...
(KCs or "silks" as they are known, from their silk gowns) making well in excess of £1 million a year (with a handful of tax and commercial KCs reported to earn more than £2 million a year).Thom Dyke, Although not all barristers practise from the Inns (for reasons such as the limited amount of space available), the majority still practise from chambers. The names placed on boards at the entrances of many of the staircases of the buildings within the Inns are the names of the tenant barristers (and occasionally distinguished members now prominent in judicial or political life) practising from the chambers in those buildings.


Popular culture

Some of the principles and traditions that have given the profession its unique character have been caricatured in
John Mortimer Sir John Clifford Mortimer (21 April 1923 – 16 January 2009) was a British barrister, dramatist, screenwriter and author. He is best known for novels about a barrister named Horace Rumpole. Early life Mortimer was born in Hampstead, London ...
's '' Rumpole of the Bailey'' tales and the television episodes based on them. Novelist
Caro Fraser Caroline Georgiana ("Caro") Fraser (1953-2020) was a British novelist, and the daughter of writer George MacDonald Fraser, author of ''The Flashman Papers'' books. Fraser was born in Carlisle, Cumbria, Carlisle in 1953, but her family moved to ...
also wrote a popular series of books about a fictional series of barrister's chambers called Caper Court. In television the bar was popularised by actor
John Thaw John Edward Thaw, (3 January 1942 – 21 February 2002) was an English actor who appeared in a range of television, stage, and cinema roles. He starred in the television series '' Inspector Morse'' as title character Detective Chief Inspector ...
's portrayal of the title character in ''
Kavanagh QC ''Kavanagh QC'' is a British television series made by Central Television for ITV between 1995 and 2001. All five series are available on DVD in both Region 1 and Region 2. Plot The series starred John Thaw as barrister James Kavanagh QC, ...
''. Peter Moffat (who created ''Kavanagh QC'') also later created a further television series about barristers called ''
Silk Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from th ...
'' (in reference to the silk gowns of King's Counsel) and ''
North Square ''North Square'' is a British television drama series written and created by Peter Moffat, and broadcast by Channel 4 from 18 October to 20 December 2000. Starring an ensemble cast, including Phil Davis, Rupert Penry-Jones, Helen McCrory and ...
''.


See also

*
Serjeant-at-law A Serjeant-at-Law (SL), commonly known simply as a Serjeant, was a member of an order of barristers at the English and Irish Bar. The position of Serjeant-at-Law (''servientes ad legem''), or Sergeant-Counter, was centuries old; there are wri ...
* King's Counsel Selection Panel * 2022 British barristers' industrial action


References


Further reading

* Rogers, Justine. "Shadowing the Bar: Studying an English Professional Elite,"''Historical Reflections'' (2010) 36#3 pp. 39–57


External links

* https://www.webcitation.org/68W3jpm6W?url=http://www.barristermagazine.com/ * http://thepupillagepages.com/
'A career at the Bar'
* http://www.adminlaw.org.uk/ * Bar Council website : http://www.barcouncil.org.uk/ * https://web.archive.org/web/20081119144530/http://www.bareuropeangroup.org.uk/ * http://www.chba.org.uk/ * http://www.combar.com/ * http://www.criminalbar.com/ * http://www.elba.org.uk/ * http://www.europeancircuit.com/
'Direct Access Barristers'
in England and Wales * http://www.piba.org.uk/ * https://web.archive.org/web/20070217044721/http://www.pnba.co.uk/frameset.asp {{DEFAULTSORT:Barristers In England And Wales Bar of England and Wales Region-specific legal occupations British lawyers Law enforcement in Wales