Contents
1 History
1.1 First kingdom
1.1.1 Early period 1.1.2 Archive period 1.1.3 First destruction of Ebla
1.2 Second kingdom 1.3 Third kingdom 1.4 Later periods
2 Site
2.1 City layout 2.2 Royal burials
2.2.1 Hypogeum G4 2.2.2 Western palace tombs
3 Government
3.1 Administration of the first kingdom
3.1.1 Administrative divisions 3.1.2 The chora
3.2 Kings of Ebla
4 People, language and culture
4.1 The first and second kingdoms 4.2 The third kingdom
5 Economy 6 Religion
6.1 Biblical connection theories
7 Discovery
7.1 Library 7.2 Legacy
8 Syrian Civil War 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References
11.1 Citations 11.2 Sources
12 External links
History
A possible meaning of the word "Ebla" is "white rock", referring to
the limestone outcrop on which the city was built.[1][2]
Ebla
Ebla was
first settled around 3500 BC;[3][4] its growth was supported by many
satellite agricultural settlements.[3] The city benefited from its
role as an entrepôt of growing international trade, which probably
began with an increased demand for wool in Sumer.[3] Archaeologists
designate this early habitation period "
Mardikh
Mardikh I"; it ended around
3000 BC.[5]
Mardikh
Mardikh I is followed by the first and second kingdoms era
between about 3000 and 2000 BC, designated "
Mardikh
Mardikh II".[6] I. J. Gelb
consider
Ebla
Ebla as part of the Kish civilization, which was a cultural
entity of East Semitic-speaking populations that stretched from the
center of
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia to the western Levant.[7]
First kingdom
First Eblaite Kingdom
Ebla
c. 3000 BC–c. 2300 BC
The first kingdom at its greatest extent, including vassals
Capital Ebla
Languages Eblaite language
Religion Levantine Religion.[8]
Government Monarchy
Historical era Bronze Age
• Established c. 3000 BC
• Disestablished c. 2300 BC
Succeeded by
The second kingdom of Mari
Today part of Syria Lebanon Turkey
During the first kingdom period between about 3000 and 2300 BC, Ebla
was the most prominent kingdom among the Syrian states, especially
during the second half of the 3rd millennium BC, which is known as
"the age of the archives" after the
Ebla
Ebla tablets.[6]
Early period
The early period between 3000 and 2400 BC is designated "Mardikh
IIA".[6][9] General knowledge about the city's history prior to the
written archives is obtained through excavations.[10] The first stages
of
Mardikh
Mardikh IIA is identified with building "CC",[11] and structures
that form a part of building "G2",[12] which was apparently a royal
palace built c. 2700 BC.[3][13] Toward the end of this period, a
hundred years' war with Mari started.[14][15] Mari gained the upper
hand through the actions of its king Saʿumu, who conquered many of
Ebla's cities.[16] In the mid-25th century BC, king
Kun-Damu defeated
Mari, but the state's power declined following his reign.[note 2][17]
Archive period
Royal palace "G"
The archive period, which is designated "
Mardikh
Mardikh IIB1", lasted from c.
2400 BC until c. 2300 BC.[6] The end of the period is known as the
"first destruction",[18] mainly referring to the destruction of the
royal palace (called palace "G" and built over the earlier "G2"),[19]
and much of the acropolis.[20] During the archive period,
Ebla
Ebla had
political and military dominance over the other Syrian city-states of
northern and eastern Syria, which are mentioned in the archives.[21]
Most of the tablets, which date from that period, are about economic
matters but also include royal letters and diplomatic documents.[22]
The written archives do not date from before Igrish-Halam's reign,[23]
which saw
Ebla
Ebla paying tribute to Mari,[24] and an extensive invasion
of Eblaite cities in the middle
Euphrates
Euphrates region led by the Mariote
king Iblul-Il.[25][26]
Ebla
Ebla recovered under King
Irkab-Damu
Irkab-Damu in about
2340 BC; becoming prosperous and launching a successful
counter-offensive against Mari.[27][28]
Irkab-Damu
Irkab-Damu concluded a peace
and trading treaty with Abarsal;[note 3][29] it is one of the
earliest-recorded treaties in history.[30]
At its greatest extent,
Ebla
Ebla controlled an area roughly half the size
of modern Syria,[31] from Ursa'um in the north,[32] to the area around
Damascus
Damascus in the south,[33] and from
Phoenicia
Phoenicia and the coastal
mountains in the west,[34][35] to
Haddu
Haddu in the east.[29][36] Large
parts of the kingdom were under the direct control of the king and was
administered by governors; the rest consisted of vassal kingdoms.[31]
One of the most important of these vassals was Armi,[37] which is the
city most often mentioned in the
Ebla
Ebla tablets.[38]
Ebla
Ebla had more than
sixty vassal kingdoms and city-states,[39] including Hazuwan, Burman,
Emar, Halabitu and Salbatu.[28][36][40]
The vizier was the king's chief official.[41] The holder of the office
possessed great authority; the most powerful vizier was Ibrium, who
campaigned against
Abarsal during the term of his predecessor
Arrukum.[42] During the reign of Isar-Damu,
Ebla
Ebla continued the war
against Mari, which defeated Ebla's ally Nagar, blocking trade routes
between
Ebla
Ebla and southern
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia.[24] Ebla
conducted regular military campaigns against rebellious vassals,[42]
including several attacks on Armi,[43][44][38] and a campaign against
the southern region of Ib'al—close to Qatna.[42][45] In order to
settle the war with Mari,
Isar-Damu allied with Nagar and Kish.[46]
The campaign was headed by the Eblaite vizier Ibbi-Sipish, who led the
combined armies to victory in a battle near Terqa.[42] The alliance
also attacked Armi and occupied it, leaving Ibbi-Sipish's son
Enzi-Malik as governor.[38]
Ebla
Ebla suffered its first destruction a few
years after the campaign,[47] probably following Isar-Damu's
death.[48]
First destruction of Ebla
The first destruction occurred c. 2300 BC; palace "G" was burned,
baking the clay tablets of the royal archives and preserving them.[49]
Many theories about the cause and the perpetrator have been
posited:[47]
High (early) dating hypothesis:
Giovanni Pettinato supports an early
dating for
Ebla
Ebla that would put the destruction at around 2500 BC.[note
4][51] Pettinato, while preferring the date of 2500 BC, later accepted
the event could have happened in 2400 BC.[note 5][52] The scholar
suggests the city was destroyed in 2400 BC by a Mesopotamian such as
Eannatum
Eannatum of Lagash—who boasted of taking tribute from Mari—or
Lugalzagesi
Lugalzagesi of Umma, who claimed to have reached the
Mediterranean.[note 6][52]
Akkadian hypothesis: Both kings
Sargon of Akkad
Sargon of Akkad and his grandson
Naram-Sin claimed to have destroyed a town called Ibla,[53] The
discoverer of Ebla, Paolo Matthiae, considers Sargon a more likely
culprit;[note 7][55] his view is supported by Trevor Bryce,[56] but
rejected by Michael Astour.[note 8][60]
Mari's revenge: According to Alfonso Archi and Maria Biga, the
destruction happened approximately three or four years after the
battle of Terqa.[47] Archi and Biga say the destruction was caused by
Mari[47] in retaliation for its humiliating defeat at Terqa.[61] This
view is supported by Mario Liverani.[42] Archi says the Mariote king
Isqi-Mari destroyed
Ebla
Ebla before ascending the throne of his city.[62]
Natural catastrophe: Astour says a natural catastrophe caused the
blaze which ended the archive period.[20] He says the destruction was
limited to the area of the royal palace and there is no convincing
evidence of looting.[20] He dates the fire to c. 2290 BC (Middle
Chronology).[63]
Second kingdom
Second Eblaite Kingdom
Ebla
c. 2300 BC–c. 2000 BC
Approximate borders of the second kingdom
Capital Ebla
Government Monarchy
Historical era Bronze Age
• Established c. 2300 BC
• Disestablished c. 2000 BC
The second kingdom's period is designated "
Mardikh
Mardikh IIB2", and spans
the period between 2300 and 2000 BC.[18] The second kingdom lasted
until Ebla's second destruction, which occurred anytime between 2050
and 1950 BC, with the 2000 BC dating being a mere formal date.[64][65]
The Akkadians under Sargon and his descendant Naram-Sin invaded the
northern borders of
Ebla
Ebla aiming for the forests of the Amanus
Mountain; the intrusions were separated by roughly 90 years and the
areas attacked were not attached to Akkad.[15] Archi accept that the
Ibla mentioned in the annals of Sargon and Naram-Sin is the Syrian
Ebla
Ebla but do not consider them responsible for the destruction which
ended the Archive period.[66] By the time of Naram-Sin, Armi was the
hegemonic city in northern
Syria
Syria and was destroyed by the Akkadian
king.[67]
Palace "P5"
A new local dynasty ruled the second kingdom of Ebla,[56] but there
was continuity with its first kingdom heritage.[68]
Ebla
Ebla maintained
its earliest features, including its architectural style and the
sanctity of the first kingdom's religious sites.[69] A new royal
palace was built in the lower town,[70] and the transition from the
archive period is marked only by the destruction of palace "G".[20]
Little is known about the second kingdom because no written material
have been discovered aside from one inscription dating to the end of
the period.[70]
The second kingdom was attested to in contemporaneous sources; in an
inscription,
Gudea
Gudea of
Lagash
Lagash asked for cedars to be brought from Urshu
in the mountains of Ebla, indicating Ebla's territory included Urshu
north of
Carchemish
Carchemish in modern-day Turkey.[71] Texts that dates to the
seventh year of
Amar-Sin
Amar-Sin (c. 2040 BC),[note 9] a ruler of the Ur III
empire, mention a messenger of the
Ensí ("Megum") of Ebla.[note
10][note 11][78] The second kingdom was considered a vassal by the Ur
III government,[79] but the nature of the relation is unknown and it
included the payment of tribute.[80] A formal recognition of Ur's
overlordship appears to be a condition for the right of trade with
that empire.[32]
The second kingdom disintegrated toward the end of the 21st century
BC,[32] and ended with the destruction of the city by fire, although
evidence for the event has only been found outside of the so-called
"Temple of the Rock", and in the area around palace "E" on the
acropolis.[69] The reason for the destruction is not known;[69]
according to Astour, it could have been the result of a Hurrian
invasion c. 2030 BC,[81] led by the former Eblaite vassal city of
Ikinkalis.[note 12][83] The destruction of
Ebla
Ebla is mentioned in the
fragmentary Hurro-Hittite legendary epic "Song of Release" discovered
in 1983,[84] which Astour considers as describing the destruction of
the second kingdom.[85] In the epic, an Eblaite assembly led by a man
called "Zazalla" prevents king Meki from showing mercy to prisoners
from Ebla's former vassal Ikinkalis,[82] provoking the wrath of the
Hurrian
Hurrian storm god
Teshub
Teshub and causing him to destroy the city.[86]
Third kingdom
Third Eblaite Kingdom
Ebla
c. 2000 BC–c. 1600 BC
Capital Ebla
Languages
Amorite
Amorite language.[87]
Religion Levantine Religion
Government Monarchy
Historical era Bronze Age
• Established c. 2000 BC
• Disestablished c. 1600 BC
Succeeded by
Hittites
The third kingdom is designated "
Mardikh
Mardikh III"; it is divided into
periods "A" (c. 2000–1800 BC) and "B" (c. 1800–1600 BC).[18] In
period "A",
Ebla
Ebla was quickly rebuilt as a planned city.[88] The
foundations covered the remains of
Mardikh
Mardikh II; new palaces and temples
were built, and new fortifications were built in two circles—one for
the low city and one for the acropolis.[88] The city was laid out on
regular lines and large public buildings were built.[89][90] Further
construction took place in period "B".[89]
The vizier palace
The first known king of the third kingdom is Ibbit-Lim,[91] who
described himself as the Mekim of Ebla.[note 13][75] A basalt votive
statue bearing Ibbit-Lim's inscription was discovered in 1968; this
helped to identify the site of Tell-
Mardikh
Mardikh with the ancient kingdom
Ebla.[75][91] The name of the king is
Amorite
Amorite in the view of
Pettinato; it is therefore probable the inhabitants of third kingdom
Ebla
Ebla were predominantly Amorites, as were most of the inhabitants of
Syria
Syria at that time.[93]
By the beginning of the 18th century BC,
Ebla
Ebla had become a vassal of
Yamhad, an
Amorite
Amorite kingdom centered in Aleppo.[94][95] Written records
are not available for this period, but the city was still a vassal
during
Yarim-Lim III of Yamhad's reign.[89] One of the known rulers of
Ebla
Ebla during this period was Immeya, who received gifts from the
Egyptian Pharaoh Hotepibre, indicating the continuing wide connections
and importance of Ebla.[96] The city was mentioned in tablets from the
Yamhadite vassal city of
Alalakh
Alalakh in modern-day Turkey; an Eblaite
princess married a son of King Ammitaqum of Alalakh, who belonged to a
branch of the royal Yamhadite dynasty.[97][98]
Ebla
Ebla was destroyed by the Hittite King
Mursili I in about 1600 BC.[99]
Indilimma
Indilimma was probably the last king of Ebla;[100] a seal of his crown
prince Maratewari was discovered in the western palace "Q".[100][101]
According to Archi, the "Song of Release" epic describes the
destruction of the third kingdom and preserves older elements.[82]
Later periods
Ebla
Ebla never recovered from its third destruction. It was a small
village in the phase designated "
Mardikh
Mardikh IV" (1600–1200 BC),[99] and
was mentioned in the records of
Alalakh
Alalakh as a vassal to the Idrimi
dynasty.[102] "
Mardikh
Mardikh V" (1200–535 BC) was a rural, early Iron Age
settlement that grew in size during later periods.[99] Further
development occurred during "
Mardikh
Mardikh VI", which lasted until c. 60
AD.[99] "
Mardikh
Mardikh VII" began in the 3rd century AD and lasted until the
7th century,[103] after which the site was abandoned.[104]
Site
City layout
Ebla's landmarks
Ebla
Ebla consisted of a lower town and a raised acropolis in the
center.[105] During the first kingdom, the city had an area of 56
hectares and was protected by mud-brick fortifications.[106]
Ebla
Ebla was
divided into four districts—each with its own gate in the outer
wall.[107] The acropolis included the king's palace "G",[108] and one
of two temples in city dedicated to Kura (called the "Red
Temple").[109] The lower city included the second temple of Kura in
the southeast called "Temple of the Rock".[110] During the second
kingdom, a royal palace (Archaic Palace "P5") was built in the lower
town northwest of the acropolis,[74] in addition to temple "D" built
over the destroyed "Red Temple".[111]
During the third kingdom,
Ebla
Ebla was a large city nearly 60 hectares in
size,[112] and was protected by a fortified rampart, with double
chambered gates.[113] The acropolis was fortified and separated from
the lower town.[114] New royal palace "E" was built on the acropolis
(during
Mardikh
Mardikh IIIB),[90] and a temple of
Ishtar
Ishtar was constructed over
the former "Red" and "D" temples (in area "D").[115][109] The lower
town was also divided into four districts;[107] palace "P5" was used
during
Mardikh
Mardikh IIIA,[116] and replaced during
Mardikh
Mardikh IIIB by the
"Intermediate Palace".[113]
Other third kingdom buildings included the vizier palace,[note
14][117] the western palace (in area "Q"),[101] the temple of Shamash
(temple "N"), the temple of Rasap (temple "B1") and the northern
palace (built over the "Intermediate Palace").[113][118] In the north
of the lower town, a second temple for
Ishtar
Ishtar was built,[119] while
the former "Temple of the Rock" was replaced by a temple of
Hadad.[note 15][119]
Royal burials
The western palace "Q" situated above the royal necropolis
The kings of the first kingdom were buried outside the city; the last ten kings (ending with Irkab-Damu) were buried in Darib,[120] while older kings were buried in a royal mausoleum located in Binas and only one royal tomb dating to the first kingdom was discovered in Ebla (Hypogeum G4).[121] This first kingdom tomb was probably built during the reign of the last king and might be an indication of Eblaite adoption of Mesopotamian traditions to bury the kings beneath their royal palaces.[121] The third kingdom royal necropolis was discovered beneath palace Q (the western palace); it contains many hypogea but only three were excavated.[122] Those tombs were natural caves in the bedrock of the palace's foundation; they all date to the 19th and 18th centuries BC and had a similar plan consisting of an entrance shaft, burial chambers and a dromos connecting the shaft to the chamber.[69][123][124] Hypogeum G4 The royal tomb found in the royal palace G is designated hypogeum G4; it dates to the archive period, most probably the reign of Isar-Damu.[125] The tomb is heavily damaged; most of its stones were sacked and nothing of the roof system remains.[126] It also lacks any skeletal remains or funerary goods suggesting that it was either heavily pillaged, never used, or was built as a cenotaph.[126] Excavated between 1992 and 1995, it is located underneath the western sector of the palace at a depth of almost 6 meters.[126] The tomb is composed of two rooms opened on each other's with lime plaster floors.[126] Both rooms are rectangular in shape; the eastern room (L.6402) is 4 meters wide, more than 3,5 meters long (total length is unknown due to heavy damage) and west-east oriented.[127] The western room (L.5762) is 5.20 meters long, 4 meters wide and west-east oriented.[128] Limestone was used to build the walls and few blocks protruding from the sides toward the middle of the rooms suggest the roof to have been a corbelled vault.[126][127] Western palace tombs
Plan of the western palace tombs
The tomb of the princess: dating to c. 1800 BC, it is the oldest and
smallest of the third kingdom tombs found.[124][129] Excavated in
1978,[129] it contained the remains of a young woman, hence the
naming.[130] The dormos has steps, partially cut in the bedrock and
partially paved with stones, leading to the chamber, which was
achieved through the enlargement of a natural cave.[131] The tomb is
the only one not pillaged;[132] it contained precious jewels and
funerary objects.[133]
The tomb of the cisterns: this tomb is the most damaged in the
necropolis.[124] It consists of a double room burial; the earliest,
(Q79A), was built at the same period of the tomb of the princess, and
was badly damaged when the tomb was reused, and a dromos was built in
the place of Q79A toward the end of the 17th century BC (leading to
the founding of burial Q79B).[131] This was probably the resting place
of a king; a club (a symbol of royal power) was discovered in
Q79A.[131]
The tomb of the lord of the goats: it is the largest in the
necropolis; it includes two depositional chambers and is reached
through a vertical shaft.[131] The occupier of the tomb is not known
with certainty, he is called the lord of the goats by archaeologists
due to the existence of a throne decorated with bronze goat heads in
the tomb.[134] A silver cup that has the name of king
Immeya
Immeya inscribed
was found in the tomb making that king the most likely owner of the
burial.[135]
Government
The first kingdom's government consisted of the king (styled Malikum)
and the grand vizier, who headed a council of elders (Abbu) and the
administration.[136] The second kingdom was a monarchy,[80] but little
is known about it because of a lack of written records.[70] The third
kingdom was a city-state monarchy with reduced importance under the
authority of Yamhad.[137]
Administration of the first kingdom
Further information: Vizier (Ebla)
The queen shared the running of affairs of state with the king.[108]
The crown prince was involved in internal matters and the second
prince was involved in foreign affairs.[108] Most duties, including
military ones, were handled by the vizier and the administration,
which consisted of 13 court dignitaries—each of whom controlled
between 400 and 800 men forming a bureaucracy with 11,700 people.[136]
Each of the four quarters of the lower city was governed by a chief
inspector and many deputies.[108] To oversee royal interest, the king
employed agents (mashkim), collectors (ur) and messengers (kas).[31]
Administrative divisions
Many client kingdoms owed allegiance to
Ebla
Ebla and each was ruled by its
own king (En); those vassal kings were highly autonomous, paying
tribute and supplying military assistance to Ebla.[31] The
administrative center in the capital was named the "SA.ZA"; it
included the royal palaces, storerooms and some temples.[138] Regions
beyond the walls of the capital were collectively named in Eblaite
texts "uru-bar" (literally meaning outside of the city).[138] The
villages and towns under the central authority were either ruled
directly from the capital,[138] or had appointed officials.[138] The
titles of the civil servants do not clearly define the bearer's
responsibilities and authority as each town had its own political
traditions.[139]
Lugal: while in
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia a lugal designated a king, in
Ebla
Ebla it
designated a governor who was directly under the authority of the
capital.[140] The nature of this title as part of Eblaite bureaucracy
is ambiguous; each lugal was under the authority of the grand
vizier,[141] and the bearers ruled cities directly under the authority
of the capital and they all brought goods to be kept in Ebla's
storehouses.[138] Pettinato counted 14 different lugals in the Eblaite
administrative texts and deduced that the kingdom was divided into
fourteen departments; two of them in the capital itself and the
remaining twelve spanned the rest of the kingdom.[142]
Ugula: the title is translated as superintendent; some ugulas were
actually independent rulers and some represented the highest authority
of a tribal group.[143] Many cities had an appointed ugula as their
head of administration such as the city of Darum.[138]
The chora
The regions under the direct control of the king that were
economically vital for the capital are called the "chora" by
archaeologists.[6][144] Regions under direct control of the king
extended beyond the chora and it is difficult to determine the exact
size of the kingdom and the chora due to the constant military
expansion of
Ebla
Ebla which added new territories; some of those were
ruled directly while others were allowed to retain their own rulers as
vassals.[144]
Generally, the chora is the core region of
Ebla
Ebla that includes the
economic hinterland supporting the capital.[6] It includes the cities
and villages where the king or his vizier had palaces, towns that
included important sanctuaries of gods related to the royal
institution, towns visited by the monarch during the different rituals
he participated in (such as the renewal of royalty ritual),[note 16]
and other cities such as the ones where textiles were delivered.[146]
The chora spans around 3000 km2; from west to east it includes
the plains east of Jabal Zawiya, the Maṭkh swamp, al-Hass mountain
and mount Shabīth.[147] Areas directly on the borders of the chora
such as al-Ghab, al-Rouge plain and al-Jabbul have close cultural
affinity with the chora.[147]
Kings of Ebla
Ibbit-Lim
Ibbit-Lim statue, dated to the third kingdom c. 2000 BC
Seated ruler, dated to the third kingdom, exhibited at the Cleveland Museum of Art
Prince Maratewari (left), crown prince of king Indilimma
For the first kingdom monarchs, tablets listing offerings to kings mention ten names,[56] and another list mentions 33 kings.[note 17][48][148] No kings are known from the second kingdom and all dates are estimates according to the Middle chronology.[3][149]
Ruler Reigned Comments
The first kingdom
Sakume c. 3100 BC.[150] The first king ruled approximately 660 years before the destruction of the first kingdom; the year 2400 was used by Robert R Stieglitz as the date of the destruction resulting in the year c. 3100 BC for the beginning of Sakume's reign.[151]
Su (.) (...)
Name damaged.[48]
Ladau
Abugar
Namnelanu
Dumudar
Ibla
Kulbanu
Assanu
Samiu
Zialu
Enmanu c. 2740 BC[3]
Namanu c. 2720 BC.[3]
Da (.) (.) c. 2700 BC.[3] Name damaged.[48]
Sagisu c. 2680 BC.[3]
Dane'um c. 2660 BC.[3]
Ibbini-Lim c. 2640 BC.[3]
Ishrut-Damu c. 2620 BC.[3]
Isidu c. 2600 BC.[3]
Isrut-Halam c. 2580 BC.[3]
Iksud c. 2560 BC.[3]
Talda-Lim c. 2540 BC.[3]
Abur-Lim c. 2520 BC.[3]
Agur-Lim c. 2500 BC.[3]
Ib-Damu c. 2480 BC.[3] A seal bearing his name was found in Kültepe.[75]
Baga-Damu c. 2460 BC.[3]
Enar-Damu c. 2440 BC.[3] Amongst the most referenced deified kings in the offering lists.[150]
Eshar-Malik c. 2420 BC.[3]
Kun-Damu c. 2400 BC.[3]
Adub-Damu c. 2380 BC.[3] Short reign.[17]
Igrish-Halam c. 2360 BC.[3] Ruled 12 years.[152]
Irkab-Damu c. 2340 BC.[3] Ruled 11 years.[29]
Isar-Damu c. 2320 BC.[3] Ruled about 35 years.[29]
Ir'ak-Damu
A prince, might have ascended the throne for a short period.[48]
The third kingdom
Ibbit-Lim c. 2000 BC.[153]
Immeya c. 1750 BC.[154] His grave is identified with the so-called "Tomb of the Lord of the Goats".[96]
Hammu(....)
A successor of Immeya, not necessarily the direct one, the name was damaged but probably Hammurabi.[155]
Indilimma c. 1600 BC.[101]
People, language and culture The first and second kingdoms
Royal palace G courtyard
Mardikh
Mardikh II's periods shared the same culture.[116] the population of
Ebla
Ebla during
Mardikh
Mardikh IIB1 is estimated to have numbered around 40,000
in the capital, and over 200,000 people in the entire kingdom.[156]
The Eblaites of
Mardikh
Mardikh II were Semites, close to their North-Western
Semitic neighbors, such as the Amorites.[157]
Giovanni Pettinato said
the Eblaite language, one of the oldest attested Semitic
languages,[158] was a West Semitic language; Gelb and others said it
was an
East Semitic dialect closer to the Akkadian language.[159]
Academic consensus considers Eblaite an East-Semitic language which
exhibits both West-Semitic and East-Semitic features.[note
18][160][161]
Ebla
Ebla held several religious and social festivals, including rituals
for the succession of a new king, which normally lasted for several
weeks.[162] The Eblaite calendars were based on a solar year divided
into twelve months.[163] Two calendars were discovered; the "old
calendar" used during the reign of Igrish-Halam, and a "new calendar"
introduced by vizier Ibbi-Sipish.[163] Many months were named in honor
of deities; in the new calendar, "Itu be-li" was the first month of
the year, and meant "the month of the lord".[164] Each year was given
a name instead of a number.[165]
Women received salaries equal to those of men and could accede to
important positions and head government agencies.[166] The Eblaites
imported Kungas from Nagar,[note 19][168] and used them to draw the
carriages of royalty and high officials, as well as diplomatic gifts
for allied cities.[168] Society was less centered around the palace
and the temple than in Mesopotamian kingdoms. The Eblaite palace was
designed around the courtyard, which was open toward the city, thus
making the administration approachable. This contrasts with
Mesopotamian palaces, which resembled citadels with narrow entrances
and limited access to the external courtyard.[169] Music played an
important part in the society and musicians were both locals,[170] or
hired from other cities such as Mari.[171]
Ebla
Ebla also hired acrobats
from Nagar, but later reduced their number and kept some to train
local Eblaite acrobats.[172]
The third kingdom
The
Mardikh
Mardikh III population was predominately Semitic Amorite.[93] The
Amorites
Amorites were mentioned in the first kingdom's tablets as neighbors
and as rural subjects,[173] and they came to dominate
Ebla
Ebla after the
destruction of the second kingdom.[174] The city witnessed a great
increase in construction, and many palaces, temples and fortifications
were built.[175] The
Amorite
Amorite Eblaites worshiped many of the same
deities as the Eblaites of earlier periods,[176] and maintained the
sanctity of the acropolis in the center of the city.[69] The third
kingdom's iconography and royal ideology were under the influence of
Yamhad's culture; kingship was received from the Yamhadite deities
instead of
Ishtar
Ishtar of Ebla, which is evident by the Eblaite seals of
Indilimma's period.[177]
Economy
During the first kingdom period, the palace controlled the
economy,[141] but wealthy families managed their financial affairs
without government intervention.[178] The economic system was
redistributive; the palace distributed food to its permanent and
seasonal workers. It is estimated that around 40,000 persons
contributed to this system, but in general, and unlike in Mesopotamia,
land stayed in the hands of villages, which paid an annual share to
the palace.[179] Agriculture was mainly pastoral; large herds of
cattle were managed by the palace.[179] The city's inhabitants owned
around 140,000 head of sheep and goats, and 9,000 cattle.[179]
Ebla
Ebla derived its prosperity from trade;[179] its wealth was equal to
that of the most important Sumerian cities,[180] and its main
commercial rival was Mari.[56] Ebla's main articles of trade were
probably timber from the nearby mountains, and textiles.[181]
Handicrafts also appear to have been a major export, evidenced by the
quantity of artifacts recovered from the palaces of the city.[182]
Ebla
Ebla possessed a wide commercial network reaching as far as modern-day
Afghanistan.[183] It shipped textiles to Cyprus, possibly through the
port of Ugarit,[184] but most of its trade seems to have been directed
by river-boat towards Mesopotamia—chiefly Kish.[185] The main palace
G was found to contain artifacts dating from
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt bearing the
names of Pharaohs
Khafra
Khafra and Pepi I.[186]
Ebla
Ebla continued to be a center of trade during the second kingdom,
evidenced by the surrounding cities that appeared during its period
and were destroyed along with the city.[note 20][64] Trade continued
to be Ebla's main economic activity during the third kingdom;
archaeological finds show there was an extensive exchange with Egypt
and coastal Syrian cities such as Byblos.[112]
Religion
Ebla
Ebla was a polytheistic state.[187] During the first kingdom, Eblaites
worshiped their dead kings.[188] The pantheon of the first Ebla
included pairs of deities and they can be separated into three genres;
in the first and most common one, there were the couples, such as the
deity and his female consort.[188] The second type of pairs was the
divine twosomes, such as the deities that cooperate to create the
cosmos, like in the Egyptian and Mesopotamian pantheons.[188] The
third type included divine pairs who were actually a single deity that
had two names.[188] Eblaites worshiped few Mesopotamian deities,
preferring North-Western Semitic gods, some of which were unique to
Ebla.[157] The first genre of pairs included Nidakul, who was
exclusive to Ebla, and his consort, Belatu ("his wife");[189] Rasap
and his consort Adamma;[189] the patron gods of the city Kura, who was
unique to Ebla, and his consort Barama.[190][191] The third genre
included the artisan god Kamish/Tit,
Kothar-wa-Khasis
Kothar-wa-Khasis and the planet
Venus
Venus represented by twin mountain Gods; Shahar as the morning star
and
Shalim
Shalim as the evening star.[188]
The first Eblaites worshiped many other deities, such as the Syrian
goddess Ishara,[note 21] who was the goddess of the royal family.[195]
Ishtar
Ishtar was also worshiped but was mentioned only five times in one of
the monthly offering lists, while
Ishara was far more important,
appearing 40 times.[196] Other deities included Damu;[note 22][197]
the Mesopotamian god Utu;[8] Ashtapi;[198] Dagan;[199]
Hadad
Hadad (Hadda)
and his consort Habadu;[8][200] and Shipish, the goddess of the sun
who had a temple dedicated to her cult.[201] The four city gates were
named after the gods Dagan, Hadda, Rasap and Utu, but it is unknown
which gate had which name.[202] Overall, the offering list mentioned
about 40 deities receiving sacrifices.[8]
During the third kingdom,
Amorites
Amorites worshiped common northern Semitic
gods; the unique Eblaite deities disappeared.[203]
Hadad
Hadad was the most
important god, while
Ishtar
Ishtar took Ishara's place and became the city's
most important deity apart from Hadad.[176]
Biblical connection theories
Further information: Ebla-Biblical controversy
At the beginning of the process of deciphering the tablets, Pettinato
made claims about a possible connections between
Ebla
Ebla and the
Bible,[204] citing an alleged references in the tablets to the
existence of Yahweh, the Patriarchs,
Sodom and Gomorrah
Sodom and Gomorrah and other
Biblical references.[204] However, much of the initial media
excitement about a supposed Eblaite connections with the Bible, based
on preliminary guesses and speculations by Pettinato and others, is
now widely discredited and the academic consensus is that
Ebla
Ebla "has no
bearing on the Minor Prophets, the historical accuracy of the Biblical
Patriarchs,
Yahweh
Yahweh worship, or Sodom and Gomorrah".[204] In Ebla
studies, the focus has shifted away from comparisons with the Bible;
Ebla
Ebla is now studied as a civilization in its own right.[204] The
claims led to a bitter personal and academic conflict between the
scholars involved, as well as what some described as political
interference by the Syrian authorities.[205]
Discovery
Further information:
Ebla
Ebla tablets
Parts of the excavations (
Damascus
Damascus gate)
A tablet from the archive
In 1964, Italian archaeologists from the University of Rome La
Sapienza under the direction of
Paolo Matthiae began excavating at
Tell Mardikh.[206] In 1968, they recovered a statue dedicated to the
goddess
Ishtar
Ishtar bearing the name of Ibbit-Lim, mentioning him as king
of Ebla.[207] That identified the city, long known from Lagashite and
Akkadian inscriptions.[208] In the next decade, the team discovered a
palace (palace G) dating from c. 2500 – 2000 BC.[180] Finds in
the palaces include a small sculpture made out of precious materials,
black stones and gold.[180] Other artifacts included wood furniture
inlaid with mother-of-pearl and composite statues created from colored
stones.[182] A silver bowl bearing king Immeya's name was recovered
from the "Tomb of the Lord of the Goats", together with Egyptian
jewels and an Egyptian ceremonial mace presented by pharaoh
Hotepibre.[96]
About 17,000 cuneiform tablet fragments were discovered; when put
together, they constitute 2,500 complete tablets, making the archive
of
Ebla
Ebla one of the biggest from the third millennium BC.[209] About
80% of the tablets are written using the usual Sumerian combination of
logograms and phonetic signs,[210] while the others exhibited an
innovative, purely phonetic representation using Sumerian cuneiform of
a previously unknown Semitic language, which was called
"Eblaite".[211] Bilingual Sumerian/Eblaite vocabulary lists were found
among the tablets, allowing them to be translated.[202] The tablets
provide many important insights into the cultural, economic and
political life in northern
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia around the middle of the 3rd
millennium BC.[212] They also provide insight into the everyday lives
of the inhabitants,[213] and contain information about state revenues,
Sumerian-Eblaite dictionaries,[202] diplomatic exchanges with foreign
rulers,[214] school texts, hymns and myths.[215]
Library
The tablets constitute one of the oldest archives and libraries ever
found; there is tangible evidence of their arrangement and even
classification.[216] The larger tablets had originally been stored on
shelves, but had fallen onto the floor when the palace was
destroyed.[217] The locations of the fallen tablets allowed the
excavators to reconstruct their original positions on the shelves;
they found the tablets had originally been shelved according to
subject.[213]
These features were absent from earlier Sumerian excavations.
Sophisticated techniques of arrangement of texts, coupled with their
composition, evidence the great antiquity of archival and library
practices, which may be far older than was assumed to be the case
before the discovery of the
Ebla
Ebla library.[216] A sizable portion of
the tablets contain literary and lexicographic texts; evidence seems
to suggest the collection also served—at least partially—as a true
library rather than a collection of archives intended solely for use
by the kings, their ministers, and their bureaucracy.[216] The tablets
show evidence of the early transcription of texts into foreign
languages and scripts, classification and cataloging for easier
retrieval, and arrangement by size, form and content.[216] The Ebla
tablets have thus provided scholars with new insights into the origin
of library practices that were in use 4,500 years ago.[216]
Legacy
Ebla's first kingdom is an example of early Syrian centralized
states,[218] and is considered one of the earliest empires by
scholars,[35][219] such as Samuel Finer,[136] and Karl Moore, who
consider it the first-recorded world power.[220] Ebla's discovery
changed the former view of Syria's history as a bridge between
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia and Egypt; it proved the region was a center of
civilization in its own right.[221]
Syrian Civil War
As a result of the Syrian Civil War, excavations of
Ebla
Ebla stopped in
March 2011,[222] and large-scale looting occurred after the site came
under the control of an opposition armed group.[223] Many tunnels were
dug and a crypt full of human remains was discovered; the remains were
scattered and discarded by the robbers, who hoped to find jewelry and
other precious artifacts.[223] Besides excavations by rebels, nearby
villagers also began digging at the site with the aim of finding and
looting artifacts; some villagers removed carloads of soil suitable
for making ceramic liners for bread-baking ovens from the
tunnels.[223]
See also
Syria
Syria portal
Ancient Near East
Ancient Near East portal
Azi (scribe) Biblical archaeology Cities of the Ancient Near East Short chronology timeline
Notes
^ All dates in the article are estimated by the Middle Chronology,
unless stated otherwise.
^ The political weakness started during the short reign of
Adub-Damu.[17]
^ Probably located along the
Euphrates
Euphrates river east of Ebla.[29]
^ At first Pettinato supported the Naram-Sin theory before proposing
the High dating.[50]
^ Michael Astour argues that using the chronology accepted by
Pettinato, one obtains the date of 2500 BC for the reign of Ur-Nanshe
of Lagash, who ruled approximately 150 years prior to Lagash's
destruction at the hands of king Lugalzagesi. Since
Ur-Nanshe
Ur-Nanshe ruled in
2500 BC, and his reign is separated by at least 150 years from Hidar
of Mari's reign which saw Ebla's destruction, then the date for that
event is pulled beyond 2500 BC and even 2400 BC.[50]
^ Astour argue that according to the middle chronology used for the
2400 BC date, Eannatum's reign ended in 2425 BC and
Ebla
Ebla was not
destroyed until 2400 BC; according to the same chronology
Lugalzagesi's reign would have started fifty years after 2400 BC.[52]
^ At first Matthiae supported the Naram-Sin theory then switched to
Sargon.[54]
^ Astour believes that Sargon and his grandson were referring to a
city with a similar name in Iraq named "Ib-la".[57][58] Astour says
the archives of
Ebla
Ebla at the time of their destruction correspond to
the political situation predating the establishment of the Akkadian
empire, not just the reign of Naram-Sin.[54] It is also unlikely
Sargon was responsible because at the time of their destruction, the
Ebla tablets
Ebla tablets describe Kish as independent.
Lugalzagesi
Lugalzagesi sacked Kish and
was killed by Sargon before Sargon destroyed Ibla or Ebla.[59]
^ Amar-Sin's reign lasted from 2045 to 2037 BC (middle
chronology).[72]
^ "Megum" is thought to have been a title of the ruler of
Ebla
Ebla rather
than a personal name.[73] King
Ibbit-Lim
Ibbit-Lim of the latter third kingdom
of
Ebla
Ebla also used this title.[74] An Eblaite seal that reads the
sentence Ib-
Damu Mekim Ebla, was used in the 19th century BC by an
Assyrian merchant named Assur-Nada from Kültepe.[75] Ib
Damu was the
name of an Eblaite king from the early period of the first
kingdom.[75]
^ In a tablet, the name of Ili-Dagan "the man of Ebla" is mentioned,
and he was thought to be a ruler.[76] However, other texts mentions
him as the envoy of Ebla's ruler.[77]
^ Unidentified location to the north of
Ebla
Ebla in the proximity of
Alalakh.[82]
^ This led Astour, David I. Owen and Ron Veenker to identify Ibbit-Lim
with the pre-
Amorite
Amorite Megum of the Third Ur era.[92] However, this
identification is now refuted.[74]
^ Called the southern palace (in area "FF"), it was located at the
foot of the southern side of the acropolis.[117]
^ Area HH.[117]
^ The ritual had the king and the queen visiting Ninas, and making
offerings to royal ancestors.[145]
^ Tablet TM.74.G.120 discovered by Alfonso Archi.[148]
^ Grammatically, Eblaite is closer to Akkadian, but lexically and in
some grammatical forms, Eblaite is closer to West-Semitic
languages.[90]
^ The Kunga is a hybrid of a donkey and a female onager, which Nagar
was famous for breeding.[167]
^ Archaeologist Alessandro de Maigret deduced that
Ebla
Ebla retained its
trading position.[64]
^ At the beginning of Ebla's studies, it was believed that the
existence of
Ishara and another god Ashtapi in Ebla's pantheon, is a
proof for a
Hurrian
Hurrian existence in the Eblaite first kingdom.[192]
However it is now known that those deities were pre-
Hurrian
Hurrian and
perhaps pre-Semitic deities, later incorporated into the Hurrian
pantheon.[176][193][194]
^ Probably an old Semitic deity and not identical to the Sumerian
Damu.[197]
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ISBN 978-90-429-0719-5.
Wright, David P. (2004). "
Syria
Syria and Canaan". In Johnston, Sarah Iles.
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ISBN 978-0-674-01517-3.
Zettler, Richard L. (2006). "Reconstructing the World of Ancient
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ebla.
Ebla
Ebla (Tell Mardikh) Suggestion to have
Ebla
Ebla (Tell Mardikh) recognized
as a UNESCO world heritage site
Ebla
Ebla - Tell
Mardikh
Mardikh with photos and plans of the digs (in Italian)
Two Weights from Temple N at Tell Mardikh-Ebla, by E. Ascalone and L.
Peyronel (pdf)
The Urban Landscape of Old Syrian Ebla. F. Pinnock (pdf)
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v t e
Idlib
Idlib Governorate
Capital: Idlib
Idlib
Idlib District
Idlib
Idlib Subdistrict
Idlib Al-Mastumah Faylun Qminas Aqrabat Arshani Ein Shib Kafruhin Kreiz Martein Nayrab Ora Shamaliyah Sijer Tab Issa Gharbi wa Sharki
Abu al-Duhur
Abu al-Duhur Subdistrict
Abu al-Duhur Tell Sultan Tell Touqan Ballisa Baragethi Barissa Busra - Zafar Saghir Harmala Hmeimat Eldayer Hseiniyeh - Tell Kalba Jallas Jdidhe Abu Elthohur Msheirfeh MustAriha Ras El Ein Rasm Abed Tell Elaghar Tell Fukhar Tell Silmo Taljineh Talkhatra Tawahineh Tawil Elsheikh Tweim Taweila Zafar al-Kabir
Saraqib
Saraqib Subdistrict
Saraqib Khan al-Sabil Mardikh Abul Khos Afs Ajez Anqrati Bijfas Bweiti Dadikh Jobas Kafr Battikh Kafr Amim Khuwara Lof Maar Dibsi Maharem Rasafa Rayan Salamin San Sheikh Idris Tell Karatine Tronba
Taftanaz
Taftanaz Subdistrict
Taftanaz Ketyan Maaret Elnaasan Shallakh Talhiyeh
Maarrat Misrin
Maarrat Misrin Subdistrict
Maarrat Misrin Zardana Haranabush Hizano Kafriya Kaftin Killi Maarrat al-Ikhwan Batenta Bhora Kafrehmul Kafr Jales Kafr Nabi Murin Ram Hamdan Taltuneh
Binnish
Binnish Subdistrict
Binnish Al-Fu'ah Ta'um
Sarmin
Sarmin Subdistrict
Sarmin
Maarrat al-Nu'man
Maarrat al-Nu'man District
Maarrat al-Nu'man
Maarrat al-Nu'man Subdistrict
Maarrat al-Nu'man Abu Makki Babilla Barsa Bsida Al-Dana Deir al-Gharbi Deir Sharqi Ghadqa Halbeh Hantutin Harran Hatamiyeh Hazzan Hraki Jarada Jarjnaz Kafr Rumah Kanayes Kuweires Maar Shamshah Maar Shamarin Maar Shurin Maasaran Qaratli Samkeh Sarman Tell Dibis Tell Kersyan Tell Mannas Thahrat Talamnas Tqana
Khan Shaykhun
Khan Shaykhun Subdistrict
Khan Shaykhun Abdin Baarbu Hbit Kafr Ein Nqeir Qasabiyeh Umm Zaytuna
Sinjar Subdistrict
Sinjar Abu Sharji Abul Eleij Bashkun Borj Brennan Dreibiyeh Dwadiyeh Ejaz Fahil Jallas Ferwan Ghazileh Halban Hawa Heisa Jaberiyeh Jahman Jeb Elqasab Kafraya Elmaarra Karatin al-Kabir Karatin Saghir Karsanti Khayriyeh Khayriyeh Saghira Khwein Elshaer Khyara Lweibdeh Shamaliyah Lweibdeh Sharki Magharet Merza Maksar Mardagana Burtuqala Mreiheb Mreijeb Elmashad Mutawaseta Nibaz Ojeh Qasr Elabyad Qatra Rabeeah Brennan Rabeeah Musa Rasm Elabed Saree Sarja Gharbiya Sarja Sharkiya Sayadi Seraa Shara - Sharat Elajayez Sheikh Barakeh Sqiah Tell Dam Tell Elojeh Tell Halawa Tellemara Thleijeh Umm Sehrij Umm Tini Umm Mweilat Janubiyah
Kafr Nabl
Kafr Nabl Subdistrict
Kafr Nabl Hazarin Hass Basqala Dara al-Kabira Faqie Fleifel Ftireh Jbala Kafr Musa Kafr Oweid Karsaa Kawkabeh Lweibdeh Maar Tahroma Maar Tamater Maar Tesin Maarzita Milaja Qoqfin Rasha Shamaliya Sfuhen Sheikh Mustafa Shorlin Tramla Umm Nir
Tamanah Subdistrict
Al-Tamanah Sukayk Abu Dali Abu Omar Breiseh Dajaj Farja Hamadaniyeh Khwein al-Kabir Mashraf Rajmel Mashraf Msheirfeh Qabliyeh Mushayrifa Shamaliya Niha Qleiat Eltubiyeh Raffa Rweideh Sahal Shatib Tell Khanzir Tell Maraq Tama Umm Elkhalayel Umm Jalal
Hish Subdistrict
Hish Abu Habbeh Ameriyeh Amudiyeh Armanaya Babuline Kafr Basin Kafrsajna Maar Hattat Maysruneh Moqa Rakaya Sijneh Sahyan Sheikh Dames Al-Tah Tahtaya Salhiyeh Jbala
Ariha District
Ariha Subdistrict
Ariha Iblin Kafr Latah Kurin Nahlaya Shinan Urum al-Jawz Abkally Bab Ellah Banin Bazabur Berjhab Ebneh Kafr Shalaya Kafraziba Maarbalit Maarzaf Majdaliya Moataf Maataram Mseibin Nahleh Sarja Thaheriya Al-Badria
Ihsim
Ihsim Subdistrict
Ihsim Al-Rami Juzif Marayan Abdita Arnaba Balshun Balyun Bara Bsames Deir Sunbul Ein Laruz Farkya Kafr Haya Kansafra Maghara Marata Mozra
Muhambal
Muhambal Subdistrict
Muhambal Anb Bales Baqlid Baydar Shamsu Beftamun Bsanqul Hila Hlul Hmeimat Jadraya Kafrmid Kniseh Laj Shamali Matleh, Ariha Ora Qabli - Edwan Sahen Sararif Shagurit Al-Sad Al-Marj
Jisr al-Shughur
Jisr al-Shughur District
Jisr al-Shughur
Jisr al-Shughur Subdistrict
Jisr al-Shughur Al-Marj Al-Akhdar Al-Sharqi Alyeh Balmis Bkafla Bsheiriyeh - Bello Bteibat Bzeit Dgali Ein Elhamra Ein Elsoda Eshtabraq Frikeh Ghanya Ghassaniyeh Halluz Hseiniyeh Jannet Elqora Kafir Kniset Nakhleh Maalaqa - Bishlamon Marj Akhdar Gharbi Marj Elzohur Matleh Mintar Msheirfeh Qaysiyeh Rawda Sabileh Salhiyeh Sali Sheikh Sindyan Fawqani Shghur Fawqani Sokkariyeh Tell Awar Tell Hamki Umm Elgar Umm Rish Watba Al-Arien Shughur Tahtani
Bidama
Bidama Subdistrict
Bidama Armala Baksariya Ein El-Bayda Hanbushiyeh Kherbet Eljoz Kinda Maraand Najiyeh Ramliyeh Shaturiyeh Tuffahiyeh Yunesiyeh Sheikh Sndian Tahtani
Darkush
Darkush Subdistrict
Darkush Zarzur Amud Andnaniyeh - Farjein Deir Othman Dorriyeh Ghazala - Mgheidleh Jamiliya Matleh - Batlaya Mazuleh Maryamin Ramadiyeh Sadiyeh - Bsentiya Sawadiya - Nabhan Sheikh Issa Elashury Thahr Turin Zahraa Zanbaqi
Janudiyah Subdistrict
Al-Janudiyah Al-Qunaya Yakubiyah Athar Foz - Zuf Hamama - Kafr Debbin Hassaniyeh - Hatya Jdidet Eljisr Maland Mudiah - Luxin Nasra Qaderiyeh - Qayqun Tiba - Katrin
Harem District
Harem Subdistrict
Harem Ariba Besnaya - Bseineh Kafr Hum Kafr Mu Mira Shaq
Dana Subdistrict
Al-Dana Salwah Atme Qah Kafr Dariyan Sarmada Taladah Turmanin Aqrabat Burj Elnumra Deir Hassan - Darhashan Hezreh - Hezri Tell Elkarame
Salqin
Salqin Subdistrict
Salqin Abu Talha Isqat Al-Alani Azmarin Talamar Betiya Bozanti Delbiya Ein Elbikara Foziyeh Hamziyeh Hir Jamus Kabir Hir Jamus Saghir Kafarna Kafr Hind Kafrahlat Jallad Saidiyeh Al-Shiokh Al-Tlul
Kafr Takharim
Kafr Takharim Subdistrict
Kafr Takharim Kafr Kila Abarita Bshendlaya - Rashadiya Helleh Jadeen Kafr Maris Kuku - Ein Eljaj Taltita
Qurqania
Qurqania Subdistrict
Qurqania Banabil Barisha Qalb Loze Boz Ghaz Htan Kafr Aruq Merat Elshalaf Rabeeta Radwa Ras Elhisn Sardin Tur Laha
Armanaz
Armanaz Subdistrict
Armanaz Biret Armanaz Bsaliya Dweila Ghafar Hafasraja Haj Jomaa Kabta Kuwaro - Umm Elriyah Millis Quneitra Sheikh Yousef
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WorldCat Identities VIAF: 260016621 N