A drifting ice station is a temporary or semi-permanent facility built on an ice floe. During the

Cold War The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term '' cold war'' is used because t ...

the

Soviet Union The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen nationa ...

and the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country Continental United States, primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., ...

maintained a number of stations in the

Arctic Ocean The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceans. It spans an area of approximately and is known as the coldest of all the oceans. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, a ...

on floes such as Fletcher's Ice Island for research and

espionage Espionage, spying, or intelligence gathering is the act of obtaining secret or confidential information ( intelligence) from non-disclosed sources or divulging of the same without the permission of the holder of the information for a tang ...

, the latter of which were often little more than quickly constructed shacks. Extracting personnel from these stations proved difficult and in the case of the United States, employed early versions of the

Fulton surface-to-air recovery system The Fulton surface-to-air recovery system (STARS) is a system used by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), United States Air Force and United States Navy for retrieving persons on the ground using aircraft such as the MC-130E Combat Talo ...

Overview

Soviet and Russian staffed drifting ice stations are

research station Research stations are facilities where scientific investigation, collection, analysis and experimentation occurs. A research station is a facility that is built for the purpose of conducting scientific research. There are also many types of resea ...

s built on the ice of the high latitudes of the

. They are important contributors to

exploration Exploration refers to the historical practice of discovering remote lands. It is studied by geographers and historians. Two major eras of exploration occurred in human history: one of convergence, and one of divergence. The first, covering most ...

of the

Arctic The Arctic ( or ) is a polar regions of Earth, polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Canada (Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut), Danish Realm (Greenla ...

. The stations are named North Pole (NP; russian: Северный полюс, translit=Severny polyus, ), followed by an ordinal number:

North Pole-1 North Pole-1 (russian: Северный полюс-1) was the world's first Soviet manned drifting station in the Arctic Ocean, primarily used for research. North Pole-1 was established on 21 May 1937 and officially opened on 6 June, some from ...

, etc. NP drift stations carry out the program of complex year-round research in the fields of

oceanology Oceanography (), also known as oceanology and ocean science, is the scientific study of the oceans. It is an Earth science, which covers a wide range of topics, including ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamic ...

, ice studies,

meteorology Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences (which include atmospheric chemistry and physics) with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did no ...

, aerology,

geophysics Geophysics () is a subject of natural science concerned with the physical processes and physical properties of the Earth and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis. The term ''geophysics'' so ...

hydrochemistry Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water based on the standards of its usage. It is most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which compliance, generally achieved through tr ...

, hydrophysics, and

marine biology Marine biology is the scientific study of the biology of marine life, organisms in the sea. Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifi ...

. On average, an NP station is the host for 600 to 650 ocean depth measurements, 3500 to 3900 complex meteorology measurements, 1200 to 1300 temperature measurements and sea water probes for

chemical analysis Analytical chemistry studies and uses instruments and methods to separate, identify, and quantify matter. In practice, separation, identification or quantification may constitute the entire analysis or be combined with another method. Separati ...

, and 600 to 650 research balloon launches.

Magnetic Magnetism is the class of physical attributes that are mediated by a magnetic field, which refers to the capacity to induce attractive and repulsive phenomena in other entities. Electric currents and the magnetic moments of elementary particl ...

ionosphere The ionosphere () is the ionized part of the upper atmosphere of Earth, from about to above sea level, a region that includes the thermosphere and parts of the mesosphere and exosphere. The ionosphere is ionized by solar radiation. It plays ...

, ice and other observations are also carried out there. Regular measurements of the ice floe coordinates provide the data on the direction and speed of its drift. The modern NP drifting ice station resembles a small settlement with housing for polar explorers and special buildings for the scientific equipment. Usually an NP station begins operations in April and continues for two or three years until the ice floe reaches the

Greenland Sea The Greenland Sea is a body of water that borders Greenland to the west, the Svalbard archipelago to the east, Fram Strait and the Arctic Ocean to the north, and the Norwegian Sea and Iceland to the south. The Greenland Sea is often defined a ...

. Polar explorers are replaced yearly. Since 1937 some 800 people were drifting at NP stations. There are two groups of NP stations: *stations, drifting on the

pack ice Drift ice, also called brash ice, is sea ice that is not attached to the shoreline or any other fixed object (shoals, grounded icebergs, etc.).Leppäranta, M. 2011. The Drift of Sea Ice. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Unlike fast ice, which is "faste ...

(i.e. relatively thin and short-lived ice): NP-1 through NP-5, NP-7 through NP-17, NP-20, NP-21 *stations, drifting on ice islands (

glacier A glacier (; ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. It acquires distinguishing features, such a ...

fragments, that were split from the shore): NP-6, NP-18, NP-19, NP-22. All NP stations are organized by the Russian (former Soviet) Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (AARI).

History

The idea to use the drift ice for the exploration of nature in the high latitudes of the

came from

Fridtjof Nansen Fridtjof Wedel-Jarlsberg Nansen (; 10 October 186113 May 1930) was a Norwegian polymath and Nobel Peace Prize laureate. He gained prominence at various points in his life as an explorer, scientist, diplomat, and humanitarian. He led the team t ...

, who fulfilled it on '' Fram'' between 1893 and 1896. The first stations to use drift ice as means of scientific exploration of the Arctic originated in the

in 1937, when the first such station in the world,

, started operations. North Pole-1 was established on 21 May 1937 some 20 km from the

North Pole The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. It is called the True North Pole to distinguish from the Ma ...

by the expedition into the high latitudes. Sever-1, led by

Otto Schmidt Otto Yulyevich Shmidt, be, Ота Юльевіч Шміт, Ota Juljevič Šmit (born Otto Friedrich Julius Schmidt; – 7 September 1956), better known as Otto Schmidt, was a Soviet scientist, mathematician, astronomer, geophysicist, statesm ...

. "NP-1" operated for 9 months, during which the ice floe travelled 2,850 kilometres. On 19 February 1938, Soviet ice breakers '' Taimyr'' and ''Murman'' took off four polar explorers from the station, who immediately became famous in the USSR and were awarded titles

Hero of the Soviet Union The title Hero of the Soviet Union (russian: Герой Советского Союза, translit=Geroy Sovietskogo Soyuza) was the highest distinction in the Soviet Union, awarded together with the Order of Lenin personally or collectively for ...

: hydrobiologist Pyotr Shirshov, geophysicist Yevgeny Fyodorov,

radio Radio is the technology of signaling and communicating using radio waves. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves of frequency between 30 hertz (Hz) and 300 gigahertz (GHz). They are generated by an electronic device called a tr ...

man Ernst Krenkel and their leader Ivan Papanin. Since 1954 Soviet NP stations worked continuously, with one to three such stations operating simultaneously each year. The total distance drifted between 1937 and 1973 was over 80,000 kilometres. North Pole-22 is particularly notable for its record drift, lasting nine years. On 28 June 1972 the ice floe with North Pole-19 passed over the North Pole for the first time ever. During such long-term observations by NP stations numerous important discoveries in

physical geography Physical geography (also known as physiography) is one of the three main branches of geography. Physical geography is the branch of natural science which deals with the processes and patterns in the natural environment such as the atmosphere ...

were made such as valuable conclusions on regularities and the connection between processes in the polar region of the

Earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. While large volumes of water can be found throughout the Solar System, only Earth sustains liquid surface water. About 71% of Earth's sur ...

hydrosphere The hydrosphere () is the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of a planet, minor planet, or natural satellite. Although Earth's hydrosphere has been around for about 4 billion years, it continues to change in shape. This ...

and

atmosphere An atmosphere () is a layer of gas or layers of gases that envelop a planet, and is held in place by the gravity of the planetary body. A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is great and the temperature of the atmosphere is low. A ...

and the deep water

Lomonosov Ridge The Lomonosov Ridge (russian: Хребет Ломоносова, da, Lomonosovryggen) is an unusual underwater ridge of continental crust in the Arctic Ocean. It spans between the New Siberian Islands over the central part of the ocean to Ell ...

, which crosses the Arctic Ocean, other large features of the ocean bottom's relief, the discovery of two systems of the drift (circular and "wash-out"), and the fact of

cyclone In meteorology, a cyclone () is a large air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure, counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere as viewed from above (opposite to an an ...

s' active penetration into the Central Arctic. The last Soviet NP station, North Pole-31, was closed in July 1991. In the post-Soviet era, Russian exploration of the Arctic by drifting ice stations was suspended for twelve years. The year 2003 was notable for Russia's return into the Arctic. , three NP stations had carried out scientific measurements and research since then: "NP-32" through "NP-34". The latter was closed on 25 May 2006. "NP-35" started operations on 21 September 2007 at the point , when flags of Russia and

Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg ( rus, links=no, Санкт-Петербург, a=Ru-Sankt Peterburg Leningrad Petrograd Piter.ogg, r=Sankt-Peterburg, p=ˈsankt pʲɪtʲɪrˈburk), formerly known as Petrograd (1914–1924) and later Leningrad (1924–1991), i ...

were raised there. 22 scientists, led by A.A.Visnevsky are working on the ice floe. Establishment of the station was the third stage of the Arktika 2007 expedition. An appropriate ice floe was searched for from '' Akademik Fedorov''

research vessel A research vessel (RV or R/V) is a ship or boat designed, modified, or equipped to carry out research at sea. Research vessels carry out a number of roles. Some of these roles can be combined into a single vessel but others require a dedicate ...

, accompanied by nuclear icebreaker ''Rossiya'', using MI-8 helicopters, for a week, until an ice floe with an area of 16 square kilometres was found. The ice has since shrunk significantly, however, and the station is now being abandoned ahead of schedule.14 July 2008 news story
by the

Associated Press The Associated Press (AP) is an American non-profit news agency headquartered in New York City. Founded in 1846, it operates as a cooperative, unincorporated association. It produces news reports that are distributed to its members, U.S. new ...

Replacement

Since the mid-2000s it became difficult to find a suitable ice floe to station camp on,TASS, Artics Today, in Russian
/ref>Admiralty Shipyard begun building a "North Pole" drifting station
Fontanka.ru, 20 Decemped 2018, in Russian due to

global warming In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to ...

, and several stations had to be evacuated prematurely because of unexpectedly fast thawing of the ice, so in 2008 an idea to replace the ice camps with a drifting

as a station core was floated. After almost a decade of deliberation, a contract of building the station vessel was awarded to

Admiralty Shipyard The JSC Admiralty Shipyards (russian: link=no, Адмиралтейские верфи) (''formerly Soviet Shipyard No. 194'') is one of the oldest and largest shipyards in Russia, located in Saint Petersburg. The shipyard's building ways can a ...

in 2017.Admiralty Shipyard goes adrift

Kommersant ''Kommersant'' (russian: Коммерсантъ, , ''The Businessman'' or Commerce Man, often shortened to Ъ) is a nationally distributed daily newspaper published in Russia mostly devoted to politics and business. The TNS Media and NRS Russia ...

, 9 October 2017, in Russian This will take a form of a large self-propelled ice resistant

barge Barge nowadays generally refers to a flat-bottomed inland waterway vessel which does not have its own means of mechanical propulsion. The first modern barges were pulled by tugs, but nowadays most are pushed by pusher boats, or other vessels. ...

of ~10000 tons displacement, getting to the initial point of the mission by itself or with a help of an

icebreaker An icebreaker is a special-purpose ship or boat designed to move and navigate through ice-covered waters, and provide safe waterways for other boats and ships. Although the term usually refers to ice-breaking ships, it may also refer to smaller ...

and continuing to drift with the surrounding ice. The barge, intended to function autonomously for 2–3 years, but equipped to be supplied by air or passing icebreakers, and equipped with the required research equipment, is expected to be commissioned in 2020.

Past stations

ImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:12 PlotArea = top:10 bottom:50 right:130 left:20 AlignBars = late DateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy Period = from:01/01/1935 till:01/01/2016 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1935 Colors = id:soviet value:rgb(1,0,0) legend: USSR id:russian value:rgb(0.5,0.5,1) legend: Russia Legend = columns:4 left:150 top:24 columnwidth:100 TextData = pos:(20,27) textcolor:black fontsize:M text:"Country:" BarData = barset:PM PlotData= width:5 align:left fontsize:S shift:(5,-4) anchor:till barset:PM from: 21/05/1937 till: 19/02/1938 color:soviet text:"North Pole 1" fontsize:10 from: 02/04/1950 till: 11/04/1951 color:soviet text:"North Pole 2" fontsize:10 from: 04/04/1954 till: 20/04/1955 color:soviet text:"North Pole 3" fontsize:10 from: 08/04/1954 till: 19/04/1957 color:soviet text:"North Pole 4" fontsize:10 from: 21/04/1955 till: 08/10/1956 color:soviet text:"North Pole 5" fontsize:10 from: 19/04/1956 till: 14/09/1959 color:soviet text:"North Pole 6" fontsize:10 from: 04/04/1957 till: 11/04/1959 color:soviet text:"North Pole 7" fontsize:10 from: 27/04/1959 till: 19/03/1962 color:soviet text:"North Pole 8" fontsize:10 from: 26/04/1960 till: 28/03/1961 color:soviet text:"North Pole 9" fontsize:10 from: 17/10/1961 till: 29/04/1964 color:soviet text:"North Pole 10" fontsize:10 from: 16/04/1962 till: 02/04/1963 color:soviet text:"North Pole 11" fontsize:10 from: 30/04/1963 till: 25/04/1965 color:soviet text:"North Pole 12" fontsize:10 from: 22/04/1964 till: 20/04/1967 color:soviet text:"North Pole 13" fontsize:10 from: 01/05/1965 till: 12/02/1966 color:soviet text:"North Pole 14" fontsize:10 from: 15/04/1966 till: 25/03/1968 color:soviet text:"North Pole 15" fontsize:10 from: 10/04/1968 till: 22/03/1972 color:soviet text:"North Pole 16" fontsize:10 from: 18/04/1968 till: 16/10/1969 color:soviet text:"North Pole 17" fontsize:10 from: 09/10/1969 till: 24/10/1971 color:soviet text:"North Pole 18" fontsize:10 from: 07/11/1969 till: 16/04/1973 color:soviet text:"North Pole 19" fontsize:10 from: 22/04/1970 till: 17/05/1972 color:soviet text:"North Pole 20" fontsize:10 from: 30/04/1970 till: 17/05/1974 color:soviet text:"North Pole 21" fontsize:10 from: 13/09/1973 till: 08/04/1982 color:soviet text:"North Pole 22" fontsize:10 from: 05/12/1975 till: 01/11/1978 color:soviet text:"North Pole 23" fontsize:10 from: 13/06/1978 till: 19/11/1980 color:soviet text:"North Pole 24" fontsize:10 from: 16/05/1981 till: 20/04/1984 color:soviet text:"North Pole 25" fontsize:10 from: 21/05/1983 till: 09/04/1986 color:soviet text:"North Pole 26" fontsize:10 from: 02/06/1984 till: 20/05/1987 color:soviet text:"North Pole 27" fontsize:10 from: 21/05/1986 till: 23/01/1989 color:soviet text:"North Pole 28" fontsize:10 from: 10/06/1987 till: 19/08/1988 color:soviet text:"North Pole 29" fontsize:10 from: 09/10/1987 till: 04/04/1991 color:soviet text:"North Pole 30" fontsize:10 from: 22/10/1988 till: 25/07/1991 color:soviet text:"North Pole 31" fontsize:10 from: 13/06/2003 till: 06/03/2004 color:russian text:"North Pole 32" fontsize:10 from: 16/05/2004 till: 05/10/2005 color:russian text:"North Pole 33" fontsize:10 from: 21/05/2005 till: 25/05/2006 color:russian text:"North Pole 34" fontsize:10 from: 02/06/2007 till: 22/08/2008 color:russian text:"North Pole 35" fontsize:10 from: 07/09/2008 till: 26/08/2009 color:russian text:"North Pole 36" fontsize:10 from: 07/09/2009 till: 01/09/2010 color:russian text:"North Pole 37" fontsize:10 from: 14/10/2010 till: 20/09/2011 color:russian text:"North Pole 38" fontsize:10 from: 02/10/2011 till: 15/09/2012 color:russian text:"North Pole 39" fontsize:10 from: 01/10/2012 till: 07/06/2013 color:russian text:"North Pole 40" fontsize:10 from: 11/04/2015 till: 09/08/2015 color:russian text:"North Pole 2015" fontsize:10

References

Great Soviet Encyclopedia The ''Great Soviet Encyclopedia'' (GSE; ) is one of the largest Russian-language encyclopedias, published in the Soviet Union from 1926 to 1990. After 2002, the encyclopedia's data was partially included into the later ''Bolshaya rossiyskaya e ...

- for some information in the text and in the table
"North Pole" scientific research stations drift characteristics
at the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute - for some information in the table
History of "North Pole" stations
- for some milestones in the exploration *I.P. Romanov, Yu. B. Konstantinov, N.A. Kornilov. ''"North Pole" Drifting Stations (1937–1991)'', Saint Petersburg:Gidrometeoizdat, 1997

- for heads of "North Pole-23" through "North Pole-31" stations

External links

at NSIDC * ttp://www.aari.nw.ru/google/np.kmz "NP-2" to "NP-34" drift trajectoriesa

Google Earth Google Earth is a computer program that renders a 3D computer graphics, 3D representation of Earth based primarily on satellite imagery. The program maps the Earth by superimposition, superimposing satellite images, aerial photography, and geog ...