A doctorate (from

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...

''docere'', "to teach"), doctor's degree (from Latin ''doctor'', "teacher"), or doctoral degree is an academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism ''

licentia docendi A licentiate (abbreviated Lic.) is an academic degree present in many countries, representing different educational levels. It may be similar to a master's degree when issued by pontifical universities and other universities in Europe, Latin Ame ...

'' ("licence to teach"). In most countries, a research degree qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field or work in a specific profession. There are a number of doctoral degrees; the most common is the

Doctor of Philosophy A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, Ph.D., or DPhil; Latin: or ') is the most common degree at the highest academic level awarded following a course of study. PhDs are awarded for programs across the whole breadth of academic fields. Because it is ...

(PhD), awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to

scientific Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Science may be as old as the human species, and some of the earliest archeological evidence for ...

disciplines. In the United States and some other countries, there are also some types of technical or

professional degree A professional degree, formerly known in the US as a first professional degree, is a degree that prepares someone to work in a particular profession, practice, or industry sector often meeting the academic requirements for licensure or accreditatio ...

s that include "doctor" in their name and are classified as a doctorate in some of those countries. Professional doctorates historically came about to meet the needs of practitioners in a variety of disciplines. Many universities also award honorary doctorates to individuals deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or other contributions to the university or society.

History

Middle Ages

The term ''doctor'' derives from Latin, meaning "teacher" or "instructor". The doctorate (Latin: ''doctoratus'') appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin (''licentia docendi'') at a university. Its roots can be traced to the early church in which the term ''doctor'' referred to the Apostles, church fathers, and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible. The right to grant a ''licentia docendi'' (i.e. the doctorate) was originally reserved to the

Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...

, which required the applicant to pass a test, take an oath of allegiance, and pay a fee. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed access—at that time essentially free of charge—to all able applicants. Applicants were tested for aptitude. This right remained a bone of contention between the church authorities and the universities, slowly distancing themselves from the Church. In 1213 the right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris, where it became a universal license to teach (''licentia ubique docendi''). However, while the ''licentia'' continued to hold a higher prestige than the

bachelor's degree A bachelor's degree (from Middle Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six ...

(''baccalaureus''), the latter was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the master's degree (''magister'') and doctorate, both of which now became the accepted teaching qualifications. According to Keith Allan Noble (1994), the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150 by the University of Paris.

George Makdisi George Abraham Makdisi was born in Detroit, Michigan, on May 15, 1920. He died in Media, Pennsylvania, on September 6, 2002. He was a professor of oriental studies. He studied first in the United States, and later in Lebanon. He then graduated in 1 ...

theorizes that the ''

ijazah An ''ijazah'' ( ar, الإِجازَة, "permission", "authorization", "license"; plural: ''ijazahs'' or ''ijazat'') is a license authorizing its holder to transmit a certain text or subject, which is issued by someone already possessing such au ...

'' issued in early Islamic madrasahs was the origin of the doctorate later issued in medieval European universities. Alfred Guillaume and

Syed Farid al-Attas Syed Farid Alatas ( ar, سيد فريد العطاس ) is a Malaysian author and educator, serving as a professor in the Department of Sociology at the National University of Singapore. However, Toby Huff and others reject Makdisi's theory. Devin J. Stewart notes a difference in the granting authority (individual professor for the ''ijzazah'' and a corporate entity in the case of the university doctorate).

17th and 18th centuries

Claude Bernard's thesis for his doctorate Wellcome M0011459

The

doctorate of philosophy A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, Ph.D., or DPhil; Latin: or ') is the most common degree at the highest academic level awarded following a course of study. PhDs are awarded for programs across the whole breadth of academic fields. Because it is ...

developed in Germany in the 17th century (likely c. 1652). The term "philosophy" does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy. Still, it is used in a broader sense under its original

Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...

meaning: "love of wisdom". In most of

Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located entirel ...

, all fields ( history, philosophy, social sciences, mathematics, and natural philosophy/ natural sciences) were traditionally known as philosophy, and in

Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...

and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of liberal arts was known as the "faculty of philosophy". The Doctorate of Philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though most degrees are not for the study of philosophy. Chris Park explains that it was not until formal education and degree programs were standardized in the early 19th century that the Doctorate of Philosophy was reintroduced in Germany as a research degree,Park, C. (2007)
''Redefining the Doctorate''
, York, UK: The Higher Education Academy, p. 4. abbreviated as Dr. phil. (similar to Ph.D. in Anglo-American countries). Germany, however, differentiated then in more detail between doctorates in philosophy and doctorates in the natural sciences, abbreviated as Dr. rer. nat. and also doctorates in the social/political sciences, abbreviated as Dr. rer. pol., similar to the other traditional doctorates in medicine (Dr. med.) and law (Dr. jur.). University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a

guild A guild ( ) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular area. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradesmen belonging to a professional association. They sometimes ...

. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts" was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the

master's degree A master's degree (from Latin ) is an academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice.

. University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The first women to be granted doctorates were Juliana Morell in 1608 at Lyons or maybe Avignon (she "defended theses" in 1606 or 1607, although claims that she received a doctorate in canon law in 1608 have been discredited),

Elena Cornaro Piscopia Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia (, ; 5 June 1646 – 26 July 1684) or Elena Lucrezia Corner (), also known in English as Helen Cornaro, was a Venetian philosopher of noble descent who in 1678 became one of the first women to receive an academic ...

in 1678 at the University of Padua, Laura Bassi in 1732 at Bologna University, Dorothea Erxleben in 1754 at Halle University and María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda in 1785 at

Complutense University The Complutense University of Madrid ( es, Universidad Complutense de Madrid; UCM, links=no, ''Universidad de Madrid'', ''Universidad Central de Madrid''; la, Universitas Complutensis Matritensis, links=no) is a public research university loca ...

, Madrid.

Modern times

The use and meaning of the doctorate have changed over time and are subject to regional variations. For instance, until the early 20th century, few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time, the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread. Universities' shift to research-oriented education (based upon the scientific method, inquiry, and observation) increased the doctorate's importance. Today, a research doctorate (PhD) or its equivalent (as defined in the US by the NSF) is generally a prerequisite for an

academic An academy (Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of secondary or tertiary higher learning (and generally also research or honorary membership). The name traces back to Plato's school of philosophy, ...

career. However, many recipients do not work in academia. Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward. The first professional doctorate offered in the United States was the

M.D. Doctor of Medicine (abbreviated M.D., from the Latin ''Medicinae Doctor'') is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In the United States, and some other countries, the M.D. denotes a professional degree. ...

at Kings College (now

Columbia University Columbia University (also known as Columbia, and officially as Columbia University in the City of New York) is a private research university in New York City. Established in 1754 as King's College on the grounds of Trinity Church in Manhatt ...

) after the medical school's founding in 1767. However, this was not a professional doctorate in the modern American sense. It was awarded for further study after the qualifying Bachelor of Medicine (M.B.) rather than a qualifying degree. The MD became the standard first degree in medicine in the US during the 19th century, but as a three-year undergraduate degree. It did not become established as a graduate degree until 1930. As the standard qualifying degree in medicine, the MD gave that profession the ability (through the American Medical Association, established in 1847 for this purpose) to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice. Professors

In the shape of the German-style PhD, the modern research degree was first awarded in the US in 1861, at

Yale University Yale University is a Private university, private research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Established in 1701 as the Collegiate School, it is the List of Colonial Colleges, third-oldest institution of higher education in the United Sta ...

. This differed from the MD in that the latter was a vocational "

" that trained students to apply or practice knowledge rather than generate it, similar to other students in vocational schools or institutes. In the UK, research doctorates initially took higher doctorates in Science and Letters, first introduced at Durham University in 1882. The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada and was instituted at all British universities from 1917. The first (titled a DPhil) was awarded at the

University of Oxford , mottoeng = The Lord is my light , established = , endowment = £6.1 billion (including colleges) (2019) , budget = £2.145 billion (2019–20) , chancellor ...

. Following the MD, the next professional doctorate in the US, the Juris Doctor (JD), was established by the University of Chicago in 1902. However, it took a long time to be accepted, not replacing the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) until the 1960s, by which time the LLB was generally taken as a graduate degree. Notably, the JD and LLB curriculum were identical, with the degree being renamed as a doctorate, and it (like the MD) was not equivalent to the PhD, raising criticism that it was "not a 'true Doctorate. When professional doctorates were established in the UK in the late 1980s and early 1990s, they did not follow the US model. Still, they were set up as research degrees at the same level as PhDs but with some taught components and a professional focus for research work. Now usually called higher doctorates in the United Kingdom, the older-style doctorates take much longer to complete since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are less common than the PhD in some countries and are often awarded '' honoris causa''. The habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU. It involves either a long new thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications. The habilitation (highest available degree) demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing, and, more recently, the ability to generate supportive funding. The habilitation follows the research doctorate, and in Germany, it can be a requirement for appointment as a '' Privatdozent'' or professor.

Types

Since the

Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire ...

, the number and types of doctorates awarded by universities have proliferated throughout the world. Practice varies from one country to another. While a doctorate usually entitles a person to be addressed as "doctor", the use of the title varies widely depending on the type and the associated occupation.

Research doctorate

Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of publishable academic research, at least in principle, in a peer-reviewed

academic journal An academic journal or scholarly journal is a periodical publication in which scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published. Academic journals serve as permanent and transparent forums for the presentation, scrutiny, and ...

. The best-known research degree title in the English-speaking world, is

(abbreviated Ph.D., PhD or, at some British universities, DPhil) awarded in many countries throughout the world. In the U.S., for instance, although the most typical research doctorate is the PhD, accounting for about 98% of the research doctorates awarded, there are more than 15 other names for research doctorates. Other research-oriented doctorates (some having a professional practice focus) include the

Doctor of Education The Doctor of Education (Ed.D. or D.Ed.; Latin ''Educationis Doctor'' or ''Doctor Educationis'') is (depending on region and university) a research or professional doctoral degree that focuses on the field of education. It prepares the holder for a ...

(Ed.D. or EdD), the Doctor of Science (D.Sc. or Sc.D.),

Doctor of Arts The Doctor of Arts (D.A.; occasionally D.Arts or Art.D. from the Latin ''artium doctor'') is a discipline-based terminal doctoral degree that was originally conceived and designed to be an alternative to the traditional research-based Doctor of ...

(D.A.),

Doctor of Juridical Science A Doctor of Juridical Science (SJD; ), or a Doctor of Science of Law (JSD; ), is a research doctorate in law equivalent to the more commonly awarded Doctor of Philosophy degree. Australia The S.J.D. is offered by the Australian National Univ ...

(J.S.D. or S.J.D.),

Doctor of Musical Arts The Doctor of Musical Arts (DMA) is a doctoral academic degree in music. The DMA combines advanced studies in an applied area of specialization (usually music performance, music composition, or conducting) with graduate-level academic study in su ...

(D.M.A.),

Doctor of Professional Studies The Doctor of Professional Studies (or sometimes awarded as Doctorate in Professional Practice) (most commonly DProf, but also available as DProfSt, ProfD and DPS) is a doctoral degree for experienced professionals who wish to undertake a program ...

/Professional Doctorate (ProfDoc or DProf), Doctor of Public Health (Dr.P.H.),

Doctor of Social Science The Doctor of Social Science (DSocSci, SScD or DSS) degree is the highest degree offered by some universities in the field of social sciences, for which other universities confer a Ph.D. Like the PhD, it is recognized as a terminal research degre ...

(D.S.Sc. or DSocSci), Doctor of Management (D.M. or D.Mgt.),

Doctor of Business Administration The Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) is either a professional doctorate or a research doctorate, depending on the granting university, awarded on the basis of advanced study, examinations, project work, and research in business administrat ...

(D.B.A. or DBA), the UK Doctor of Management (DMan), various doctorates in engineering, such as the US Doctor of Engineering (D.Eng., D.E.Sc. or D.E.S., also awarded in Japan and South Korea), the UK Engineering Doctorate (EngD), the German engineering doctorate '' Doktoringenieur'' (''Dr.-Ing.'') the German natural science doctorate ''Doctor rerum naturalium'' ('' Dr. rer. nat.'') and the economics and social science doctorate ''Doctor rerum politicarum'' ('' Dr. rer. pol.''). The UK Doctor of Medicine (MD or MD (Res)) and Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) are research doctorates. The Doctor of Theology (Th.D., D.Th. or ThD), Doctor of Practical Theology (DPT) and the

Doctor of Sacred Theology The Doctor of Sacred Theology ( la, Sacrae Theologiae Doctor, abbreviated STD), also sometimes known as Professor of Sacred Theology (, abbreviated STP), is the final theological degree in the pontifical university system of the Roman Catholic C ...

(S.T.D., or D.S.Th.) are research doctorates in theology. Criteria for research doctorates vary but typically require completion of a substantial body of original research, which may be presented as a single thesis or dissertation, or as a portfolio of shorter project reports (

thesis by publication A thesis as a collection of articlesWr ...

). The submitted dissertation is assessed by a committee of, typically, internal, and external examiners. It is then typically defended by the candidate during an oral examination (called ''viva (voce)'' in the UK and India) by the committee, which then awards the degree unconditionally, awards the degree conditionally (ranging from corrections in grammar to additional research), or denies the degree. Candidates may also be required to complete graduate-level courses in their field and study research methodology. Criteria for admission to doctoral programs vary. Students may be admitted with a bachelor's degree in the U.S. and the U.K. However, elsewhere, e.g. in Finland and many other European countries, a master's degree is required. The time required to complete a research doctorate varies from three years, excluding undergraduate study, to six years or more.

Licentiate

Licentiate degrees vary widely in their meaning, and in a few countries are doctoral-level qualifications. Sweden awards the licentiate degree as a two-year qualification at the doctoral level and the doctoral degree (PhD) as a four-year qualification. Sweden originally abolished the Licentiate in 1969 but reintroduced it in response to demands from business. Finland also has a two-year doctoral level licentiate degree, similar to Sweden's. Outside of Scandinavia, the licentiate is usually a lower-level qualification. In Belgium, the licentiate was the basic university degree prior to the Bologna Process and was equivalent to a bachelor's degree. In France and other countries, it is the bachelor's-level qualification in the Bologna process. In the Pontifical system, the Licentiate in Sacred Theology (STL) is equivalent to an advanced master's degree, or the post-master's coursework required in preparation for a doctorate (i.e. similar in level to the Swedish/Finnish licentiate degree). While other licences (such as the Licence in Canon Law) are at the level of master's degrees.

Higher doctorate and post-doctoral degrees

A higher tier of research doctorates may be awarded based on a formally submitted portfolio of published research of an exceptionally high standard. Examples include the Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD), Doctor of Divinity (DD),

Doctor of Letters Doctor of Letters (D.Litt., Litt.D., Latin: ' or ') is a terminal degree in the humanities that, depending on the country, is a higher doctorate after the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree or equivalent to a higher doctorate, such as the Docto ...

(DLitt or LittD), Doctor of Law or Laws (LLD), and

Doctor of Civil Law Doctor of Civil Law (DCL; la, Legis Civilis Doctor or Juris Civilis Doctor) is a degree offered by some universities, such as the University of Oxford, instead of the more common Doctor of Laws (LLD) degrees. At Oxford, the degree is a higher ...

(DCL) degrees found in the UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, and the traditional doctorates in Scandinavia. The habilitation teaching qualification (''facultas docendi'' or "faculty to teach") under a university procedure with a thesis and an exam is commonly regarded as belonging to this category in

Austria Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...

France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...

, Liechtenstein, Switzerland,

Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populou ...

, etc. The degree developed in Germany in the 19th century "when holding a doctorate seemed no longer sufficient to guarantee a proficient transfer of knowledge to the next generation." In many federal states of Germany, the habilitation results in an award of a formal "Dr. habil." degree or the holder of the degree may add "habil." to their research doctorate such as "Dr. phil. habil." or "Dr. rer. nat. habil." In some European universities, especially in German-speaking countries, the degree is insufficient to have teaching duties without professor supervision (or teaching and supervising PhD students independently) without an additional teaching title such as Privatdozent. In Austria, the habilitation bestows the graduate with the ''facultas docendi'', ''venia legendi.'' Since 2004, the honorary title of "Privatdozent" (before this, completing the habilitation resulted in appointment as a civil servant). In many Central and Eastern Europe countries, the degree gives ''venia legendi'', Latin for "the permission to lecture," or ''ius docendi'', "the right to teach," a specific academic subject at universities for a lifetime. The French academic system used to have a higher doctorate, called the "state doctorate" (''doctorat d'État''), but, in 1984, it was superseded by the habilitation (''

Habilitation à diriger des recherches Habilitation is the highest university degree, or the procedure by which it is achieved, in many European countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excellence in research, teaching and further education, usually including a ...

'', "habilitation to supervise (doctoral and post-doctoral) research", abbreviated HDR) which is the prerequisite to supervise PhDs and to apply to Full Professorships. While this section has focused on earned qualifications conferred in virtue of published work or the equivalent, a higher doctorate may also be presented on an honorary basis by a university — at its own initiative or after a nomination — in recognition of public prestige, institutional service, philanthropy, or professional achievement. In a formal listing of qualifications, and often in other contexts, an honorary higher doctorate will be identified using language like " DCL, '' honoris causa''," "Hon LLD," or " LittD '' h.c.''."

Professional doctorate

Depending on the country, professional doctorates may also be research degrees at the same level as PhDs. The relationship between research and practice is considered important and

s with little or no research content are typically aimed at professional performance. Many professional doctorates are named "Doctor of ubject nameand abbreviated using the form "D ubject abbreviation or " ubject abbreviation", or may use the more generic titles "Professional Doctorate", abbreviated "ProfDoc" or "DProf", "

" (DPS) or "Doctor of Professional Practice" (DPP). In the US, professional doctorates (formally "doctor's degree – professional practice" in government classifications) are defined by the

US Department of Education The United States Department of Education is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government. It began operating on May 4, 1980, having been created after the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare was split into the Department ...

's National Center for Educational Statistics as degrees that require a minimum of six years of university-level study (including any pre-professional bachelor's or associate degree) and meet the academic requirements for professional

licensure Licensure means a restricted practice or a restriction on the use of an occupational title, requiring a license. A license created under a "practice act" requires a license before performing a certain activity, such as driving a car on public roa ...

in the discipline. The definition for a professional doctorate does not include a requirement for either a dissertation or study beyond master's level, in contrast to the definition for research doctorates ("doctor's degree – research/scholarship"). However, individual programs may have different requirements. There is also a category of "doctor's degree – other" for doctorates that do not fall into either the "professional practice" or "research/scholarship" categories. All of these are considered doctoral degrees. In contrast to the US, many countries reserve the term "doctorate" for research degrees. If, as in Canada and Australia, professional degrees bear the name "Doctor of ...", etc., it is made clear that these are not doctorates. Examples of this include Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD), Doctor of Medicine (MD), Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS), Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP), and Juris Doctor (JD). Contrariwise, for example, research doctorates like Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of Education (EdD) and Doctor of Social Science (DSS) qualify as full academic doctorates in Canada though they normally incorporate aspects of professional practice in addition to a full dissertation. In the Philippines, the University of the Philippines Open University offers a Doctor of Communication (DComm) professional doctorate. All doctorates in the UK and Ireland are third cycle qualifications in the Bologna Process, comparable to US research doctorates. Although all doctorates are research degrees, professional doctorates normally include taught components, while the name PhD/DPhil is normally used for doctorates purely by thesis. Professional, practitioner, or practice-based doctorates such as the DClinPsy, MD, DHSc, EdD, DBA, EngD and DAg are full academic doctorates. They are at the same level as the PhD in the national qualifications frameworks; they are not first professional degrees but are "often post-experience qualifications" in which practice is considered important in the research context. In 2009 there were 308 professional doctorate programs in the UK, up from 109 in 1998, with the most popular being the EdD (38 institutions), DBA (33), EngD/DEng (22), MD/DM (21), and DClinPsy/DClinPsych/ClinPsyD (17). Similarly, in Australia, the term "professional doctorate" is sometimes applied to the '' Scientiae Juridicae Doctor'' (SJD), which, like the UK professional doctorates, is a research degree.

Honorary doctorate

When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's contributions to a particular field or philanthropic efforts, it may choose to grant a doctoral degree ('for the sake of the honor'), waiving the usual requirements for granting the degree. Some universities do not award honorary degrees, for example,

Cornell University Cornell University is a private statutory land-grant research university based in Ithaca, New York. It is a member of the Ivy League. Founded in 1865 by Ezra Cornell and Andrew Dickson White, Cornell was founded with the intention to tea ...

, the University of Virginia, and

Massachusetts Institute of Technology The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a private land-grant research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Established in 1861, MIT has played a key role in the development of modern technology and science, and is one of the ...

National variations

Argentina

In Argentina the doctorate () is the highest academic degree. The intention is that candidates produce original contributions in their field knowledge within a frame of academic excellence. A dissertation or thesis is prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director. It is reviewed by a Doctoral Committee composed of examiners external to the program and at least one examiner external to the institution. The degree is conferred after a successful dissertation defence. In 2006, there were approximately 2,151 postgraduate careers in the country, of which 14% were doctoral degrees. Doctoral programs in Argentina are overseen by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation, an agency in Argentina's Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.

Brazil

Doctoral candidates are normally required to have a

in a related field. Exceptions are based on their individual academic merit. A second and a third foreign language are other common requirements, although the requirements regarding proficiency commonly are not strict. The admissions process varies by institution. Some require candidates to take tests while others base admissions on a research proposal application and interview only. In both instances however, a faculty member must agree prior to admission to supervise the applicant. Requirements usually include satisfactory performance in advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam and submitting a thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge. The thesis is examined in a final public oral exam administered by at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external. After completion, which normally consumes 4 years, the candidate is commonly awarded the degree of ''Doutor'' (Doctor) followed by the main area of specialization, e.g. ''Doutor em Direito'' (Doctor of Laws), ''Doutor em Ciências da Computação'' (Doctor of Computer Sciences), ''Doutor em Filosofia'' (Doctor of Philosophy), ''Doutor em Economia'' (Doctor of Economics), ''Doutor em Engenharia'' (Doctor of Engineering) or ''Doutor em Medicina'' (Doctor of Medicine). The generic title of ''Doutor em Ciências'' (Doctor of Sciences) is normally used to refer collectively to doctorates in the natural sciences (i.e. Physics, Chemistry, Biological and Life Sciences, etc.) All graduate programs in Brazilian public universities are tuition-free (mandated by the

Brazilian constitution The Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil ( pt, Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil) is the supreme law of Brazil. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of Brazil and the feder ...

). Some graduate students are additionally supported by institutional scholarships granted by federal government agencies like CNPq (''Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico'') and CAPES (''Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento do Pessoal de Ensino Superior''). Personal scholarships are provided by the various FAP's (''Fundações de Amparo à Pesquisa'') at the state level, especially FAPESP in the state of São Paulo, FAPERJ in the state of

Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro ( , , ; literally 'River of January'), or simply Rio, is the capital of the state of the same name, Brazil's third-most populous state, and the second-most populous city in Brazil, after São Paulo. Listed by the GaWC as a ...

and FAPEMIG in the state of Minas Gerais. Competition for graduate financial aid is intense and most scholarships support at most 2 years of Master's studies and 4 years of doctoral studies. The normal monthly stipend for doctoral students in Brazil is between US$500 and $1000. A degree of ''Doutor'' usually enables an individual to apply for a junior faculty position equivalent to a US

assistant professor Assistant Professor is an academic rank just below the rank of an associate professor used in universities or colleges, mainly in the United States and Canada. Overview This position is generally taken after earning a doctoral degree A docto ...

. Progression to full professorship, known as ''Professor Titular'' requires that the candidate be successful in a competitive public exam and normally takes additional years. In the federal university system, doctors who are admitted as junior faculty members may progress (usually by seniority) to the rank of associate professor, then become eligible to take the competitive exam for vacant full professorships. In São Paulo state universities, associate professorships and subsequent eligibility to apply for a full professorship are conditioned on the qualification of Livre-docente and requires, in addition to a doctorate, a second thesis or cumulative portfolio of peer-reviewed publications, a public lecture before a panel of experts (including external members from other universities), and a written exam. In recent years some initiatives as jointly supervised doctorates (e.g. "cotutelles") have become increasingly common in the country, as part of the country's efforts to open its universities to international students.

Denmark

Denmark ) , song = ( en, "King Christian stood by the lofty mast") , song_type = National and royal anthem , image_map = EU-Denmark.svg , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = Kingdom of Denmark , establish ...

offers four levels of degrees: #A three-year bachelor's degree (e.g. Bachelor of Arts degree) #A cand.mag., a five-year candidate's degree (e.g. ''Candidatus/Candidata Magisterii''), generally compared to a master's degree #A ph.d. degree, which replaced the licentiate in 1988, and does not grant the holder the right to the title ''dr.'' or ''doktor''. #A doctor's degree (e.g. ''Doctor Philosophiae''), which is the higher doctorate. It can take the forms ''dr.phil'' (for humanistic and STEM subjects), ''dr.jur'' (in law) or ''dr.theol'' (in theology). (A three-year extended research program, leading to the magister's degree was phased out to meet the international standards of the Bologna Process.) For the ph.d. degree, the candidate writes a thesis and defends it orally at a formal

disputation In the scholastic system of education of the Middle Ages, disputations (in Latin: ''disputationes'', singular: ''disputatio'') offered a formalized method of debate designed to uncover and establish truths in theology and in sciences. Fixed ru ...

. The candidate (a ph.d. student or fellow) will enroll at a ph.d. school at a university. In the disputation, the candidate defends their thesis against three official opponents, and may take opponents or questions from those present in the auditorium ''(ex auditorio)''. For the higher doctorate, the candidate writes a major thesis and has to defend it orally in which the candidate (called ''præses'') defends this thesis against two official opponents as well as opponents from the auditorium (''ex auditorio''). The opponents are required to be full professors. The higher doctorate was introduced as a separate degree from the ph.d. in 1989 as part of the transition to a new degree structure, since the changes in the degree system would leave people without recognized qualifications. Many Danish academics with permanent positions thus made a doctoral dissertations in the 90s when the system was new. The original intention was to phase out (or merge) the higher doctorate in favor of the ph.d., but this has not yet happened. A ph.d. degree or equivalent qualifications are required for certain academic positions in Denmark, but the higher doctorate is never required for any positions but may be considered equivalent qualifications to the ph.d.

Egypt

In Egypt, the highest degree doctorate is awarded by Al-Azhar University est. 970, which grants ( العالمية Ālimiyya\ Habilitation). The Medical doctorate (abbreviated as M.D.) is equivalent to the

Ph.D. A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, Ph.D., or DPhil; Latin: or ') is the most common degree at the highest academic level awarded following a course of study. PhDs are awarded for programs across the whole breadth of academic fields. Because it is ...

degree. To earn an M.D. in a science specialty, one must have a master's degree (M.Sc.) (or two diplomas before the introduction of M.Sc. degree in Egypt) before applying. The M.D. degree involves courses in the field and defending a dissertation. It takes on average three to five years. Many postgraduate medical and surgical specialties students earn a doctorate. After finishing a 6-year medical school and one-year internship (house officer), physicians and surgeons earn the M.B. B.Ch. degree, which is equivalent to a US MD degree. They can then apply to earn a master's degree or a speciality diploma, then an MD degree in a specialty. The Egyptian M.D. degree is written using the name of one's specialty. For example, M.D. (Geriatrics) means a doctorate in

Geriatrics Geriatrics, or geriatric medicine, is a medical specialty focused on providing care for the unique health needs of older adults. The term ''geriatrics'' originates from the Greek γέρων ''geron'' meaning "old man", and ιατρός ''iatros ...

, which is equivalent to a Ph.D. in Geriatrics.

Finland

The Finnish requirement for the entrance into doctoral studies is a master's degree or equivalent. All universities have the right to award doctorates. The ''ammattikorkeakoulu'' institutes (institutes of higher vocational education that are not universities but often called "Universities of Applied Sciences" in English) do not award doctoral or other academic degrees. The student must: * Demonstrate understanding of their field and its meaning, while preparing to use scientific or scholarly study in their field, creating new knowledge. * Obtain a good understanding of development, basic problems and research methods * Obtain such understanding of the general theory of science and letters and such knowledge of neighbouring research fields that they are able to follow the development of these fields. The way to show that these general requirements have been met is: * Complete graduate coursework. * Demonstrate critical and independent thought * Prepare and publicly defend a dissertation (a monograph or a

compilation thesis A thesis as a collection of articlesWr ...

of peer-reviewed articles). In fine arts, the dissertation may be substituted by works and/or performances as accepted by the faculty. Entrance to a doctoral program is available only for holders of a master's degree; there is no honors procedure for recruiting Bachelors. Entrance is not as controlled as in undergraduate studies, where a strict

numerus clausus ''Numerus clausus'' ("closed number" in Latin) is one of many methods used to limit the number of students who may study at a university. In many cases, the goal of the ''numerus clausus'' is simply to limit the number of students to the maximum ...

is applied. Usually, a prospective student discusses their plans with a professor. If the professor agrees to accept the student, the student applies for admission. The professor may recruit students to their group. Formal acceptance does not imply funding. The student must obtain funding either by working in a research unit or through private scholarships. Funding is more available for natural and engineering sciences than in letters. Sometimes, normal work and research activity are combined. Prior to introduction of the Bologna process, Finland required at least 42 credit weeks (1,800 hours) of formal coursework. The requirement was removed in 2005, leaving the decision to individual universities, which may delegate the authority to faculties or individual professors. In Engineering and Science, required coursework varies between 40 and 70 ECTS. The duration of graduate studies varies. It is possible to graduate three years after the master's degree, while much longer periods are not uncommon. The study ends with a dissertation, which must present substantial new scientific/scholarly knowledge. The dissertation can either be a monograph or it an edited collection of 3 to 7 journal articles. Students unable or unwilling to write a dissertation may qualify for a licentiate degree by completing the coursework requirement and writing a shorter thesis, usually summarizing one year of research. When the dissertation is ready, the faculty names two expert pre-examiners with doctoral degrees from the outside the university. During the pre-examination process, the student may receive comments on the work and respond with modifications. After the pre-examiners approve, the doctoral candidate applies the faculty for permission to print the thesis. When granting this permission, the faculty names the ''opponent'' for the thesis defence, who must also be an outside expert, with at least a doctorate. In all Finnish universities, long tradition requires that the printed dissertation hang on a cord by a public university noticeboard for at least ten days prior to for the dissertation defence. The doctoral dissertation takes place in public. The opponent and the candidate conduct a formal debate, usually wearing white tie, under the supervision of the thesis supervisor. Family, friends, colleagues and the members of the research community customarily attend the defence. After a formal entrance, the candidate begins with an approximately 20-minute popular lecture (''lectio praecursoria''), that is meant to introduce laymen to the thesis topic. The opponent follows with a short talk on the topic, after which the pair critically discuss the dissertation. The proceedings take two to three hours. At the end the opponent presents their final statement and reveals whether he/she will recommend that the faculty accept it. Any member of the public then has an opportunity to raise questions, although this is rare. Immediately after the defence, the supervisor, the opponent and the candidate drink coffee with the public. Usually, the attendees of the defence are given the printed dissertation. In the evening, the passed candidate hosts a dinner ( fi, karonkka) in honour of the opponent. Usually, the candidate invites their family, colleagues and collaborators. Doctoral graduates are often Doctors of Philosophy (''filosofian tohtori''), but many fields retain their traditional titles: Doctor of Medicine (''lääketieteen tohtori''), Doctor of Science in Technology (''tekniikan tohtori''), Doctor of Science in Arts (Art and Design), etc. The doctorate is a formal requirement for a docenture or professor's position, although these in practice require

postdoctoral research A postdoctoral fellow, postdoctoral researcher, or simply postdoc, is a person professionally conducting research after the completion of their doctoral studies (typically a PhD). The ultimate goal of a postdoctoral research position is to pu ...

and further experience. Exceptions may be granted by the university governing board, but this is uncommon, and usually due to other work and expertise considered equivalent.

France

;History Before 1984 three research doctorates existed in France: the

State doctorate Habilitation is the highest university degree, or the procedure by which it is achieved, in many European countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excellence in research, teaching and further education, usually including a ...

(''doctorat d'État'', "DrE", the old doctorate introduced in 1808), the third cycle doctorate (''Doctorat de troisième cycle'', also called doctorate of specialty, ''Doctorat de spécialité'', created in 1954 and shorter than the State doctorate) and the diploma of doctor-engineer (''diplôme de docteur-ingénieur'' created in 1923), for technical research. During the first half of the 20th century, following the submission of two theses (primary thesis, ''thèse principale'', and secondary thesis, ''thèse complémentaire'') to the Faculty of Letters (in France, "letters" is equivalent to " humanities") at the University of Paris, the doctoral candidate was awarded the '' Doctorat ès lettres''. There was also the less prestigious "university doctorate" ''Doctorat d'université'' which could be received for the submission of a single thesis. In the 1950s, the ''Doctorat ès lettres'' was renamed to ''Doctorat d'État''.Alan D. Schrift (2006), ''Twentieth-Century French Philosophy: Key Themes And Thinkers'', Blackwell Publishing, p. 208. In 1954 (for the sciences) and 1958 (for letters and human sciences), the less demanding ''Doctorat de troisième cycle'' degree was created on the model of the American

with the purpose to lessen what had become an increasingly long period of time between the typical students' completion of their Diplôme d'études supérieures, roughly equivalent to a Master of Arts) and their ''Doctorat d'État''. After 1984, only one type of doctoral degree remained: the "doctorate" (''Doctorat''). A special diploma was created called the "accreditation to supervise research" (''Habilitation à diriger des recherches''), a professional qualification to supervise doctoral work. (This diploma is similar in spirit to the older State doctorate, and the requirements for obtaining it are similar to those necessary to obtain

tenure Tenure is a category of academic appointment existing in some countries. A tenured post is an indefinite academic appointment that can be terminated only for cause or under extraordinary circumstances, such as financial exigency or program disco ...

in other systems.) Before only professors or senior full researchers of similar rank were normally authorized to supervise a doctoral candidate's work. Now habilitation is a prerequisite to the title of professor in university (''Professeur des universités'') and to the title of Research Director (''Directeur de recherche'') in national public research agency such as CNRS,

INRIA The National Institute for Research in Digital Science and Technology (Inria) () is a French national research institution focusing on computer science and applied mathematics. It was created under the name ''Institut de recherche en informatiq ...

, or INRAE. ;Admission Today, the doctorate (''doctorat'') is a research-only degree. It is a national degree and its requirements are fixed by the minister of higher education and research. Only public institutions award the doctorate. It can be awarded in any field of study. The

is a prerequisite. The normal duration is three years. The writing of a comprehensive thesis constitutes the bulk of the doctoral work. While the length of the thesis varies according to the discipline, it is rarely less than 150 pages, and often substantially more. Some 15,000 new doctoral matriculations occur every year and ~10,000 doctorates are awarded. Doctoral candidates can apply for a three-year fellowship. The most well known is the ''Contrat Doctoral'' (4,000 granted every year with a gross salary of 1758 euros per month ). Since 2002 candidates follow in-service training, but there is no written examination for the doctorate. The candidate has to write a thesis that is read by two external reviewers. The head of the institution decides whether the candidate can defend the thesis, after considering the external reviews. The jury members are designated by the head of the institution. The candidate's supervisor and the external reviewers are generally jury members. The maximum number of jury members is 8. The defense generally lasts 45 minutes in scientific fields, followed by 1 – 2 and a half hours of questions from the jury or other doctors present. The defense and questions are public. The jury then deliberates in private and then declares the candidate admitted or "postponed". The latter is rare. New regulations were set in 2016 and do not award distinctions. The title of doctor (''docteur'') can also be used by medical and pharmaceutical practitioners who hold a doctor's State diploma (''diplôme d'État de docteur'', distinct from the ''doctorat d'État'' mentioned above). The diploma is a first-degree. A guidelines with good practices and legal analysis has been published in 2018 by Association nationale des docteurs (ANDès) & Confédération des Jeunes Chercheurs (CJC) with funding of french Ministry of research.

Germany

Doctoral degrees in Germany are research doctorates and are awarded by a process called . The concept of a US-style professional doctorate as an entry-level professional qualification does not exist. Most doctorates are awarded with specific Latin designations for the field of research (except for engineering, where the designation is German), instead of a general name for all fields (such as the

). The most important degrees are: * '' Dr. rer. nat.'' (''rerum naturalium''; natural and formal sciences, i.e. physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, computer science and information technology, or psychology); * ''Dr. phil.'' (''philosophiae''; humanities such as philosophy, philology, history, and social sciences such as sociology, political science, or psychology as well); * ''Dr. iur.'' (''iuris''; law); * ''Dr. oec.'' (''oeconomiae''; economics); * ''Dr. rer. pol.'' (''rerum politicarum''; economics, business administration, political science); * ''Dr. theol.'' (''theologiae''; theology); * ''Dr. med.'' (''medicinae''; medicine); * ''Dr. med. dent.'' (''medicinae dentariae''; dentistry); * ''Dr. med. vet.'' (''medicinae veterinariae''; veterinary medicine); * '' Dr.-Ing.'' (engineering). In medicine, "doctoral" dissertations are often written alongside undergraduate study therefore, European Research Council decided in 2010 that such Dr. med. degrees do not meet the international standards of a Ph.D. research degree. The duration of the doctorate depends on the field: a doctorate in medicine may take less than a full-time year to complete; those in other fields, two to six years. Over fifty doctoral designations exist, many of them rare or no longer in use. As a title, the degree is commonly written in front of the name in abbreviated form, e.g., ''Dr. rer. nat. Max Mustermann'' or ''Dr. Max Mustermann'', dropping the designation entirely. However, leaving out the designation is only allowed when the doctorate degree is not an honorary doctorate, which must be indicated by ''Dr. h.c.'' (from Latin honoris causa). Although the honorific does not become part of the name, holders can demand that the title appear in official documents. The title is not mandatory. The honorific is commonly used in formal letters. For holders of other titles, only the highest title is mentioned. Multiple holders of doctorate degrees can be addressed as ''Dres.'' (from Latin ''doctores''). Professional doctorates obtained in other countries, not requiring a thesis or not being third cycle qualifications under the Bologna process, can only be used postnominally, e.g., "Max Mustermann, MD", and do not allow the use of the title Dr. In contrast to English, in which a person's name is preceded by at most one title (except in very ceremonious usage), the formal German mode of address permits several titles in addition to "Herr" or "Frau" (which, unlike "Mr" or "Ms", is not considered a title at all, but an ''Anrede'' or "address"), including repetitions in the case of multiple degrees, as in "Frau Prof. Dr. Dr. Schmidt", for a person who would be addressed as "Prof. Schmidt" in English. In the German university system it is common to write two doctoral theses, the inaugural thesis (''Inauguraldissertation''), completing a course of study, and the habilitation thesis (''

Habilitationsschrift Habilitation is the highest university degree, or the procedure by which it is achieved, in many European countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excellence in research, teaching and further education, usually including ...

''), which opens the road to a professorship. Upon completion of the habilitation thesis, a ''Habilitation'' is awarded, which is indicated by appending ''habil.'' (''habilitata/habilitatus'') to the doctorate, e.g., ''Dr. rer. nat. habil. Max Mustermann''. It is considered as an additional academic qualification rather than an academic degree formally. It qualifies the owner to teach at German universities (''facultas docendi''). The holder of a ''Habilitation'' receives the authorization to teach a certain subject (''venia legendi''). This has been the traditional prerequisite for attaining ''Privatdozent'' (PD) and employment as a full university professor. With the introduction of ''Juniorprofessuren''—around 2005—as an alternative track towards becoming a professor at universities (with tenure), ''Habilitation'' is no longer the only university career track.

India

India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...

, doctorates are offered by universities. Entry requirements include master's degree. Some universities consider undergraduate degrees in professional areas such as engineering, medicine or law as qualifications for pursuing doctorate level degrees. Entrance examinations are held for almost all programs. In most universities, coursework duration and thesis is 5–6 years. The most common doctoral degree is Ph.D.

Italy

Until the introduction of the ''

dottorato di ricerca The ''dottorato di ricerca'' (research doctorate) is the highest Italian academic degree, the equivalent of a Ph.D. The term ''dottore'' is frequently used in Italy to refer to any person with a university ''Laurea'': thus, a person with a ''Laur ...

'' in the mid-1980s, the ''

laurea In Italy, the ''laurea'' is the main post-secondary academic degree. The name originally referred literally to the laurel wreath, since ancient times a sign of honor and now worn by Italian students right after their official graduation ceremony ...

'' generally constituted the highest academic degree obtainable in Italy. The first institution in

Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...

to create a doctoral program was Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in 1927 under the historic name ''"Diploma di Perfezionamento"''.STATUTO DELLA SCUOLA NORMALE SUPERIORE DI PISA (legge 18 giugno 1986, n. 308)
Further, the ''dottorato di ricerca'' was introduced by law and presidential decree in 1980, in a reform of academic teaching, training and experimentation in organisation and teaching methods. Italy uses a three-level degree system following the Bologna Process. The first-level degree, called a ''laurea'' (''Bachelor's degree''), requires three years and a short thesis. The second-level degree, called a ''laurea magistrale'' (''Master's degree''), is obtained after two additional years, specializing in a branch of the field. This degree requires more advanced thesis work, usually involving academic research or an internship. The final degree is called a ''dottorato di ricerca'' (''Ph.D.'') and is obtained after three years of academic research on the subject and a thesis. Alternatively, after obtaining the ''laurea'' or the ''laurea magistrale'', one can complete a "Master's" (first-level Master's after the ''laurea''; second-level Master's after the ''laurea magistrale'') of one or two years, usually including an internship. An Italian "Master's" is not the same as a master's degree; it is intended to be more focused on professional training and practical experience. Regardless of the field of study, the title for Bachelors Graduate students is ''Dottore/Dottoressa'' (abbrev. ''Dott.''/''Dott.ssa'', or as ''Dr.''), not to be confused with the title for the Ph.D., which is instead ''Dottore/Dottoressa di Ricerca''. A ''laurea magistrale'' grants instead the title of ''Dottore/Dottoressa magistrale''. Graduates in the fields of Education, Art and Music are also called ''Dr. Prof.'' (or simply ''Professore'') or ''Maestro''. Many professional titles, such as ''ingegnere'' (engineer) are awarded only upon passing a post-graduation examination (''esame di stato''), and registration in the relevant professional association. The

Superior Graduate Schools in Italy A Superior Graduate School (Italian: ''Scuola Superiore Universitaria'') is a completely independent institution from a legal point of view, which offers advanced training and research through university-type courses or is dedicated to teaching at ...

Ricerca Italiana, Scuole di Eccellenza
(

Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance language *** Regional Ita ...

: ''Scuola Superiore Universitaria''), also called ''Schools of Excellence'' (

: ''Scuole di Eccellenza'') such as Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa and Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies keep their historical ''"Diploma di Perfezionamento"'' title by law and MIUR Decree.

Japan

Dissertation-only

Until the 1990s, most natural science and engineering doctorates in Japan were earned by industrial researchers in Japanese companies. These degrees were awarded by the employees' former university, usually after years of research in industrial laboratories. The only requirement is submission of a dissertation, along with articles published in well-known journals. This program is called . It produced the majority of engineering doctoral degrees from national universities. University-based doctoral programs called , are gradually replacing these degrees. By 1994, more doctoral engineering degrees were earned for research within university laboratories (53%) than industrial research laboratories (47%). Since 1978, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) has provided tutorial and financial support for promising researchers in Asia and Africa. The program is called JSPS RONPAKU.

Professional degree

The only professional doctorate in Japan is the Juris Doctor, known as ''Hōmu Hakushi'' (法務博士) The program generally lasts two or three years. This curriculum is professionally oriented, but unlike in the US the program does not provide education sufficient for a law license. All candidates for a bar license must pass the bar exam (''Shihou shiken''), attend the Legal Training and Research Institute and pass the practical exam (''Nikai Shiken'' or ''Shihou Shushusei koushi'').

Netherlands and Flanders

The traditional academic system of the

Netherlands ) , anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau") , image_map = , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands , established_title = Before independence , established_date = Spanish Netherl ...

provided basic academic diploma: ''propaedeuse'' and three academic degrees: ''kandidaat'' (the lowest degree), depending on gender ''doctorandus'' or ''doctoranda'' (drs.) (with equivalent degrees in engineering – ir. and law – mr.) and ''doctor'' (dr.). After successful completion of the first year of university, the student was awarded the propaedeutic diploma (not a degree). In some fields, this diploma was abolished in the 1980s. In physics and mathematics, the student could directly obtain a ''kandidaats (candidate)'' diploma in two years. The candidate diploma was all but abolished by 1989. It used to be attained after completion of the majority of courses of the academic study (usually after completion of course requirements of the third year in the program), after which the student was allowed to begin work on their doctorandus thesis. The successful completion of this thesis conveyed the '' doctoranda/us'' title, implying that the student's initial studies were finished. In addition to these 'general' degrees, specific titles equivalent to the ''doctorandus'' degree were awarded for law: ''meester'' (master) (mr.), and for engineering: ''ingenieur'' (engineer)(ir.). Following the Bologna protocol the Dutch adopted the Anglo-Saxon system of academic degrees. The old candidate's degree was revived to become the bachelor's degree and the doctorandus' (mr and ir degree) were replaced by master's degrees. Students can only enroll in a doctorate system after completing a research university level master's degree; although dispensation can be granted on a case-by-case basis after scrutiny of the individual's portfolio. The most common way to conduct doctoral studies is to work as ''promovendus''/''assistent in opleiding'' (aio)/''onderzoeker in opleiding'' (oio) (

research assistant A research assistant (RA) is a researcher employed, often on a temporary contract, by a university, a research institute or a privately held organization, for the purpose of assisting in academic or private research. Research assistants are not in ...

with additional courses and supervision), perform extensive research and write a dissertation consisting of published articles (over a period of four or more years, averaging about 5.5 to 6). Research can also be conducted without official research assistant status, for example through a business-sponsored research laboratory. Every Ph.D. thesis has to be promoted by a full university professor or an associate professor who has the role of principal advisor and holds the right to do so (ius promovendi). The promotor (professor) determines whether the thesis quality suffices and can be submitted to the committee of experts. A committee of experts in the field review the thesis. Failures at this stage are rare because supervisors withhold inadequate work. The supervisors and promotor lose prestige among their colleagues should they allow a substandard thesis to be submitted. After reviewer approval, the candidate publishes the thesis (generally more than 100 copies) and sends it to colleagues, friends and family with an invitation to the public defense. The degree is awarded in a formal, public, defense session, in which the thesis is defended against critical questions of the "opposition" (the review committee). Failure during this session is possible, but rare. Before the defense there may or may not be a public presentation, lasting 10 minutes (e.g. Eindhoven University of Technology) to exactly half hour (e.g. Delft University of Technology). The actual defense lasts exactly the assigned time slot (45 minutes to 1 hour exactly depending on the university) after which the defense is stopped by the bedel who closes the process. The doctor's title is the highest academic title in the Netherlands. In research doctorates the degree is always Ph.D. or dr. with no distinction between disciplines. Three Dutch universities of technology ( Eindhoven University of Technology,

Delft University of Technology Delft University of Technology ( nl, Technische Universiteit Delft), also known as TU Delft, is the oldest and largest Dutch public technical university, located in Delft, Netherlands. As of 2022 it is ranked by QS World University Rankings among ...

, and University of Twente) also award a 2-year (industry oriented) Professional Doctorate in Engineering ( PDEng), named EngD from September 2022 onwards. Those who obtained a degree in a foreign country can only use one of the Dutch titles drs., mr., ir., or dr if approved by the ''Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs'' though according to the opportunity principle, little effort monitors such frauds. Dutch doctors may use PhD behind their name instead of the uncapitalized shortcut dr. before their name. Those who have multiple doctor (dr.) titles may use the title dr.mult. Those who have received honoris causa doctorates may use dr.h.c. before their own name. In

Belgium Belgium, ; french: Belgique ; german: Belgien officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to th ...

's Flemish Community the doctorandus title was only used by those who actually started their doctoral work. Doctorandus is still used as a synonym for a Ph.D. student. The ''licentiaat'' (licensee) title was in use for a regular graduate until the Bologna reform changed the licentiaat degree to the master's degree (the Bologna reform abolished the two-year kandidaat degree and introduced a three-year academic bachelor's degree instead).

Russia

In the

Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire and the final period of the Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917, ruling across large parts of Eurasia. It succeeded the Tsardom of Russia following the Treaty of Nystad, which ended the Great Northern War. ...

the academic degree "doctor of the sciences" (''

doktor nauk Doctor of Sciences ( rus, доктор наук, p=ˈdoktər nɐˈuk, abbreviated д-р наук or д. н.; uk, доктор наук; bg, доктор на науките; be, доктар навук) is a higher doctoral degree in the Russi ...

'') marked the highest academic degree that can be achieved by an examination. (The "doctor nauk" degree was introduced in Russia in 1819, abolished in 1917, and revived in the USSR in 1934.) This system was generally adopted by the USSR/

Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-eig ...

and many post-Soviet countries. A lower degree, " candidate octorof the sciences" (''kandidat nauk''; first introduced in the USSR on January 13, 1934, by a decision of the

Council of People's Commissars of the USSR The Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union was the highest collegial body of executive and administrative authority of the Soviet Union from 1923 to 1946. As the government of the Soviet Union, the Council of People's Commissars of th ...

), is, roughly, the Russian equivalent to the research doctorate in other countries.

Spain

Doctoral degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (R.D. 778/1998), (in

Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries **Spanish cuisine Other places * Spanish, Ontario, Can ...

). They are granted by the university on behalf of the king. Its diploma has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a national registry of theses called TESEO. According to the National Institute of Statistics (INE), fewer than 5% of M.Sc. degree holders are admitted to Ph.D. programmes. Un víctor en la Catedral de Sevilla

All doctoral programs are research-oriented. A minimum of 4 years of study is required, divided into 2 stages: * A 2-year (or longer) period of studies concludes with a public dissertation presented to a panel of 3 Professors. Upon approval from the university, the candidate receives a (part qualified doctor, equivalent to M.Sc.). From 2008 it is possible to substitute the former diploma by a recognized master program. * A 2-year (or longer) research period includes extensions for up to 10 years. The student must present a thesis describing a discovery or original contribution. If approved by their thesis director, the study is presented to a panel of 5 distinguished scholars. Any Doctor attending the public defense is allowed to challenge the candidate with questions. If approved, the candidate receives the doctorate. Four marks used to be granted: Unsatisfactory (), Pass (), Remarkable (), "Cum laude" (), and "Summa cum laude" (). Those Doctors granted their degree "Summa Cum Laude" were allowed to apply for an "Extraordinary Award". Since September 2012 and regulated by Royal Decree (R.D. 99/2011) (in Spanish), three marks can be granted: Unsatisfactory (), Pass () and "Cum laude" () as maximum mark. In the public defense the doctor is notified if the thesis has passed or not passed. The mark is awarded after the public defense as the result of a private, anonymous vote. Votes are verified by the university. A unanimous vote of the reviewers nominates Doctors granted for an "Extraordinary Award" (). In the same Royal Decree the initial 3-year study period was replaced by a Research master's degree (one or two years; Professional master's degrees do not grant direct access to Ph.D. Programs) that concludes with a public dissertation called or . An approved project earns a master's degree that grants access to a Ph.D. program and initiates the period of research. A doctorate is required in order to teach at the university. Only

holders, Grandees and Dukes can sit and cover their heads in the presence of the King. From 1857,

was the only one in Spain authorised to confer the doctorate. This law remained in effect until 1954, when the

University of Salamanca The University of Salamanca ( es, Universidad de Salamanca) is a Spanish higher education institution, located in the city of Salamanca, in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It was founded in 1218 by King Alfonso IX. It is t ...

joined in commemoration of its septcentenary. In 1970, the right was extended to all Spanish universities. All doctorate holders are reciprocally recognised as equivalent in Germany and Spain (according to the "Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994").

United Kingdom

History of the UK doctorate

The doctorate has long existed in the UK as, originally, the second degree in divinity, law, medicine and music. But it was not until the late 19th century that the research doctorate, now known as the higher doctorate, was introduced. The first higher doctorate was the Doctor of Science at Durham University, introduced in 1882. This was soon followed by other universities, including the

University of Cambridge The University of Cambridge is a public collegiate research university in Cambridge, England. Founded in 1209 and granted a royal charter by Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the world's third oldest surviving university and one of its most pr ...

establishing its ScD in the same year, the University of London transforming its DSc from an advanced study course to a research degree in 1885, and the

University of Oxford , mottoeng = The Lord is my light , established = , endowment = £6.1 billion (including colleges) (2019) , budget = £2.145 billion (2019–20) , chancellor ...

establishing its

(DLitt) in 1900.

The PhD was adopted in the UK following a joint decision in 1917 by British universities, although it took much longer for it to become established. Oxford became the first university to institute the new degree, although naming it the DPhil. The PhD was often distinguished from the earlier higher doctorates by distinctive academic dress. At Cambridge, for example, PhDs wear a master's gown with scarlet facings rather than the full scarlet gown of the higher doctors, while the

University of Wales , latin_name = , image = , caption = Coat of Arms , motto = cy, Goreu Awen Gwirionedd , mottoeng = The Best Inspiration is Truth , established = , , type = Confederal, non-member ...

gave PhDs crimson gowns rather than scarlet. Professional doctorates were introduced in Britain in the 1980s and 1990s. The earliest professional doctorates were in the social sciences, including the

(DBA),

(EdD) and Doctor of Clinical Psychology (DClinPsy).

British doctorates today

Today, except for those awarded ''honoris causa'' (honorary degrees), all doctorates granted by British universities are research doctorates, in that their main (and in many cases only) component is the submission of an extensive and substantial thesis or portfolio of original research, examined by an expert panel appointed by the university. UK doctorates are categorised as: ;Junior doctorates :# ''Subject specialist doctorates'' – normally PhD/DPhil; the most common form of doctorate :#* ''Integrated subject specialist doctorates'' – integrated PhDs including teaching at master's level :# ''Doctorates by publication'' – PhD by Published Works; only awarded infrequently :# ''Professional / practice-based / practitioner doctorates'' – e.g. EdD, ProfDoc/DProf, EngD, etc.; usually include taught elements and have an orientation that combines professional and academic aspects ;Higher doctorates: e.g. DD, LLD, DSc, DLitt; higher level than junior doctorates, usually awarded either for a substantial body of work over an extended period or as honorary degrees. The

Quality Assurance Agency The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA) is the independent body that checks on standards and quality in UK higher education. It conducts quality assessment reviews, develops reference points and guidance for providers, and condu ...

states in the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies (which covers junior doctorates but not higher doctorates) that: In the UK, the (junior) doctorate is a qualification awarded at FHEQ level 8/level 12 of the FQHEIS on the national qualifications frameworks. The higher doctorates are stated to be "A higher level of award", which is not covered by the qualifications frameworks.

Subject specialist doctorates

These are the most common doctorates in the UK and are normally awarded as PhDs. While the master/apprentice model was traditionally used for British PhDs, since 2003 courses have become more structured, with students taking courses in research skills and receiving training for professional and personal development. However, the assessment of the PhD remains based on the production of a thesis or equivalent and its defence at a ''

viva voce ''Viva voce'' is a Latin phrase literally meaning "with living voice" but most often translated as "by word of mouth." It may refer to: *Word of mouth *A voice vote in a deliberative assembly *An oral exam **Thesis defence, in academia *Spoken evi ...

'' oral examination, normally held in front of at least two examiners, one internal and one external. Access to PhDs normally requires an upper second class or first class

, or a

. Courses normally last three years, although it is common for students to be initially registered for MPhil degrees and then formally transferred onto the PhD after a year or two. Students who are not considered likely to complete a PhD may be offered the opportunity to complete an MPhil instead. Integrated doctorates, originally known as 'New Route PhDs', were introduced from 2000 onwards. These integrate teaching at master's level during the first one or two years of the degree, either alongside research or as a preliminary to starting research. These courses usually offer a master's-level exit degree after the taught courses are completed. While passing the taught elements is often required, examination of the final doctorate is still by thesis (or equivalent) alone. The duration of integrated doctorates is a minimum of four years, with three years spent on the research component. In 2013,

Research Councils UK Research Councils UK, sometimes known as RCUK, was a non-departmental public body which coordinated science policy in the United Kingdom from 2002 to 2018. It was an umbrella organisation that coordinated the seven separate research councils t ...

issued a 'Statement of Expectations for Postgraduate Training', which lays out the expectations for training in PhDs funded by the research councils. In the latest version (2016), issued together with

Cancer Research UK Cancer Research UK (CRUK) is the world's largest independent cancer research organization. It is registered as a charity in the United Kingdom and Isle of Man, and was formed on 4 February 2002 by the merger of The Cancer Research Campaign and t ...

, the Wellcome Trust and the

British Heart Foundation The British Heart Foundation (BHF) is a cardiovascular research charity in the United Kingdom. It funds medical research related to heart and circulatory diseases and their risk factors, and runs influencing work aimed at shaping public policy ...

, these include the provision of careers advice, in-depth advanced training in the subject area, provision of transferable skills, training in experimental design and statistics, training in good research conduct, and training for compliance with legal, ethical and professional frameworks. The statement also encourages peer-group development through cohort training and/or Graduate schools.

Higher doctorates

Higher doctorates are awarded in recognition of a substantial body of original research undertaken over the course of many years. Typically the candidate submits a collection of previously published, peer-refereed work, which is reviewed by a committee of internal and external academics who decide whether the candidate deserves the doctorate. The higher doctorate is similar in some respects to the habilitation in some European countries. However, the purpose of the award is significantly different. While the habilitation formally determines whether an academic is suitably qualified to be a university professor, the higher doctorate does not qualify the holder for a position but rather recognises their contribution to research. Higher doctorates were defined by the UK Council for Graduate Education (UKCGE) in 2013 as: In terms of number of institutions offering the awards, the most common doctorates of this type in UKCGE surveys carried out in 2008 and 2013 were the Doctor of Science (DSc),

(DLitt),

Doctor of Law A Doctor of Law is a degree in law. The application of the term varies from country to country and includes degrees such as the Doctor of Juridical Science (J.S.D. or S.J.D), Juris Doctor (J.D.), Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), and Legum Doctor (LL ...

(LLD),

Doctor of Music The Doctor of Music degree (D.Mus., D.M., Mus.D. or occasionally Mus.Doc.) is a higher doctorate awarded on the basis of a substantial portfolio of compositions and/or scholarly publications on music. Like other higher doctorates, it is granted b ...

(DMus) and Doctor of Divinity (DD); in the 2008 survey the Doctor of Technology (DTech) tied with the DD. The DSc was offered by all 49 responding institutions in 2008 and 15 out of 16 in 2013 and the DLitt by only one less in each case, while the DD was offered in 10 responding institutions in 2008 and 3 in 2013. In terms of number of higher doctorates awarded (not including honorary doctorates) the DSc was most popular, but the number of awards was very low: the responding institutions had averaged an award of at most one earned higher doctorate per year over the period 2003–2013.

Honorary degrees

Most British universities award degrees ''honoris causa'' to recognise individuals who have made a substantial contribution to a particular field. Usually an appropriate higher doctorate is used in these circumstances, depending on the candidate's achievements. However, some universities differentiate between honorary and substantive doctorates, using the degree of Doctor of the University (D.Univ.) for these purposes, and reserve the higher doctorates for formal academic research.

United States

U.S. research doctorates are awarded for advanced study followed by successfully completing and defending independent research presented in the form of a dissertation. Professional degrees may use the term "doctor" in their titles, such as Juris Doctor and Doctor of Medicine, but these degrees rarely contain an independent research component and are not research doctorates. Law school graduates, although awarded the J.D. degree, are not normally addressed as "doctor". In legal studies, the

is considered the equivalent to a Ph.D. Many universities offer Ph.D./D.Phil. followed by a professional doctorate or joint Ph.D./D.Phil. with a professional degree. Often, Ph.D. work is sequential to the professional degree, e.g., Ph.D./D.Phil. in law after a J.D. or equivalent in physical therapy after DPT, in pharmacy after Pharm.D. Such professional degrees are referred to as an entry level doctorate program and Ph.D. as a post-professional doctorate.

Research degrees

The most common research doctorate is the

(Ph.D. or D.Phil.). This degree was first awarded in the U.S. at the 1861

commencement.. Retrieved on 2010-10-26. The

University of Pennsylvania The University of Pennsylvania (also known as Penn or UPenn) is a private research university in Philadelphia. It is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and is ranked among the highest-regarded universitie ...

followed in 1871, with Cornell (1872), Harvard (1873), Michigan (1876) and Princeton (1879) following suit. Controversy and opposition followed the introduction of the Ph.D. into the U.S. educational system, lasting into the 1950s, as it was seen as an unnecessary artificial transplant from a foreign (Germany) educational system, which corrupted a system based on England's Oxbridge model. Ph.D.s and other research doctorates in the U.S. typically entail successful completion of coursework, passing a

comprehensive examination In higher education, a comprehensive examination (or comprehensive exam or exams), often abbreviated as "comps", is a specific type of examination that must be completed by graduate students in some disciplines and courses of study, and also by un ...

, and defending a dissertation. The median number of years for completion of U.S. doctoral degrees is seven. Doctoral applicants were previously required to have a

, but many programs accept students immediately following undergraduate studies. Many programs gauge the potential of applicants to their program and grant a master's degree upon completion of the necessary course work. When so admitted, the student is expected to have mastered the material covered in the master's degree despite not holding one, though this tradition is under heavy criticism. Successfully finishing Ph.D. qualifying exams confers Ph.D. candidate status, allowing dissertation work to begin. The International Affairs Office of the U.S. Department of Education has listed 18 frequently awarded research doctorate titles identified by the National Science Foundation (NSF) as representing degrees equivalent in research content to the Ph.D.

Professional degrees

Many fields offer professional doctorates (or professional master's) such as

engineering Engineering is the use of scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more speciali ...

, pharmacy,

medicine Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pr ...

, public health, dentistry, optometry, psychology, speech–language pathology, physical therapy, occupational therapy, health science, advanced practice registered nurse,

chiropractic Chiropractic is a form of alternative medicine concerned with the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mechanical disorders of the musculoskeletal system, especially of the spine. It has esoteric origins and is based on several pseudosci ...

, naturopathic medicine,

law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90. with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been vario ...

architecture Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and constructing building ...

education Education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, such as transmitting knowledge or fostering skills and character traits. These aims may include the development of understanding, rationality, kindness, and honesty ...

, teaching, business, management, and others that require such degrees for professional practice or

. Some of these degrees are also termed " first professional degrees," since they are the first field-specific master's or doctoral degrees. A Doctor of Engineering (DEng) is a professional degree. In contrast to a PhD in Engineering where students usually conduct original theory-based research, DEng degrees are built around applied coursework and a practice-led project and thus designed for working engineers in the industry. DEng students defend their thesis at the end of their study before a thesis committee in order to be conferred a degree. A Doctor of Pharmacy is awarded as the professional degree in pharmacy replacing a bachelor's degree. It is the only professional pharmacy degree awarded in the US. Pharmacy programs vary in length between 4 years for matriculants with a B.S./B.A. to 6 years for others. In the twenty-first century professional doctorates appeared in other fields, such as the

Doctor of Audiology The Doctor of Audiology (AuD) is a professional degree for an audiologist. The AuD program is designed to produce audiologists who are skilled in providing diagnostic, rehabilitative, and other services associated with hearing, balance, tinnitus ...

in 2007. Advanced Practice Registered Nurses were expected to completely transition to the Doctor of Nursing Practice by 2015, and physical therapists to the Doctor of Physical Therapy by 2020. Professional associations play a central role in this transformation amid criticisms on the lack of proper criteria to assure appropriate rigor. In many cases Masters level programs were relabeled as doctoral programs.

Revocation

A doctoral degree can be revoked or rescinded by the university that awarded it. Possible reasons include plagiarism, criminal or unethical activities of the holder, or malfunction or manipulation of academic evaluation processes.

References

{{Authority control Academic degrees of the United States