''Digambara'' (; "sky-clad") is one of the two major schools of Jainism, the other being '' Śvētāmbara'' (white-clad). The

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...

word ''Digambara'' means "sky-clad", referring to their traditional monastic practice of neither possessing nor wearing any clothes. Digambara and Śvētāmbara traditions have had historical differences ranging from their dress code, their temples and iconography, attitude towards female monastics, their legends, and the texts they consider as important.

Digambara monk Digambara Sādhu (also ''muni'', ''sādhu'') is a Sādhu in the Digambar tradition of Jainism, and as such an occupant of the highest limb of the four-fold '' sangha''. They are also called ''Nirgranth'' which means "one without any bonds". ...

s cherish the virtue of non-attachment and non-possession of any material goods. Monks carry a community-owned ''picchi'', which is a broom made of fallen

peacock Peafowl is a common name for three bird species in the genera '' Pavo'' and '' Afropavo'' within the tribe Pavonini of the family Phasianidae, the pheasants and their allies. Male peafowl are referred to as peacocks, and female peafowl are r ...

feathers for removing and thus saving the life of insects in their path or before they sit. The Digambara literature can be traced only to the first millennium, with its oldest surviving sacred text being the mid-second century '' Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama'' "Scripture in Six Parts" of

Dharasena ''Acharya'' Dharasena was a ''Digambara monk'' of first century CE. Biography ''Āchārya'' Dharasena, in first century CE, guided two ''Āchāryas'', ''Āchārya'' Pushpadant and ''Āchārya'' Bhutabali, to put the teachings of Mahavira in t ...

(the

Moodabidri Moodabidri ( kn, ಮೂಡುಬಿದಿರೆ ''Mūḍubidire''; also called Mudbidri, Moodbidre and Bedra), is a town and taluk in Dakshina Kannada district. It lies 34 km northeast of the district headquarters, Mangalore, in Kar ...

manuscripts). One of the most important scholar-monks of the Digambara tradition was

Kundakunda Kundakunda was a Digambara Jain monk and philosopher, who likely lived in the 2nd CE century CE or later. His date of birth is māgha māsa, śukla pakṣa, pañcamī tithi, on the day of Vasant Panchami. He authored many Jain texts such ...

. Digambara Jain communities are currently found mainly in most parts of North India in states like

Rajasthan Rajasthan (; lit. 'Land of Kings') is a state in northern India. It covers or 10.4 per cent of India's total geographical area. It is the largest Indian state by area and the seventh largest by population. It is on India's northwestern ...

Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh (; , 'Northern Province') is a state in northern India. With over 200 million inhabitants, it is the most populated state in India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. It was established in 195 ...

Delhi Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders w ...

Bihar Bihar (; ) is a state in eastern India. It is the 2nd largest state by population in 2019, 12th largest by area of , and 14th largest by GDP in 2021. Bihar borders Uttar Pradesh to its west, Nepal to the north, the northern part of West ...

Jharkhand Jharkhand (; ; ) is a state in eastern India. The state shares its border with the states of West Bengal to the east, Chhattisgarh to the west, Uttar Pradesh to the northwest, Bihar to the north and Odisha to the south. It has an area of . I ...

Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh (, ; meaning 'central province') is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal, and the largest city is Indore, with Jabalpur, Ujjain, Gwalior, Sagar, and Rewa being the other major cities. Madhya Pradesh is the second ...

, parts of south

Maharashtra Maharashtra (; , abbr. MH or Maha) is a state in the western peninsular region of India occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan Plateau. Maharashtra is the second-most populous state in India and the second-most populous country subdi ...

and

Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO 15919, ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reor ...

. According to Jeffery D. Long, a scholar of Hindu and Jain studies, less than one fifth of all Jains in India have a Digambara heritage.

Nomenclature

According to

Heinrich Zimmer Heinrich Robert Zimmer (6 December 1890 – 20 March 1943) was a German Indologist and linguist, as well as a historian of South Asian art, most known for his works, ''Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization'' and ''Philosophies of India ...

, the word ''Digambara'' is a combination of two

words: ''dik'' (दिक्) (space, sky) and ''ambara'' (अम्बर) (garment), referring to those whose garments are of the element that fills the four quarters of space.

Origin in traditional accounts

The Digambaras and Svetambaras disagree on how the Digambara subtradition started in Jainism. According to Digambaras, they are the original followers of Mahavira and Svetambaras branched off later in the time of Bhadrabahu when their forecasted twelve-year famine triggered their migration from central India. One group of Jain monks headed west and north towards Rajasthan, while the second group headed south towards Karnataka. The former became Svetambaras and retained their "heretic" beliefs and practices such as wearing "white clothes" they adopted there, say the Digambaras. In contrast, according to Svetambaras, they are the original followers, and Digambaras arose 609 years after the death of Mahavira (about 1st century CE) because of an arrogant man named Sivabhuti who became a Jain monk in a fit of pique after a fight at home. He is accused of starting the Digambara Jain tradition with what Svetambara call as "eight concealments", of rejecting Jain texts preserved by the Svetambara tradition, and misunderstanding the Jain ideology including those related to nuns and clothes. Neither of these explanations can be found in early Jain or non-Jain texts. The earliest version of this Digambara story appears in the 10th century CE, while the earliest version of the Svetambara story appears in the 5th century CE.

History

In 1943,

proposed that the Greek records of 4th-century BCE mention

gymnosophists Gymnosophists ( grc, γυμνοσοφισταί, ''gymnosophistaí'', i.e. "naked philosophers" or "naked wise men" (from Greek γυμνός ''gymnós'' "naked" and σοφία ''sophía'' "wisdom")) is the name given by the Greeks to certain anc ...

(naked philosophers) which may have links to the tradition of "nude ascetics" claimed by the ''Digambaras''. In 2011,

Patrick Olivelle Patrick Olivelle is an Indologist. A philologist and scholar of Sanskrit Literature whose work has focused on asceticism, renunciation and the dharma, Olivelle has been Professor of Sanskrit and Indian Religions in the Department of Asian Stu ...

stated that the context in which the Greek records mention gymnosophists include ritual suicide by cremation traceable to ancient

Brahmanism The historical Vedic religion (also known as Vedicism, Vedism or ancient Hinduism and subsequently Brahmanism (also spelled as Brahminism)), constituted the religious ideas and practices among some Indo-Aryan peoples of northwest Indian Subc ...

, rather than the traditional Jain ritual of embracing death by starvation and taking samadhi by voluntarily sacrificing everything including food and water (''sallekhana''). Dundas talks about the archeological evidences which indicate that Jain monks moved from the practice of total nudity towards wearing clothes in later period. Tirthankara statues found in Mathura and dated to 2nd-century CE or after are naked. The oldest Tirthankara statue wearing a cloth is dated in 5th century CE. ''Digamabara'' statues of tirthankara belonging to Gupta period has half-closed eyes. In 17th-century, ''adhyatma'' movement in

Agra Agra (, ) is a city on the banks of the Yamuna river in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, about south-east of the national capital New Delhi and 330 km west of the state capital Lucknow. With a population of roughly 1.6 million, Agra ...

led to rise of ''terapanthi'' and ''bisapanthi'' sub-sects based on the differences over acceptance of authority of ''

bhattaraka A Bhaṭṭāraka ( pka, भट्टारक "holy one") heads traditional Digambara Jain institutions. He is responsible for training scholars, maintenance of libraries, managing endowments, presiding over installation ceremonies and running ...

s''. King

Jai Singh II Jai Singh II (3 November 1681 – 21 September 1743) popularly known as Sawai Jai Singh was the 29th Kachwaha Rajput ruler of the Kingdom of Amber, who later founded the fortified city of Jaipur and made it his capital. He was born at Amber, t ...

(1688-1743) of Amer kingdom built separate temples for the two sub-sects in his newly established capital of

Jaipur Jaipur (; Hindi: ''Jayapura''), formerly Jeypore, is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Rajasthan. , the city had a population of 3.1 million, making it the tenth most populous city in the country. Jaipur is also known a ...

. ''Terapanthis'', led by scholars like

Pandit Todarmal Pandit Todarmal (1719–1766) was an eminent Indian Jain scholar and writer.History of the Jaipur City By Ashim Kumar Roy He led the creation of ''terapanthi'' community among the ''Digambara'' Jains by rejecting the authority of ''bhattarakas' ...

and

Banarasidas Banarasidas (15861643) was a Shrimal Jain businessman and poet of Mughal India. He is known for his poetic autobiography - ''Ardhakathānaka'', (The Half Story), composed in Braj Bhasa, an early dialect of Hindi linked with the region around Ma ...

, rejected the authority of ''bhattarakas''. Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century CE where Svetambara iconography starts appearing.

Lineage

According to ''Digambara'' texts, after liberation of

Mahavira Mahavira (Sanskrit: महावीर) also known as Vardhaman, was the 24th ''tirthankara'' (supreme preacher) of Jainism. He was the spiritual successor of the 23rd ''tirthankara'' Parshvanatha. Mahavira was born in the early part of the 6 ...

, three ''Anubaddha Kevalīs'' attained '' Kevalajñāna'' (omniscience) sequentially –

Gautama Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...

'' Gaņadhara'', ''Acharya'' Sudharma Swami, and

Jambusvami Jambuswami (543-449 BCE) was the spiritual successor of Sudharmaswami in Jain religious order reorganised by Mahavira. He remained the head for 39 or 44 years, after which he is believed to have gained ''Kevala Jnana'' (omniscience). He is beli ...

in next 62 years. During the next hundred years, five ''Āchāryas'' had complete knowledge of the scriptures, as such, called ''Śruta Kevalīs'', the last of them being ''Āchārya'' Bhadrabahu. Spiritual lineage of heads of monastic orders is known as '' Pattavali''. Digambara tradition consider

to be the 33rd teacher in succession of Gautama, 683 years after the ''

nirvana ( , , ; sa, निर्वाण} ''nirvāṇa'' ; Pali: ''nibbāna''; Prakrit: ''ṇivvāṇa''; literally, "blown out", as in an oil lamp Richard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benāres to Modern Colomb ...

'' of Mahavira. In the Digambara tradition, the following lineage of teachers are revered:

Bhadrabahu Ācārya Bhadrabāhu (c. 367 - c. 298 BC) was, according to the ''Digambara'' sect of Jainism, the last '' Shruta Kevalin'' (all knowing by hearsay, that is indirectly) in Jainism . He was the last ''acharya'' of the undivided Jain ''sangha''. ...

, Umaswami, Samantabhadra, Siddhasena Divakara, Pujyapada, Manatunga, Virasena,

Jinasena Jinasena (c. 9th century CE) was a monk and scholar in the ''Digambara'' tradition of Jainism. He was patronized by the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I. He was the author of ''Adipurana'' and '' Mahapurana''.Nemichandra. Kundakunda is considered the most significant scholar monk of the Digambara tradition of Jainism. He authored

Prakrit The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usu ...

texts such as the ''

Samayasāra ''Samayasāra'' (''The Nature of the Self'') is a famous Jain text composed by '' Acharya Kundakunda'' in 439 verses. Its ten chapters discuss the nature of '' Jīva'' (pure self/soul), its attachment to Karma and Moksha (liberation). ''Samay ...

'' and the '' Pravacanasāra''. Other prominent ''

Acharya In Indian religions and society, an ''acharya'' ( Sanskrit: आचार्य, IAST: ; Pali: ''ācariya'') is a preceptor and expert instructor in matters such as religion, or any other subject. An acharya is a highly learned person with a ...

s'' of this tradition were, Virasena (author of a commentary on the '' Dhavala''), Samantabhadra and Siddhasena Divakara. The ''

Satkhandagama The (Sanskrit: "Scripture in Six Parts") is the foremost and oldest Digambara Jain sacred text. According to Digambara tradition, the original canonical scriptures of the Jains were totally lost within a few centuries of ''Nirvana'' of Mah ...

'' and ''

Kasayapahuda ''Kasayapahuda'' () (also ''Kasayaprabhrta'') is one of the oldest canonical text of the ''Digambara'' Jains. Another oldest canonical text, the ''Shatkhandagama'' was written about the same time. Both these texts are held in high esteem by t ...

'' have major significance in the ''Digambara'' tradition. There have been several Digambara monastic lineages that all trace their descent to Mahavira. The historical linages included '' Mula Sangha'' (further vivided into ''Nandi'', ''Sena'', ''Simha'' and ''Deva'' Sanghas) and now largely extinct Kashtha Sangha (which included ''Mathura'' sangha, ""Lat-Vagad" etc.), Dravida Sangh. The text Darshana-Sara of Devasena discusses the supposed differences among the orders. The ''Mula sangha'' orders include ''Deshiya Gana'' (Bhattarakas of Shravanabelgola etc.) and ''

Balatkara Gana Balatkara Gana is an ancient Jain monastic order. It is a section of the Mula Sangh. It is often termed ''Balatkara Gana Sarasvati Gachchha''. Until the beginning of the 20th century it was present in a number of places in India. However all ...

'' (Bhattarakas of Humcha, and numerous linages of North/Central India) traditions.Vidaydgar Johrapurkar, Bhaṭṭāraka Sampradaya, Solapur, 1958 The ''

Bhattaraka A Bhaṭṭāraka ( pka, भट्टारक "holy one") heads traditional Digambara Jain institutions. He is responsible for training scholars, maintenance of libraries, managing endowments, presiding over installation ceremonies and running ...

s'' of

Shravanabelagola Shravanabelagola () is a town located near Channarayapatna of Hassan district in the Indian state of Karnataka and is from Bengaluru. The Gommateshwara Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola is one of the most important tirthas (pilgrimage d ...

and Mudbidri belong to ''Deshiya Gana'' and the ''Bhattaraka'' of

Humbaj Humcha / Hombuja is a small village near Ripponpet, Hosanagara taluk in Shimoga district in the Indian state of Karnataka. Humbaja Atishaya Jain Teerth Kshetra is famous for being home to an ancient temple of Goddess Padmavati, and to the Humb ...

belongs to the ''Balatkara Gana''.

Scripture and literature

The ''Digambara'' sect of Jainism rejects the texts and canonical literature of the '' Svetambara'' sect. They believe that the words of Mahavira neither survive nor could be recorded. The original teachings went through a rapid period of decline, state the Digambaras, and Svetambara claims of preserving the sacred knowledge and ancient ''angas'' is false. According to the ''Digambaras'', their 33rd ''achārya'' was

who knew one ''anga'', and he taught these to

Pushpadanta In Jainism, Pushpadanta ( sa, पुष्पदन्त), also known as Suvidhinatha, was the ninth Tirthankara of the present age ('' Avasarpini''). According to Jain belief, he became a siddha and an arihant, a liberated soul that has des ...

and

Bhutabali Acharya Bhutabali (7th century CE) was a Digambara monk. He along with Acharya Pushpadanta composed the most sacred Jain text,'' Satkhandagama.''. Legacy ''Shrut Panchami'' (scripture fifth) is celebrated by Jains Jainism ( ), also know ...

, 683 years after the ''

moksha ''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriologic ...

'' of Mahavira. That ''anga'' was also lost with the death of those two. Dharasena's teachings that have survived are '' Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama'' (Scripture of Six Parts) and ''Kasayapahuda'' (Treatise on the Passions), which were written on palm leaves near a cave in Mount Girnar (Gujarat) and a copy of which with a 12th-century commentary came to Tulu Nadu (south Karnataka). This has survived as the Mudbidri manuscripts, which were used by regional Jains not for reading and study, but as an object of devotional worship for centuries. In the 19th century, the fragile and decaying manuscript was copied and portions of it leaked to scholars between 1896 and 1922 despite objections of Digambara monks. It is considered to be the oldest known ''Digambara'' text ultimately traceable to the 2nd-century. These two oldest known Digambara tradition texts – ''Satkhandagama'' and ''Kasayapahuda'' – are predominantly a treatise about the soul and

Karma Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptively ...

theory, written in Prakrit language. Philologically, the text belongs to about the 2nd-century, and has nothing that suggests it is of "immemorial antiquity". In details, the text is quite similar in its teachings to those found in ''Prajnapana'' – the 4th ''upanga'' – of Svetambaras. Between the two, the poetic meter of ''Satkhandagama'' suggests it was composed after the Svetambara text. Digambaras, unlike Svetambaras, do not have a canon. They do have a quasi-canonical literature grouped into four literary categories called ''anuyoga'' (exposition) since the time of the Digambara scholar Rakshita. The ''prathmanuyoga'' (first exposition) contains the universal history, the ''karananuyoga'' (calculation exposition) contains works on cosmology, the ''charananuyoga'' (behaviour exposition) includes texts about proper behaviour for monks and lay people, while the ''dravyanuyoga'' (entity exposition) contains metaphysical discussions. In the Digambara tradition, it is not the oldest texts that have survived in its temples and monasteries that attract the most study or reverence, rather it is the late 9th-century ''Mahapurana'' (universal history) of Jinasena that is the most revered and cherished. The ''Mahapurana'' includes not only religious history, but also the sociological history of the Jaina people – including the Jain caste system and its origins as formulated by

Rishabhanatha Rishabhanatha, also ( sa, ऋषभदेव), Rishabhadeva, or Ikshvaku is the first (Supreme preacher) of Jainism and establisher of Ikshvaku dynasty. He was the first of twenty-four teachers in the present half-cycle of time in Jain c ...

– from the Digambara Jaina perspective. The ''Digamabara'' tradition maintains a long list of revered teachers, and this list includes Kundakunda, Samantabhadra, Pujyapada, Jinasena, Akalanka, Vidyanandi, Somadeva and Asadhara.

Practices

Monasticism

The lifestyle and behavioral conduct of a ''Digambara'' monk is guided by a code called ''mulacara'' (''mulachara''). This includes 28 ''mūla guņas'' (primary attributes) for the monk. The oldest text containing these norms is the 2nd-century '' Mulachara'' attributed to Vattekara, that probably originated in the Mathura region. These are: 5 ''mahāvratas'' (great vows); 5 ''samitis'' (restraints); 5 ''indriya nirodha'' (control of the five senses); 6 ''āvaśyakas'' (essential observations); and 7 ''niyamas'' (rules). ''Digambara'' monks do not wear any clothes as it is considered to be ''parigraha'' (possession), which ultimately leads to attachment. The monks carry ''picchi'', a broom made up of fallen peacock feathers for removing small insects to avoid causing injury and ''Kamandalu'' (the gourd for carrying pure, sterilized water). The head of all monastics is called ''

Āchārya In Indian religions and society, an ''acharya'' (Sanskrit: आचार्य, IAST: ; Pali: ''ācariya'') is a preceptor and expert instructor in matters such as religion, or any other subject. An acharya is a highly learned person with a tit ...

'', while the saintly preceptor of saints is the ''upādhyāya''. The ''Āchārya'' has 36 primary attributes (''mūla guņa'') in addition to the 28 mentioned above. The monks perform ''kayotsarga'' daily, in a rigid and immobile posture, with the arms held stiffly down, knees straight, and toes directed forward.

Nuns

Female monastics in Digambara tradition are known as ''

aryika ''Aryika'', also known as ''Sadhvi'', is a female mendicant (nun) in Jainism. History In the traditional Digambara tradition, a male human being is considered closest to the apex with the potential to achieve liberation, particularly throu ...

s''. Digambara nuns, unlike the monks in their tradition, wear clothes. Given their beliefs such as non-attachment and non-possession, the Digambara tradition has held that women cannot achieve salvation (moksha) as men can, and the best a nun can achieve is to be reborn as a man in the next rebirth. The monks are held to be of higher status than nuns in Digambara monasteries, states Jeffery Long. From the Digambara monk's perspective, both Digambara nuns and Svetambara monastic community are simply more pious Jain layperson, who do not or are unable to fully practice the Jain monastic vows. Digambara nuns are relatively rare in comparison to the nuns found in Svetambara traditions. According to a 1970s and 1980s survey of Jain subtraditions, there were about 125 Digambara monks in India and 50 Digambara nuns. This compared to 3,400 nuns and 1,200 monks in the Svetambara tradition.

Digambar akhara

The Digambar Akhara, which along with other

akhara Akhara or Akhada ( Sanskrit and Hindi: अखाड़ा, shortened to ''khara'' Hindi: खाड़ा) is an Indian word for a place of practice with facilities for boarding, lodging and training, both in the context of Indian martial artist ...

s, also participates in various inter-sectarian ('' sampradaya'') religious activities including

Kumbh Mela Kumbh Mela or Kumbha Mela () is a major pilgrimage and festival in Hinduism. It is celebrated in a cycle of approximately 12 years, to celebrate every revolution Brihaspati ( Jupiter) completes, at four river-bank pilgrimage sites: Allahabad ...

s, is completely unrelated to Digambar Jain tradition, even though they also practice nudity. outh Asian Religions on Display: Religious Processions in South Asia and in the Diaspora, Knut A. Jacobsen, ISBN hardback 978-0-415-4373-3, ISBN ebook ISBN hardback 978-0-203-93059-5/ref>

Worship

The ''Digambara'' Jains worship completely nude idols of ''tirthankaras'' (omniscient beings) and '' siddha'' (liberated souls). The ''tirthankara'' is represented either seated in yoga posture or standing in the ''Kayotsarga'' posture. Kizhavalavu (Kilavalavu) -Jain Sculptures.JPG, Kizhavalavu (

Keelavalavu Keezhavazhavu (also known as Kilavalavu and Keelavalavu and Kizhavalavu) is a village in Madurai district of Tamil Nadu, India. It is located from Madurai. It is known for two hillocks called ''Panchapandavar Malai'' or ''Panchapandavar Pad ...

) Sculptures Gommateshvara Bahubali.jpg, The high

Gommateshwara statue The Gommateshwara statue is a high monolithic statue on Vindhyagiri Hill in the town of Shravanbelagola in the Indian state of Karnataka. Carved of a single block of granite, it is one of the tallest monolithic statues in the world second only ...

Jain statues, Gwalior.jpg, ''Tirthankara'' statues at Siddhachal Caves inside

Gwalior Fort The Gwalior Fort commonly known as the ''Gwāliiyar Qila'', is a hill fort near Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India. The fort has existed at least since the 10th century, and the inscriptions and monuments found within what is now the fort campus in ...

Jain statue of Parshvanath, Naugaza temple, Alwar district, Rajasthan, India.jpg, ''Tirthankara''

Parshvanatha ''Parshvanatha'' (), also known as ''Parshva'' () and ''Parasnath'', was the 23rd of 24 ''Tirthankaras'' (supreme preacher of dharma) of Jainism. He is the only Tirthankara who gained the title of ''Kalīkālkalpataru ( Kalpavriksha in this "Ka ...

statue,

Sub-sects

Modern ''Digambara'' community is divided into various sub-sects viz. '' Terapanthi'', ''Bispanthi'', '' Taranpanthi'' (or ''Samayiapanthi''), ''Gumanapanthi'', ''Totapanthi'' and '' Kanjipanthi''. Both the ''terapanthis'' and ''bisapanthis'' worship with ''ashta-dravya'' which includes ''jal'' (water), ''chandan'' (sandal), ''akshata'' (sacred rice), ''pushp'' (yellow rice), ''deep'' (yellow dry coconut), ''dhup'' (''kapoor'' or cloves) and ''phal'' (almonds). ''Bisapanthi'' religious practices include ''

aarti ''Arti'' (Sanskrit: Ārātrika, Hindi: Ārtī) is a Hindu ritual employed in worship, often part of '' puja'', in which light (usually from a flame) is offered to one or more deities. ''Arti(s)'' also refers to the songs sung in praise of the ...

'' and offerings of flowers, fruits and ''

prasad 200px, Prasad thaal offered to Swaminarayan temple in Ahmedabad ">Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Ahmedabad">Swaminarayan temple in Ahmedabad Prasada (, Sanskrit: प्रसाद, ), Prasadam or Prasad is a religious offering in Hinduism. Most o ...

'' whereas ''terapanthis'' don't use them. ''Bispanthis'' worship minor gods and goddesses like ''

Yaksha The yakshas ( sa, यक्ष ; pi, yakkha, i=yes) are a broad class of nature-spirits, usually benevolent, but sometimes mischievous or capricious, connected with water, fertility, trees, the forest, treasure and wilderness. They appear in ...

'' and ''

Yakshini ''Yakshinis'' or ''yakshis'' (यक्षिणी sa, yakṣiṇī or ''yakṣī''; pi, yakkhiṇī or ''yakkhī'') are a class of female nature spirits in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain religious mythologies that are different from devas and ...

'' like

Bhairava Bhairava ( Sanskrit: भैरव ) or Kala Bhairava is a Shaivite and Vajrayāna deity worshiped by Hindus and Buddhists. In Shaivism, he is a powerful manifestation, or avatar, of Shiva associated with annihilation. In Trika system ''B ...

and

Kshetrapala Kshetrapala ( Pronounced: Xetra pala) is a guardian deity in Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. According to Hinduism and Hindu mythology, Kshetrapala, that is, the lord of the farmland, is a deity who was originally a deity of the farmland, particu ...

whereas ''terapanthis'' do not. ''Bisapanthis'' accept ''bhattarakas'' as their religious leaders but ''terapanthis'' do not. ''Terapanthis'' occur in large numbers in

and

. Bidapanthis are concentrated in Rajasthan,

Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...

, Maharastra and South India.

Differences with Śvētāmbara sect

According to ''Digambara'' texts, after attaining '' Kevala Jnana'' (omniscience), '' arihant'' (omniscient beings) are free from human needs like hunger, thirst, and sleep. In contrast, Śvētāmbara texts preach that it is not so. According to the ''Digambara'' tradition, a soul can attain ''moksha'' (liberation) only from the male body with complete nudity being a necessity, while Śvētāmbaras believe that it is possible to attain liberation from a female body, and that renunciation of clothes is not at all necessary.