The , also known as is a system of voluntary and long-term affiliation between

Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...

temples and households in use in Japan since the

Heian period The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. It followed the Nara period, beginning when the 50th emperor, Emperor Kanmu, moved the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto). means "peace" in Japan ...

. In it, households (the ''danka'') financially support a

Buddhist temple A Buddhist temple or Buddhist monastery is the place of worship for Buddhists, the followers of Buddhism. They include the structures called vihara, chaitya, stupa, wat and pagoda in different regions and languages. Temples in Buddhism repres ...

which, in exchange, provides for their spiritual needs.Marcure (1985) Although its existence long predates the

Edo period The or is the period between 1603 and 1867 in the history of Japan, when Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional '' daimyo''. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengoku period, the Edo period was character ...

(1603–1868), the system is best known for its repressive use made at that time by the Tokugawa, who made the affiliation with a Buddhist temple compulsory to all citizens. During the Tokugawa shogunate, the system was turned into a citizen registration network; supposedly intended to stop the diffusion of Christianity and help detect hidden Christians, it soon became a government-mandated and Buddhist temple-run system to monitor and control the population as a whole.Tamamuro Fumio For this reason, it survived intact long after Christianity in Japan had been eradicated. The system as it existed in Tokugawa times is sometimes called because of the certification (or ''terauke'', because the ''tera'', or temple would issue an ''uke'', or certificate) issued by a Buddhist temple that a citizen was not a Christian.Nam-lin Hur The mandatory ''danka'' system was officially abolished during the Meiji period, but continues nonetheless to exists as a voluntary association between the two sides, constitutes a major part of the income of most temples and defines as before the relationship between households and temples.

The ''terauke''

The ''danka'' system changed drastically in 1638 when, in reaction to the

Shimabara Rebellion The , also known as the or , was an uprising that occurred in the Shimabara Domain of the Tokugawa Shogunate in Japan from 17 December 1637 to 15 April 1638. Matsukura Katsuie, the '' daimyō'' of the Shimabara Domain, enforced unpopular p ...

(1637–38), the

bakufu , officially , was the title of the military dictators of Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to 1868. Nominally appointed by the Emperor, shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country, though during part of the Kamakura ...

decided to stamp out the Christian religion using it as a tool. The relationship between temple and ''danka'', until then voluntary, was formalized and made compulsory: Buddhist temples were ordered to start writing ''terauke'' certificates for all their , while households on their part had the duty to become ''danka'' of the closest Buddhist temple, regardless of its sect (Nichiren, Jōdo, Rinzai, etc.), and to obtain from it a ''terauke''. Although never written into law, this use of the system nonetheless quickly became a universal and extremely important feature of Tokugawa Japan. Administratively speaking, all Japanese, Shinto priests included, became an integral part of the Buddhist bureaucratic organization, which in turn referred to the Tokugawa. The system had three tiers, with at the lowest the temple which issued the ''terauke''. Local government officials would then collect all ''terauke'', bind them in ledgers called and submit them to higher authorities. The purpose was to force Christians to become affiliated to a Buddhist temple, while making the monitoring of suspected Christians easier. The very first registries in existence are dated between 1638 and 1640 and, unsurprisingly, are found in areas where the Christian religion was strong, for example

Kyoto Kyoto (; Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in Japan. Located in the Kansai region on the island of Honshu, Kyoto forms a part of the Keihanshin metropolitan area along with Osaka and Kobe. , the c ...

, its province and

Kyūshū is the third-largest island of Japan's five main islands and the most southerly of the four largest islands ( i.e. excluding Okinawa). In the past, it has been known as , and . The historical regional name referred to Kyushu and its surround ...

. Registries in other areas aren't found until the second half of the 17th century, but individual ''terauke'', which clearly served the same purpose, are. Because in 1664 the bakufu ordered to all

daimyō were powerful Japanese magnates, feudal lords who, from the 10th century to the early Meiji period in the middle 19th century, ruled most of Japan from their vast, hereditary land holdings. They were subordinate to the shogun and nominall ...

s the establishment in their domain of an officer of religious investigation called or , from the following year registries of religious affiliation started being produced nationwide. In 1671 the registry's format was standardized. The document had to record all peasant households, state the number of men and women of each town, plus the totals for all districts and the province. The intendant had to keep the registry and send a one-page summary to higher authorities. Further, all departures from the community due to marriage, work or death were to be recorded. This registry format was maintained unchanged until 1870, three years into the

Meiji era The is an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868 to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonization ...

. Since the order explicitly states that "''Naturally, it is appropriate to investigate many things, and not only at the time of inquiry into religion''", the system clearly had from the beginning purposes that went beyond religion. The result was an

Edo Edo ( ja, , , "bay-entrance" or "estuary"), also romanized as Jedo, Yedo or Yeddo, is the former name of Tokyo. Edo, formerly a ''jōkamachi'' (castle town) centered on Edo Castle located in Musashi Province, became the ''de facto'' capital of ...

equivalent of today's household registry, set apart only by the temple's obligation to specify a family temple and the citizens' to obtain a ''terauke''. In some regions, the right to issue certificates was called , a right which gradually became a source of great power for the temples. Not only was a certificate issued after payment of a fee, but it gave religious authorities the power of life and death over parishioners. This document had to be obtained every year after an inspection at one's temple of affiliation. Those who for some reason couldn't obtain a temple certification were recorded as

hinin Hi-nin () was an outcast group in ancient Japan, more specifically the Edo Period of Japanese history. The direct translation of the phrase "Hinin" is "non-human". Hinin and Eta () consisted of the lowest social classes in ancient Japan, but were ...

(''non-persons'') and thereafter subject to discrimination, or simply executed as Christians. Not only peasants, but even samurai and Shintō priests could not live or function within society without a ''terauke'', which had assumed a role similar to that of identity papers now. It was necessary to marry, to travel, to gain access to certain jobs. After 1729 the breaking of ties between a temple and a ''danka'' (or ) was formally outlawed, making the link between a ''danka'' and a temple impossible to break. This eliminated competition for parishioners between temples, giving a man and his family no possibility to change temple of affiliation. By the late 17th century the system had become an integral part of the Tokugawa state apparatus. It also contributed to the enforcement of

orthodoxy; the ''danka'' system was used to stamp out '' Ikkō-shū'' and other schools of Buddhism deemed "deviant" in the Tokugawa era.

The appearance of the ''Gojōmoku''

The life of the ''dankas'' were later made even more difficult by a document that greatly expanded a temple's powers over those affiliated to it. Purporting to be a ''bakufu'' law regulating in great detail the certification of religious affiliation process, it appeared around 1735 and had thereafter large circulation all over Japan. Dated 1613 and called "Individual Rules Concerning the Certification of Religious Affiliation for Danka"(''Gojōmoku Shūmon Danna Ukeai No Okite'' (御条目宗門旦那請合之掟), usually abbreviated in just ''Gojōmoku''), it is demonstrably a forgery, probably created by the temples themselves, whose interests it serves. That the document is a fake is proven beyond doubt by the fact that it lists among the forbidden religions not only Christianity, but also the and subschools of the Nichiren

sect A sect is a subgroup of a religious, political, or philosophical belief system, usually an offshoot of a larger group. Although the term was originally a classification for religious separated groups, it can now refer to any organization that ...

. Since the two schools were outlawed respectively in 1669 and 1691, the date of issue must have been deliberately misstated. The likely reason this particular date was chosen is that it is the year in which Tokugawa Ieyasu's was issued, and because the following year temples were ordered to start issuing ''terauke''. The document is often found in temples and collections all over the country and it appears to have been believed genuine even by most

Meiji period The is an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868 to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonization ...

historians. The Gojōmoku, which gives temples additional power over parishioners, is mentioned occasionally by temple registries and, when a ''danka'' did not meet its conditions, the temple certification wasn't issued. Its provisions caused considerable problems between ''danka'' and temples. The document first defined four duties of the ''danka''. * Duty to visit the temple on several yearly occasion. Failure to make the visits could cause the removal of the ''dankas name from the registry. * Duty to perform two services on the day of the ancestor memorial service. Failure to provide adequate entertainment for the priest meant being branded as a Christian. * Duty to make the family temple perform all memorial and funerary services. * Duty of anyone capable of walking to be present at memorial services for ancestors. It then gave five rights to its temple. * A ''danka'' had to perform certain acts in favor of the temple, including making offerings and providing free labor. Failure to do so meant being branded as a Fuju-fuse sect member. * A ''danka'' had to obey its temple and give money to its priests. * Regardless of how long a ''danka'' group had been faithful, it was always to be subject to religious investigation to determine the possible emergence of heresy. * After someone's death, just looking at the corpse the priest could determine what the defunct's true religion had been. * The ''danka'' was always to follow his temple's orders.

Consequences of the ''danka'' system

The consequences of two centuries and a half of ''terauke'' use and of the bureaucratization of Buddhism were numerous and profound, first of all for Buddhism itself.

Structural distortions

The chasm between allowed and forbidden sects became much deeper than it had been. If on the one hand Buddhism allowed a diversification of its authorized sects, on the other it punished tendencies that put into question the political status quo. A ''danka'' was registered at the closest temple regardless of its religious affiliations, so these became gradually less important. As a consequence of all these factors, differences among sects allowed by the government became watered down and Buddhism became more uniform, not least because the Shogunate had a say in matters of religious orthodoxy. During the Edo period, Buddhism therefore offered few new ideas (with the possible exception of the reform of

Zen Zen ( zh, t=禪, p=Chán; ja, text= 禅, translit=zen; ko, text=선, translit=Seon; vi, text=Thiền) is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty, known as the Chan School (''Chánzong'' 禪宗), and ...

sects). On the contrary, the development during the same period of Japanese Confucianism and Shinto, and the birth of the so-called "New Religions" produced interesting ideas.

The advent of "funerary Buddhism"

Even though the original intent of Buddhism was the spreading of the teachings of Buddha, Buddhist temples in Japan today are primarily cemeteries.Tamura (2000:214) The so-called or ''Funerary Buddhism'' of today, lampooned for example in

Juzo Itami , born , was a Japanese actor, screenwriter and film director. He directed eleven films (one short and ten features), all of which he wrote himself. Early life Itami was born Yoshihiro Ikeuchi in Kyoto. The name Itami was passed on from his fath ...

's film The Funeral, where Japanese Buddhism's essential function has become confined to the performance of funerals and memorial services, is a direct consequence of the ''danka'' system, as is the sale of posthumous names (or ). As far as Buddhism was concerned, the defining feature of the ''danka'' system during the Edo period was the fact that it guaranteed a steady stream of profits thanks to the mandatory funerary rites.Heine This cash flow is what paid for the majority of the temples in Japan and guaranteed their proliferation, and is inseparable from the ''danka'' system. Hence the tight association between Buddhism and death that continues to this day. When the formal dissolution of the whole ''danka'' system arrived after World War II, it meant for Buddhism a great loss of income, and therefore financial insecurity.

The ''Haibutsu kishaku'' movement

The use of ''terauke'' and the widespread resentment it created are considered to be one of the primary causes of the '' haibutsu kishaku'', a violent and spontaneous movement that at the beginning of the

caused the destruction of a high number of temples all over Japan. The government's official policy of separation of Shinto and Buddhism (''

Shinbutsu bunri The Japanese term indicates the separation of Shinto from Buddhism, introduced after the Meiji Restoration which separated Shinto ''kami'' from buddhas, and also Buddhist temples from Shinto shrines, which were originally amalgamated. It is ...

'') of the time, while not directly responsible for this destruction, provided the trigger that released pent-up energy. Considering Buddhism's close association with the Tokugawa, it can't be a surprise that Buddhist monks were regarded as state agents and that several sectors of the Edo society began trying to find alternate ways to satisfy their spiritual needs.Bernhard Scheid In spite of its history, Buddhism had however decisive advantages over both

Shinto Shinto () is a religion from Japan. Classified as an East Asian religion by scholars of religion, its practitioners often regard it as Japan's indigenous religion and as a nature religion. Scholars sometimes call its practitioners ''Shint ...

and

Confucianism Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a Religious Confucianism, religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, ...

that during the Meiji era made it impossible to replace it with either.Paul B. Watt With its many rituals (the ''jūsan butsuji'', or thirteen Buddhist rituals), Buddhism could better help people cope with death. Moreover, Shinto associates death with pollution, so it is intrinsically less suitable to funerary ceremonies, while Confucianism in Japan did not concern itself much with funerals. Lastly, Buddhism had a country-wide infrastructure that neither Shinto nor Confucianism could match.

Notes

References

* * Nam-Lin Hur, Death and social order in Tokugawa Japan: Buddhism, anti-Christianity, and the danka system, Harvard University Asia Center, 2007; pp. 1-30 (The Rise of Funerary Buddhism in Tokugawa Japan)
Internet archive
*

Bernhard Scheid Bernhard Scheid (born 1960) is an Austrian historian, academic, and Japanologist, affiliated to the Austrian Academy of Sciences and the Institute of East Asian Studies at the University of Vienna (''Institut für Ostasienkunde der Universität Wie ...

Inquisition unter buddhistischen Vorzeichen
retrieved on March 20, 2008 * Paul B. Watt

retrieved on March 20, 2008 *{{cite book , last=Tamura , first=Yoshiro , title=Japanese Buddhism – A Cultural History , publisher=Kosei Publishing Company , location=Tokyo , year=2000 , edition=First , pages=232 pages , chapter=The Birth of the Japanese nation , isbn=4-333-01684-3
Review of "Death and Social Order in Tokugawa Japan: Buddhism, anti-Christianity and the Danka System" by Nam-Lin Hur
By Steven Heine, retrieved on October 20, 2008

Bibliography

* Tamamuro Fumio (2001)
"Local Society and the Temple-Parishioner Relationship within the Bakufu’s Governance Structure"
Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 28/3-4, 261–29 * Tamamuro Fumio (2009)
The Development of the Temple-Parishioner System
Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 36/1, 11–26 Religious policy in Japan Buddhism in the Edo period