Initial consonant mutation
Initial Consonant mutation, mutation is a feature shared by all the modern Celtic languages, in which the initial consonant of a word may change under some circumstances. In Cornish these changes take place when a word starts with one of the consonants shown in the table below; other initial consonants remain unchanged. The most common mutation occurs after the definite article ''an'', when followed by a feminine singular noun or masculine plural noun. 1 Before unrounded vowels (i, y, e, a), l, and r + unrounded vowel.Nouns
Gender
Cornish nouns, like those of other Celtic languages, possess two grammatical genders, meaning that they belong to one of two groups: masculine or feminine. Sometimes the gender of a noun can be inferred from the class of words it belongs to, for example, nouns referring to males, such as ' “man, husband” or ' “bull”, or verbal nouns, such as ' “walking” and ' “being”, are masculine whereas nouns referring to females, such as ' “sister” and ' “hen”, are feminine. Nevertheless, it is often impossible to determine the gender of a noun from its form, although certain nominal suffixes have gender: * Masculine suffixes: ', '/', '/''/'', ', ', ' (mostly), ', ', ', ', ', ', ' * Feminine suffixes: ', ', ', ', ', ' There is a very small number of nouns which may be either gender, such as ' “heaven” and ' “grassland”, and is similar to its sister language Breton grammar#Gender, Breton in that the noun ' “thing” takes masculine numerals above one and masculine referring pronouns but has the mutations of a feminine noun after ' “the”, ' “one” and on accompanying adjectives.Number
Singular and plural
Most nouns have a singular and plural form, the latter deriving from the former in a number of ways. Plural forms may add an ending to a singular, such as ' “beach” to ', ' “pumpkin” to ' and ' “thief” to '. Adding an ending may be accompanied by a vowel change, as in the case of ' “wife” to ' and ' “sister” to ', or may involve a vowel change alone, for example ' “horn” to ' and ' “stone” to '.Dual
A small number of nouns display relics of a Dual (grammatical number), dual system. These are formed by prefixing masculine ' or feminine ', both “two”, to the respective noun. Dual nouns are often parts of the body and indicate the pair of them taken together, for instance, ' “eye” to ' “(pair of) eyes” and ' “arm” to ' “(pair of) arm”. These carry a different meaning to the regular plural forms, such as ' or ' “eyes” and ' “arms”, which do not indicate a matching pair.Collective and singulative
A distinctive and unusual feature of Brythonic languages is that of Singulative number, collective and singulative number. The base form of some Cornish nouns denotes a class or group, often natural objects, such as ' “pine trees”, ' “flies” and ' “fog”. A singulative is formed by adding the feminine ending ' to denote a single individual of the group, hence ' “a pine tree”, ' “a fly” and ' “a patch of fog”. Singulatives can themselves have plural forms in ', denoting a number of individuals of the group, so for instance, ' gives ' “(a number of) flies (individually)”.Determiners
Articles
Cornish lacks an indefinite Article (grammar), article (although ' “one” is sometimes used to mean ”a certain...” e.g. ' “a certain dog”), but has a definite article, ', which precedes the noun, for example ' “the Cornishman” and ' “the Cornishwomen”. The article causes a soft mutation on feminine singular nouns, such as ' “Cornishwoman” to ' “the Cornishwoman”, and on masculine plural nouns denoting persons, as ' “Cornishmen” to ' “the Cornishmen”, although exceptions to the latter include ' “the fathers” and clear English borrowings such as ' “the doctors”. Also the masculine plural nouns ' ”stones” and ' ”horses” are exceptions, which are lenited to ' ”the stones” and ' ”the horses”, respectively. ' is shortened to ' after certain function words that end in a vowel, meaning ' “of”, ' “to” and ' “and” become ' “of the”, ' “to the” and ' “and the”, and in addition, ' “in” becomes identically pronounced ' “in the”.Demonstrative determiners
The definite article and a noun followed by the clitics ' and ' to produce the demonstratives “this/these” and “that/those” respectively, for example ' “this book” and ' “those books”.Possessive determiners
The possessive determiners are as follows. Notice their similarity to the more reduced forms of the personal pronouns.Pronouns
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns in Cornish can be arranged as follows. Independent personal pronouns are used as the subject of a nominal sentence, for example ' “I believe”, or can stand before the verb in a verbal sentence to draw attention to the subject implied by the verb, for example ' “''We'' cannot go”. Certain other constructions employ independent pronouns, such as those based on verbal nouns, like ' “(that) he came here”, and those that follow conjunctions, such as ' “as they are/were waiting”. Suffixed pronouns are attached to nouns in possessive constructions, to inflected verbs and to pronouns and are used to reinforce a pronoun previously expressed by a verbal or personal ending, for example ' “Where did she go?”. Reduced pronouns are used between a verbal particle and a verb, such as in ' “if I don't see you”.Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns display two degrees of proximity as well as gender and number. These pronouns lose their final ' before ' “is” and ' “was”, for example ' “This is my (female) cousin”.Adjectives
Cornish adjectives usually come after the noun they modify although a few may come before or after, such as ' “bad” and ' “full”, and a small number always precede the noun, such as ' “many” and ' “old, long-standing”. There are simple and derived adjectives. The former comprise adjectives that are not derived of any other word, whereas the latter are formed by adding suffixes such as ' to the end of a noun (including verbal nouns). Adjectives are lenited when they are preceded by a feminine singular noun, or a masculine plural noun referring to persons, e.g. ' 'an old woman', ' 'small sons'.Comparison
Adjectives are inflected with ' to give a comparative/superlative form. This suffix causes provection of the adjective stem, for example ' “wet” to ' and ' “stong” to '. A number of adjectives are irregular and have separate comparative and superlative forms. Used in place names.Adverbs
Adverbials in Cornish may be a single word or a more complex phrases, for example ' “then” and ' “now”, literally “in this hour”. Many are formed from the combination of a preposition and a noun or pronoun, such as ' “downwards” from ' “on” and ' “bottom” and ' (or ') “within” from ' “from, at” and ' (or ') “house”. Adverbs can be formed from adjectives by means of the Grammatical particle, particle ' “in”, such as in the case of ' “strong” to ' “strongly” and ' “good” to ' “well”.Verbs
Regular conjugation
Cornish verbs are highly regular and are conjugated to show distinctions of Grammatical person, person, Grammatical number, number, Grammatical mood, mood, Grammatical tense, tense and Grammatical aspect, aspect in various combinations. Certain points should be observed about the above: :The final consonant of a verb stem is modified before subjunctive endings. Consonants are usually lengthened, shortening the previous vowel, and voiced stops and fricatives are devoiced and lengthened, for example, “open” to , “hang” to and “tell tales” to . :Certain verbs take slightly different endings in the indicative imperfect. Instead of , and , they take , and respectively, for example, “laugh” to “I/we were laughing”, “you [singular] were laughing”, “he/she/it was laughing”. :The third person singular indicative present/future and the second person imperative utilise the verbal stem with no ending. :In the third person singular and impersonal preterite, some verbs take the alternative ending , for example “grow” to and “call” to . :The impersonal form is equivalent to the use of the English pronoun ''One (pronoun), one'' and can be used in a similar way to the English passive, for example, “One bought the food; The food was bought”. :The infinitive form is considered to be a verbal noun in Cornish grammars, meaning an example like can function as both verbal “to buy” and nominal “(the act of) buying”. A number of different verbal noun endings exist. It should also be noted that Affection (linguistics), vowel affection occurs in the stem of some verbs before certain endings, especially those with Close vowel, close Front vowel, front vowels, though not exclusively. Note: :The alternative indicative imperfect endings , and cause vowel affection. :Amongst the endingless forms, the present/future third person singular and the second person singular imperative, the former may include vowel affection while the latter does not, for example, “sound” to “he/she/it sounds” and “sound!” and “call” to “he/she/it calls” and “call!”. :The alternative third person singular and impersonal preterite ending causes vowel affection. :These endings also cause affection with some verbs. :Certain verbal noun endings cause vowel affection, again especially those with close front vowels.Irregular conjugation
A handful of irregular verbs exist, the most common of which are detailed here. The most irregular verb of all is “be”, which is often used as an Auxiliary verb, auxiliary and can be conjugated to show a number of additional distinctions not present in other verbs. Some peculiarities of to be noted as follows: :The present tense has separate short and long forms. The short forms are used when a subject complement is a noun or adjective whereas the long forms are used with adverbial and participle complements. In addition, the imperfect has a Habitual aspect, habitual form. : and are used in Affirmation and negation, affirmitive Declarative sentence, declarative Independent clause, independent clauses whereas , and are used elsewhere, such as negative, interrogative and Dependent clause, dependent clauses. is used with definite subjects whereas is used with indefinite subjects. :The form is not found independently but rather in its mutated form as part of compound words, such as “known” and “owned”. is a combination of an reduced pronoun with dative meaning and the third person singular forms of , meaning literally “there is to [me]”, or more idiomatically “[I] have”. A similar construction is present in Breton grammar#Irregular conjugation, Breton. The presence of the pronoun means there are separate masculine and feminine third person singular forms but no impersonal forms, verbal noun or participles. The irregular verb (or ) “know, can (know how to)” is based upon although does not utilise a habitual imperfect. Another extremely common irregular verb also used as an auxiliary is “do, make”. The verb “go, become” is irregular and has separate forms for the present perfect. Similarly, “come, arrive” is irregular and has present perfect forms. The irregular verbs “give” and “bring” (alternatively, and ) have similar conjugations. This table give the forms of from which the forms can be composed by adding an initial , for example “I give” to “I bring”. The only exceptions to this are that the second person singular imperatives of are , and and that, as usual, the of the present participle cause provection of the to to give .Conjunctions
Certain Conjunction (grammar), conjunctions have an additional form used when followed by a vowel, such as ' “and” becoming and ' “than” becoming .Prepositions
As in other Celtic languages, Cornish Preposition and postposition, prepositions are Preposition and postposition#Simple versus complex, simple or complex and may Inflected preposition, inflect to show person, number and gender. Historically, inflected prepositions derive from the Contraction (grammar), contraction between a preposition and a personal pronoun. Simple prepositions that inflect belong to one of three groups characterised by their use of the vowel , or . Third person prepositional stems are sometimes slightly different from those of the first and second persons and Affection (linguistics), affection sometimes occurs in the third person singular feminine. “to” and “with” are irregular. Complex prepositions inflect by means of interfixes, whereby the nominal second element is preceded by a pronominal form. This is similar to how can become in archaic English. Mutations may be triggered following the various pronominal forms as seen in the following table.Numbers
Cardinal numbers
Similar to other Celtic languages, Cornish has an underlying vigesimal counting system. “Two”, “three” and “four” and derivative numbers have separate masculine ''(m.)'' and feminine ''(f.)'' forms. The numbers 21 to 39 employ the connective ' “on the” to join the smaller number to the larger, for example ' “21”, ' “29” and ' “31”. From 41 onwards, the connecting word is ' “and”, as in ' “41”, ' “55” and ' “99”. Cardinal numbers used to form larger numbers include: Beyond 100, it is still possible to use multiples of , such as ' “120”. ' “100”, ' “1,000” and ' “1,000,000” are all masculine numbers, for example ' “3,000”.Ordinal numbers
Ordinal numbers and their abbreviations are shown below. The majority of numbers employ the ordinal suffix . Larger numbers also employ the suffix . In multi-word numbers, the initial smaller number joined with the connector takes the ordinal form, for example ' “21st” and ' “99th” (not ' or '). In multiword numbers that are not joined by connecting words, the final number takes the ordinal form, for example ' “40th”, ' “120th”, ' “3,000th”.Word order and focus
The default Cornish word order is verb–subject–object, although like most Celtic languages this is somewhat fluid. Cornish has a system of fronting constituents, in which parts of a sentence can be moved to the front for focus, rather than stressing them in situ as English does. This system has influenced the Anglo-Cornish dialect, heard in the distinctive questioning of dialect speakers such as “Goin’ in’ town are’ee?” and “’S bleddy ’tis”. In description sentences of the verb ''bos'' ‘to be’, the complement is typically fronted: Other existence sentences of ''bos'' front the verb: Since Cornish prefers to use a ‘there is’ existence form of ''bos'' with indefinite objects (when not fronted for emphasis, that is), an object being definite or indefinite can result in different parts being fronted: With other verbs, subject-fronted is the default unmarked word order. This still follows the default verb–subject–object order, since sentences of this kind were in origin relative clauses emphasising the subject: When the sentence's object is a pronoun, it appears before the verb and after the particle ''a'', although it can also appear after the verb for emphasis: ''My a’s gwel'' ‘I see her’, or ''My a’s gwel hi'' “I see ''her''”. When auxiliary verbs are used, a possessive pronoun is used with the verbal noun: ''My a wra hy gweles'' ‘I see her’ (literally “I do her seeing”), or when stressed, ''My a wra hy gweles hi'' “I see ''her''”. In both instances, colloquial spoken Cornish may drop all but the suffixed pronouns, to give ''My a wel hi'' and ''My a wra gweles hi'', although this is rarely written. In questions and negative sentences, an interrogative particle and negative particle are used, respectively. These are generally fronted in neutral situations: Subject pronouns can be placed before a negative particle for emphasis: ''My ny vynnav kewsel Sowsnek'' ’''I'' will not speak English’ or ’As for me, I will not speak English’ (said to be Dolly Pentreath's last words).Fronting for emphasis
Besides the “neutral” structures given above, elements of Cornish sentences can be fronted to give emphasis, or when responding to a question with requested information. Fronting involves moving the element to the beginning of the sentence. English typically achieves this by modifying tone or intonation. There are two particles involved in fronting. The particle ''a'' is actually a relative particle used when the subject or direct object of a sentence is fronted. If anything else is fronted, usually adverbials or information headed by prepositions, the particle used is ''y'' (''yth'' before a vowel).Nominal syntax
Determiner (class), Determiners precede the noun they modify, while adjectives generally follow it. A modifier that precedes its head noun often causes a mutation, and adjectives following a Gender (linguistics), feminine noun are Lenition, lenited. Thus: *' (”a woman”) *' (”the woman”; ' is lenited because it is feminine) *' (”a wicked woman”; ' is lenited because ' “wicked” precedes it) *' (”a smart woman”; ' is lenited because it follows a feminine noun) Genitive relationships are expressed by apposition. The genitive in Cornish is formed by putting two noun phrases next to each other, the possessor coming second. So English “The cat's mother”, or “mother of the cat”, corresponds to Cornish – literally, “mother the cat”; “the project manager's telephone number” is – literally, “number telephone manager the project”. Only the last noun in a genitive sequence can take the definite article.References
*Williams, N. ''Desky Kernowek'' (Evertype, 2012) {{Cornish language Cornish language Celtic grammars