compressed air system with a PCM heat exchanger prototype

A compressed-air vehicle (CAV) is a transport mechanism fueled by tanks of pressurized atmospheric

gas Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, liquid, and plasma). A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon), elemental molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), or ...

and propelled by the release and expansion of the gas within a

pneumatic motor A pneumatic motor (air motor), or compressed air engine, is a type of motor which does mechanical work by expanding compressed air. Pneumatic motors generally convert the compressed air energy to mechanical work through either linear or rotary ...

. CAV's have found application in

torpedoes A modern torpedo is an underwater ranged weapon launched above or below the water surface, self-propelled towards a target, and with an explosive warhead designed to detonate either on contact with or in proximity to the target. Historically, su ...

, locomotives used in situations where standard locomotives are a hazard, and early prototype submarines. Compressed-air vehicles operate according to a thermodynamic process where air cools down when expanding and heats up when being compressed and those are thermal energy losses that drain the

capacity factor The net capacity factor is the unitless ratio of actual electrical energy output over a given period of time to the theoretical maximum electrical energy output over that period. The theoretical maximum energy output of a given installation is def ...

, however with the recent developments in

isothermal In thermodynamics, an isothermal process is a type of thermodynamic process in which the temperature ''T'' of a system remains constant: Δ''T'' = 0. This typically occurs when a system is in contact with an outside thermal reservoir, and ...

compressed air energy storage Compressed-air energy storage (CAES) is a way to store energy for later use using compressed air. At a utility scale, energy generated during periods of low demand can be released during peak load periods.Wild, Matthew, LWind Drives Growing Use o ...

ICAES plants, compressed air storage has reached 4 times the

lithium-ion A lithium-ion or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery which uses the reversible reduction of lithium ions to store energy. It is the predominant battery type used in portable consumer electronics and electric vehicles. It also se ...

batteries with 2.7Mj/kg or 3.6Mj/m3 and in 2020 there has been developments in

ICAV Qualifying Investor Alternative Investment Fund or QIAIF is a Central Bank of Ireland regulatory classification established in 2013 for Ireland's five tax-free legal structures for holding assets. The Irish Collective Asset-management Vehicle ...

car or isothermal compressed air vehicle published by Dr. Reza Alizade Evrin from

Ontario Tech University Ontario Tech University (OTU), also known as Ontario Tech, is a public research university located in Oshawa, Ontario, Canada. The university's main campus is located on approximately of land in northern Oshawa, while its secondary satellite cam ...

with a first prototype that uses

low pressure In meteorology, a low-pressure area, low area or low is a region where the atmospheric pressure is lower than that of surrounding locations. Low-pressure areas are commonly associated with inclement weather (such as cloudy, windy, with possible ...

air tanks and exhaust air recovery to power a paraffin

heat exchanger A heat exchanger is a system used to transfer heat between a source and a working fluid. Heat exchangers are used in both cooling and heating processes. The fluids may be separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or they may be in direct conta ...

system with a global

energy efficiency Energy efficiency may refer to: * Energy efficiency (physics), the ratio between the useful output and input of an energy conversion process ** Electrical efficiency, useful power output per electrical power consumed ** Mechanical efficiency, a ra ...

of 74% (reaching 73%-90% efficiency of

electric cars) with a

driving range A driving range is a facility or area where golfers can practice their golf swing. It can also be a recreational activity itself for amateur golfers or when enough time for a full game is not available. Many golf courses have a driving range att ...

of 140 km. This efficiency and range can be increased by using storage tank as vehicle chassis structure, high pressure tanks, new rotary engines, and a more efficient heat exchanger, this breakthrough together with the availability of recycled and bio-based

thermoplastic A thermoplastic, or thermosoft plastic, is any plastic polymer material that becomes pliable or moldable at a certain elevated temperature and solidifies upon cooling. Most thermoplastics have a high molecular weight. The polymer chains associate ...

s for tanks and pneumatic components and renewable energy means this technology can be the basis of a free green transportation revolution with energy and circular industry decentralization with open source numerical control machines fabrication including

additive manufacturing 3D printing or additive manufacturing is the construction of a three-dimensional object from a CAD model or a digital 3D model. It can be done in a variety of processes in which material is deposited, joined or solidified under computer co ...

while multistage

air compressor An air compressor is a pneumatic device that converts power (using an electric motor, diesel or gasoline engine, etc.) into potential energy stored in pressurized air (i.e., compressed air). By one of several methods, an air compressor forces m ...

s and coolers or hydraulic pumps can be attached directly to VAWT

wind turbines A wind turbine is a device that converts the kinetic energy of wind into electrical energy. Hundreds of thousands of large turbines, in installations known as wind farms, now generate over 650 gigawatts of power, with 60 GW added each year. Wi ...

stirling engine A Stirling engine is a heat engine that is operated by the cyclic compression and expansion of air or other gas (the ''working fluid'') between different temperatures, resulting in a net conversion of heat energy to mechanical work. More specif ...

with a parabolic or

fresnel lens A Fresnel lens ( ; ; or ) is a type of composite compact lens developed by the French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1788–1827) for use in lighthouses. It has been called "the invention that saved a million ships." The design allows the c ...

solar concentrator Concentrated solar power (CSP, also known as concentrating solar power, concentrated solar thermal) systems generate solar power by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight into a receiver. Electricity is generated when ...

or river, tidal, wave

hydropower Hydropower (from el, ὕδωρ, "water"), also known as water power, is the use of falling or fast-running water to produce electricity or to power machines. This is achieved by converting the gravitational potential or kinetic energy of a w ...

turbine with no

electric energy Electrical energy is energy related to forces on electrically charged particles and the movement of electrically charged particles (often electrons in wires, but not always). This energy is supplied by the combination of electric current and electr ...

electric grid An electrical grid is an interconnected network for electricity delivery from producers to consumers. Electrical grids vary in size and can cover whole countries or continents. It consists of:Kaplan, S. M. (2009). Smart Grid. Electrical Power ...

needed nor

energy conversion Energy transformation, also known as energy conversion, is the process of changing energy from one form to another. In physics, energy is a quantity that provides the capacity to perform work or moving, (e.g. Lifting an object) or provides heat ...

inefficiencies or additional energy storage, also instead of onboard heat recovery system there can be used a refillable

molten salt Molten salt is salt which is solid at standard temperature and pressure but enters the liquid phase due to elevated temperature. Regular table salt has a melting point of 801 °C (1474°F) and a heat of fusion of 520 J/g.Journal of Chemical T ...

(from

or parabolic Concentrated solar power) reservoir in a

system. Compressed-air propulsion may also be incorporated in hybrid systems, such as with battery electric propulsion. This kind of system is called a hybrid-pneumatic electric propulsion. Additionally,

regenerative braking Regenerative braking is an energy recovery mechanism that slows down a moving vehicle or object by converting its kinetic energy into a form that can be either used immediately or stored until needed. In this mechanism, the electric traction mo ...

can also be used in conjunction with this system.

Compressed air engines

In principle, any

Pneumatic motor A pneumatic motor (air motor), or compressed air engine, is a type of motor which does mechanical work by expanding compressed air. Pneumatic motors generally convert the compressed air energy to mechanical work through either linear or rotary ...

can be used for an compressed-air vehicle, but some engines were specifically developed for this application and/or have specific advantages.

di pietro engine

There have been several dubious claims with undisclosed information. However, the "di pietro" engine has been partially tested with

CAD Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computers (or ) to aid in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. This software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve co ...

and finite element analysis program and published in scientific papers by Jarosław Zwierzchowski from Lodz University of Technology in 2017, which is an eccentric shaft vane motor that uses low air pressure.

Liquidpiston

Another recent engine that could be adapted to compressed air is Liquidpiston rotary engine.

Compressed air tanks and collision safety

Hyundai nexo high pressure hydrogen tank safety

DuraStor consortium Thermoplastic composite pressure vessels

The tanks must be designed to safety standards appropriate for a pressure vessel, such as

ISO 11439 Compressed natural gas (CNG) is a fuel gas mainly composed of methane (CH4), compressed to less than 1% of the volume it occupies at standard atmospheric pressure. It is stored and distributed in hard containers at a pressure of , usually in cy ...

. The pressure vessels or air storage tanks that can be used in compressed air vehicles can be made of low pressure (9 atm) or high pressure (+240 atm), and can be made of composite materials like thermoplastic and fiber reinforced thermoplastics, that means that the price can drop by using recycled or biobased thermoplastics using

rotational molding Rotational molding (BrE: moulding) involves a heated mold which is filled with a charge or shot weight of material. It is then slowly rotated (usually around two perpendicular axes), causing the softened material to disperse and stick to the ...

and they are much lighter than lithium-iron batteries and 70% lighter compared to steel tanks, also they have more lifespan and don't need much maintenance. To reduce vehicle weight further the air tanks can be used as structural storage so the tank is the main part of the vehicle chassis while using appropriate impact isolation, however fiber reinforced thermoplastic tanks only have ruptures in case of collision and don't explode. The advance in pressure vessels for vehicles have been developed for hydrogen vehicles with high compression pressure vessels, this is a quote from the hyundai webpage which have created the Hyundai Nexus with 700 atm tanks and favourable crash tests.

” Hydrogen tanks require ‘High Strength’ to prevent rupture and ‘High Stiffness’ for durability. Strength is defined as the level of resistance to an influence of an external force. Stiffness is the level of resistance maintaining its original shape. The carbon fiber materials used in making hydrogen fuel tanks is as light as a plastic but has six and four times the strength and stiffness of steel, respectively. “When a bullet penetrates a hydrogen tank, it does not explode. Instead, hydrogen leaks out through the bullet hole. In a standard collision test, not even a tiny amount of hydrogen was detected because none had leaked out.

Compressed air production, storage and energy efficiency and density

wind turbine powered hydraulic pump with Open Accumulator for Isothermal Compressed Air Energy Storage ICAES System

Compressed air has a low energy density, however near isothermal compressed air storage ICAES has almost 4 times

batteries capacity with 2.7Mj/kg or 3.6Mj/m3. Compressed air can be produced by attaching an

or hydraulic pump to a wind turbine or using river, tidal, wave

turbine with only a conversion from mechanical to pneumatic energy, eliminating electricity from the loop which gives higher efficiency overall. Also there is the possibility of using thermal energy with a parabolic or

to power a thermal

to move the compressor or pump, as solar stirling is more efficient than solar steam and Photovoltaic. (see also Solar-powered Stirling engine)

Emission output

Since the compressed air is filtered to protect the compressor machinery, the air discharged has less suspended dust in it, though there may be carry-over of lubricants used in the compressor or engine. This can be mitigated by using oil free air compressors.

Resource consumption

The recent developments of composite

pressure vessels A pressure vessel is a container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure substantially different from the ambient pressure. Construction methods and materials may be chosen to suit the pressure application, and will depend on the size o ...

and pneumatic components means that compressed air vehicles can be part of the circular industry with biobased or recycled components. Also by cutting electric energy from the loop there is no need for electric grid and the metals used like cooper, iron in magnets, etc.

History

CompressedAirLocomotive Section1 AdolpheBraun1811to1877

Compressed air has been used since the 19th century to power mine

locomotives A locomotive or engine is a rail transport vehicle that provides the motive power for a train. If a locomotive is capable of carrying a payload, it is usually rather referred to as a multiple unit, motor coach, railcar or power car; the ...

and trams in cities such as Paris (via a central, city-level, compressed air energy distribution system), and was previously the basis of naval

torpedo A modern torpedo is an underwater ranged weapon launched above or below the water surface, self-propelled towards a target, and with an explosive warhead designed to detonate either on contact with or in proximity to the target. Historically, s ...

propulsion. During the construction of the Gotthardbahn from 1872 to 1882, pneumatic locomotives were used in the construction of the

Gotthard Rail Tunnel , it, Galleria del San Gottardo , other_name = , line = Gotthard Line , location = Traversing the Saint-Gotthard Massif in the middle of the Swiss Alps , coordinates = , os_grid_ref = , status = , system ...

and other tunnels of the Gotthardbahn. In 1903, the Liquid Air Company located in London, United Kingdom, manufactured a number of compressed-air and liquified-air cars. The major problem with these cars and all compressed-air cars is the lack of torque produced by the "engines" and the cost of compressing the air. Since 2010, several companies have started to develop compressed air cars, including hybrid types that also include a petrol driven engine; none has been released to the public, or have been tested by third parties.

Advantages

Energy efficiency Energy efficiency may refer to: * Energy efficiency (physics), the ratio between the useful output and input of an energy conversion process ** Electrical efficiency, useful power output per electrical power consumed ** Mechanical efficiency, a ra ...

of the energy source, by using wind turbines to compressors or pumps there is a single conversion of mechanical to pneumatic or hydraulic energy, and by powering the compressor with

with a parabolic or

there's

thermal energy The term "thermal energy" is used loosely in various contexts in physics and engineering. It can refer to several different well-defined physical concepts. These include the internal energy or enthalpy of a body of matter and radiation; heat, de ...

mechanical energy In physical sciences, mechanical energy is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy. The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that if an isolated system is subject only to conservative forces, then the mechanical energy is ...

conversion, also by using a phase change material in the

heated with concentrated solar power there is only solar

involved.

of the vehicle, as of 2020 the first isothermal prototype reaches 74%, which is similar to the 73-90% of electric vehicles using

. Energy density compared to

, Isothermal compressed air energy storage ICAES energy density can be at least 2.7Mj/kg or 3.6Mj/m3, 4 times of lithium-ion batteries, which can be improved with high pressure vessels and heat exchanger systems. Resources, compressed air technology can be adapted to renewable energy and circular industry with biobased or recycled composites and so compared to electric vehicles they can be exempt from finite mineral resources or toxic processes used in

battery Battery most often refers to: * Electric battery, a device that provides electrical power * Battery (crime), a crime involving unlawful physical contact Battery may also refer to: Energy source *Automotive battery, a device to provide power t ...

and

electric motor An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire winding to generate for ...

manufacturing and also from the electric grid use. Structural weight, the low weight of composite pressure vessels relative to

and also compared to steel tanks (70% lighter), which that can be reduced by using the tanks as vehicle chassis structure with appropriate impact isolation, also the low weight of

wheel hub motor The wheel hub motor (also called wheel motor, wheel hub drive, hub motor or in-wheel motor) is an electric motor that is incorporated into the hub of a wheel and drives it directly. History * First wheel motor concept: Wellington Adams of ...

rotary engines. Refilling is possible in almost any place or with onboard equipment, because the only thing necessary is wind,

solar power Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV) or indirectly using concentrated solar power. Photovoltaic cells convert light into an electric current using the photovolta ...

or river, tidal, wave

to move an

, hydraulic pump or

. Energy synergy with the available pneumatic energy, so all vehicle

mechatronics Mechatronics engineering also called mechatronics, is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering that focuses on the integration of mechanical, electrical and electronic engineering systems, and also includes a combination of robotics, electronics, ...

systems can be powered by small air motors, and also the vehicle can use active pneumatic suspension, pneumatic steering or pneumatic shock absorption bumpers, also there can be provided

air conditioning Air conditioning, often abbreviated as A/C or AC, is the process of removing heat from an enclosed space to achieve a more comfortable interior environment (sometimes referred to as 'comfort cooling') and in some cases also strictly controlling ...

or climate control with the using the low temperature created during air expansion.

Energy recovery Energy recovery includes any technique or method of minimizing the input of energy to an overall system by the exchange of energy from one sub-system of the overall system with another. The energy can be in any form in either subsystem, but mos ...

systems with regenerative suspension and

Regenerative braking Regenerative braking is an energy recovery mechanism that slows down a moving vehicle or object by converting its kinetic energy into a form that can be either used immediately or stored until needed. In this mechanism, the electric traction mo ...

producing low pressure compressed air to be stored in an additional pressure vessel. Low noise of

pistonless rotary engine A pistonless rotary engine is an internal combustion engine that does not use pistons in the way a reciprocating engine does. Designs vary widely but typically involve one or more rotors, sometimes called rotary pistons. Although many differen ...

s while using compressed air, which can also being soundproofed because the low temperature in which it works. Zero

fire hazard Fire safety is the set of practices intended to reduce the destruction caused by fire. Fire safety measures include those that are intended to prevent the ignition of an uncontrolled fire and those that are used to limit the development and ef ...

, which makes it one of the few

transportation Transport (in British English), or transportation (in American English), is the intentional movement of humans, animals, and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, land (rail and road), water, cable, pipeline, ...

systems that cannot produce spontaneous or after-collision fire or explosions like in the case of petrol, ethanol, hydrogen and also battery vehicles.

Disadvantages

Energy density of compressed air compared to liquid nitrogen or

hydrogen Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. Hydrogen is the lightest element. At standard conditions hydrogen is a gas of diatomic molecules having the formula . It is colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic ...

compressed air engine A pneumatic motor (air motor), or compressed air engine, is a type of motor which does mechanical work by expanding compressed air. Pneumatic motors generally convert the compressed air energy to mechanical work through either linear or rotary ...

compared to micro

gas turbine A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of continuous flow internal combustion engine. The main parts common to all gas turbine engines form the power-producing part (known as the gas generator or core) and are, in the directio ...

with adequate

soundproofing Soundproofing is any means of impeding sound propagation. There are several basic approaches to reducing sound: increasing the distance between source and receiver, decoupling, using noise barriers to reflect or absorb the energy of the sound ...

that can be used in hybrid gas turbine-electric motor vehicles with a mixture of compressed air, liquid nitrogen or hydrogen (previous gas turbine powered vehicles have used a setup for speed, rather than efficiency consisting in a large noise

s connected to the transmission) since the gas turbine (which are used in

thermal power plants A thermal power station is a type of power station in which heat energy is converted to electrical energy. In a steam-generating cycle heat is used to boil water in a large pressure vessel to produce high-pressure steam, which drives a steam ...

due to its efficiency) outperforms

s, however the production of compressed air is more energy efficient and so requires less

wind power Wind power or wind energy is mostly the use of wind turbines to generate electricity. Wind power is a popular, sustainable, renewable energy source that has a much smaller impact on the environment than burning fossil fuels. Historically ...

and infrastructure and also there is a loss of efficiency from

to generator and to

. While batteries can somewhat maintain their voltage throughout their discharge and chemical fuel tanks provide the same power densities from the first to the last litre, the pressure of compressed air tanks falls as air is drawn off, reducing available power.

Possible improvements

It may be possible to store compressed air at lower pressure using an absorption material within the tank. Absorption materials like Activated carbon, or a metal organic framework is used for storing

compressed natural gas Compressed natural gas (CNG) is a fuel gas mainly composed of methane (CH4), compressed to less than 1% of the volume it occupies at standard atmospheric pressure. It is stored and distributed in hard containers at a pressure of , usually in cy ...

at 500 psi instead of 4500 psi, which amounts to a large energy saving.

Vehicles

American compressed air locomotive used in boring the Rove Tunnel Scientific American 1916-11-25

Production cars

Several companies are investigating and producing prototype,s including hybrid compressed-air/gasoline-combustion vehicles. As of August 2017, none of the developers have yet gone into production, although Tata has indicated they will begin selling vehicles from 2020 and MDI's US distributor Zero Pollution Motors says production of the AIRPod will commence in Europe in 2018.

Experimental cars and bikes

In 2008, a compressed air and

natural gas Natural gas (also called fossil gas or simply gas) is a naturally occurring mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons consisting primarily of methane in addition to various smaller amounts of other higher alkanes. Low levels of trace gases like carbo ...

powered vehicle designed by engineering students at

Deakin University Deakin University is a public university in Victoria, Australia. Founded in 1974, the university was named after Alfred Deakin, the second Prime Minister of Australia. Its main campuses are in Melbourne's Burwood suburb, Geelong Waurn Ponds, ...

in Australia was joint winner of the

Ford Motor Company Ford Motor Company (commonly known as Ford) is an American multinational automobile manufacturer headquartered in Dearborn, Michigan, United States. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16, 1903. The company sells automobi ...

T2 competition to produce a car with a 200 km range and an estimated cost of less than $7,000. Australian company Engineair has produced a number of vehicle types - moped, small car, small carrier, go-cart - around the rotary compressed air engine created by Angelo Di Pietro. A compressed-air powered motorcycle, called the Green Speed Air Powered Motorcycle was made by Edwin Yi Yuan, based on the Suzuki GP100 and using the Angelo Di Pietro compressed-air engine. Three mechanical engineering students from

San Jose State University San José State University (San Jose State or SJSU) is a public university in San Jose, California. Established in 1857, SJSU is the oldest public university on the West Coast and the founding campus of the California State University (CSU) sy ...

; Daniel Mekis, Dennis Schaaf and Andrew Merovich, designed and built a bike that runs on compressed air. The total cost of the prototype was under $1000 and was sponsored by Sunshops (on the Boardwalk in

Santa Cruz, California Santa Cruz ( Spanish for "Holy Cross") is the county seat and largest city of Santa Cruz County, in Northern California. As of the 2020 census, the city population was 62,956. Situated on the northern edge of Monterey Bay, Santa Cruz is a po ...

) and NO DIG NO RIDE (from Aptos, California.). The top speed of the maiden voyage in May 2009 was 23 mph. While their design was simple, these three pioneers of compressed air powered vehicles helped pave the way for French automaker Peugeot Citroën to invent a brand new air-powered hybrid. The 'Hybrid Air' system uses compressed air to move the car's wheels when driving under 43 mph. Peugeot says the new hybrid system should get up to 141 miles per gallon of gas. Models should roll out as early as 2016

The head of the project left Peugeot in 2014 and in 2015 the company said it had been unable to find a partner to share the development costs, effectively ending the project. "Ku:Rin" named air-compressed three-wheeler vehicle was created by

Toyota is a Japanese multinational automotive manufacturer headquartered in Toyota City, Aichi, Japan. It was founded by Kiichiro Toyoda and incorporated on . Toyota is one of the largest automobile manufacturers in the world, producing about 10 ...

in 2011. The speciality about this vehicle is it has registered a record-breaking highest speed 129.2 km/h (80 mph) even if it has engine which uses only compressed air. This car was developed by the company's "Dream car workshop". This car is nicknamed as "sleek rocket", or "pencil shaped rocket". As part of the TV-show Planet Mechanics, Jem Stansfield and

Dick Strawbridge Lieutenant Colonel Richard Francis Strawbridge, MBE (born 3 September 1959) is a British television personality, engineer and former army officer. He is often referred to as "Colonel Dick". Early life The third of seven children of Jennife ...

converted a regular scooter to a compressed air moped. This has been done by equipping the scooter with a compressed-air engine and air tank. In 2010, Honda presented the Honda Air concept car at the LA Auto Show. Since 2008 the former Bosch Rexroth, now Emerson is organizing the Emerson’s International AVENTICS Pneumobile Competition in Eger, Hungary. It is a competition for students in the higher education to build racing vehicles propelled by compressed air. PowAir

There is an international conference related to the event organized by Óbuda University, Department of Bánki Donát Mechanical and Safety Engineering.

Trains, Trams, Boats and Planes

Compressed-air locomotives are a kind of

fireless locomotive A fireless locomotive is a type of locomotive which uses reciprocating engines powered from a reservoir of compressed air or steam, which is filled at intervals from an external source. They offer advantages over conventional steam locomotives of ...

and have been used in mining and tunnel boring. Various compressed-air-powered trams were trialled, starting in 1876. In Nantes and

Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), ma ...

Mekarski system The Mekarski system was a compressed-air propulsion system for trams invented by Louis Mékarski or Louis Mékarsky (the correct spelling is uncertain) in the 1870s. He worked in France, was born in 1843 in Clermont-Ferrand (center of France) ...

trams ran in regular service for over 30 years. See also Nantes tramway#Compressed air trams (1879-1917). Currently, no water or air vehicles exist that make use of the compressed air engine. Historically certain

es were propelled by compressed-air engines.

References

External links

Experimental investigation of a compressed air vehicle prototype with phase change materials for heat recoveryCompressed air cars for urban transportation Sep 7, 2020

Thermal analysis of near-isothermal compressed gas energy storage system
*

(

Society of Automotive Engineers SAE International, formerly named the Society of Automotive Engineers, is a United States-based, globally active professional association and standards developing organization for engineering professionals in various industries. SAE Internatio ...

)
Hydraulic Hybrid Research
(

United States Environmental Protection Agency The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is an independent executive agency of the United States federal government tasked with environmental protection matters. President Richard Nixon proposed the establishment of EPA on July 9, 1970; it ...

)
OSEN page about Compressed Air TechnologyEnvironmentally Friendly, Engine, Invention , MelbourneAir Powered Vehicle designed and built by students at San Jose State University
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