Comparative history is the comparison of different societies which existed during the same time period or shared similar cultural conditions. The comparative history of societies emerged as an important specialty among intellectuals in the Enlightenment in the 18th century, as typified by

Montesquieu Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (; ; 18 January 168910 February 1755), generally referred to as simply Montesquieu, was a French judge, man of letters, historian, and political philosopher. He is the princi ...

Voltaire François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778) was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher. Known by his '' nom de plume'' M. de Voltaire (; also ; ), he was famous for his wit, and his criticism of Christianity—e ...

Adam Smith Adam Smith (baptized 1723 – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish economist and philosopher who was a pioneer in the thinking of political economy and key figure during the Scottish Enlightenment. Seen by some as "The Father of Economics"——� ...

, and others. Sociologists and economists in the 19th century often explored comparative history, as exemplified by

Alexis de Tocqueville Alexis Charles Henri Clérel, comte de Tocqueville (; 29 July 180516 April 1859), colloquially known as Tocqueville (), was a French aristocrat, diplomat, political scientist, political philosopher and historian. He is best known for his wo ...

Karl Marx Karl Heinrich Marx (; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist, critic of political economy, and socialist revolutionary. His best-known titles are the 1848 ...

, and

Max Weber Maximilian Karl Emil Weber (; ; 21 April 186414 June 1920) was a German sociologist, historian, jurist and political economist, who is regarded as among the most important theorists of the development of modern Western society. His ideas p ...

. In the first half of the 20th century, a large reading public followed the comparative histories of (German)

Oswald Spengler Oswald Arnold Gottfried Spengler (; 29 May 1880 – 8 May 1936) was a German historian and philosopher of history whose interests included mathematics, science, and art, as well as their relation to his organic theory of history. He is best k ...

, (Russian-American)

Pitirim Sorokin Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin (; russian: Питири́м Алекса́ндрович Соро́кин; – 10 February 1968) was a Russian American sociologist and political activist, who contributed to the social cycle theory. Background ...

, and (British)

Arnold J. Toynbee Arnold Joseph Toynbee (; 14 April 1889 – 22 October 1975) was an English historian, a philosopher of history, an author of numerous books and a research professor of international history at the London School of Economics and King's Colleg ...

. Since the 1950s, however, comparative history has faded from the public view, and is now the domain of specialized scholars working independently. Besides the people mentioned above, recent exemplars of comparative history include American historians Herbert E. Bolton and

Carroll Quigley Carroll Quigley (; November 9, 1910 – January 3, 1977) was an American historian and theorist of the evolution of civilizations. He is remembered for his teaching work as a professor at Georgetown University, and for his writing about ...

, and British historian

Geoffrey Barraclough Geoffrey Barraclough (10 May 1908, Bradford – 26 December 1984, Burford) was an English historian, known as a medievalist and historian of Germany. He was educated at Bootham School (1921–1924) in York and at Bradford Grammar School (1924 ...

. Several sociologists are also prominent in this field, including Barrington Moore, S. N. Eisenstadt,

Seymour Martin Lipset Seymour Martin Lipset ( ; March 18, 1922 – December 31, 2006) was an American sociologist and political scientist (President of the American Political Science Association). His major work was in the fields of political sociology, trade union o ...

, Charles Tilly,

Stephen O. Murray Stephen O. Murray (May 4, 1950 – August 27, 2019) was an American anthropologist, sociologist, and independent scholar based in San Francisco, California. He was known for extensive scholarly work on the sociology, anthropology, and compara ...

, and

Michael Mann Michael Kenneth Mann (born February 5, 1943) is an American director, screenwriter, and producer of film and television who is best known for his distinctive style of crime drama. His most acclaimed works include the films '' Thief'' (1981) ...

. Historians generally accept the comparison of particular institutions (banking, women's rights, ethnic identities) in different societies, but since the hostile reaction to Toynbee in the 1950s, generally do not pay much attention to sweeping comparative studies that cover wide swaths of the world over many centuries.

Notable topics

Comparative studies of the Roman and Han empires

The ancient Chinese and Roman Empires are often compared due to their synchronous and analogous developments from warring states into universal empires.

Atlantic history

Atlantic history studies the Atlantic World in the early modern period. It is premised on the idea that, following the rise of sustained European contact with the New World in the 16th century, the continents that bordered the Atlantic Ocean—the Americas, Europe, and Africa—constituted a regional system or common sphere of economic and cultural exchange that can be studied as a totality. Its theme is the complex interaction between Europe (especially Britain and France) and the New World colonies. It encompasses a wide range of demographic, social, economic, political, legal, military, intellectual and religious topics treated in comparative fashion by looking at both sides of the Atlantic. Religious revivals characterized Britain and Germany, as well as the

First Great Awakening The First Great Awakening (sometimes Great Awakening) or the Evangelical Revival was a series of Christian revivals that swept Britain and its thirteen North American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s. The revival movement permanently affecte ...

in the American colonies. Migration and race/slavery have been important topics. Although a relatively new field, it has stimulated numerous studies of comparative history especially regarding ideas, colonialism, slavery, economic history, and political revolutions in the 18th century in North and South America, Europe and Africa.

Modernization models

Beginning with German and French sociologists of the late 19th century,

modernization Modernization theory is used to explain the process of modernization within societies. The "classical" theories of modernization of the 1950s and 1960s drew on sociological analyses of Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim and a partial reading of Max Weber, ...

models have been developed to show the sequence of transitions from traditional to modern societies, and indeed to postmodern societies. This research flourished especially in the 1960s, with Princeton University setting up seminars that compared the modernization process in China, Japan, Russia and other nations. Modernization theory and history have been explicitly used as guides for countries eager to develop rapidly, such as China. Indeed, modernization has been proposed as the most useful framework for world history in China, because as one of the developing countries that started late, "China's modernization has to be based on the experiences and lessons of other countries."

Comparative politics

The field of comparative history often overlaps with the subdivision of

political science Political science is the scientific study of politics. It is a social science dealing with systems of governance and power, and the analysis of political activities, political thought, political behavior, and associated constitutions and ...

known as comparative politics. This includes "transnational" history and sometimes also international history.

Comparative history of minorities

Mordechai Zaken compared two non-Muslim minorities in Kurdistan, the Jews and the Assyrian Christians in their relationships with their Muslim rulers and tribal chieftains during the 19th and 20th centuries. His comparative study gave a much clearer picture on the status of the minorities and their relationships with the ruling elites in and around Kurdistan. His PhD dissertation and the book upon which it was based have been widely spread and translated into the local languages in Kurdistan and the surrounding.

Military history

Military historians This is a list of historians categorized by their area of study. See also List of historians. By time period Ancient history * Sedat Alp (1913, Veroia, The Ottoman Empire - 2006, Ankara, Türkiye) Hittitolog- Historian, Ancient Anatolian * Ek ...

have often compared the organization, tactical and strategic ideas, leadership, and national support of the militaries of different nations. Historians have emphasized the need to stretch beyond battles and generals to do more comparative analysis.

Slavery

The study of slavery in comparative perspective, ranging from the ancient world to the 19th century, has attracted numerous historians since the 1960s.

Economics

Much of

economic history Economic history is the academic learning of economies or economic events of the past. Research is conducted using a combination of historical methods, statistical methods and the application of economic theory to historical situations and i ...

in recent years has been done by model-building economists who show occasional interest in comparative data analysis. Considerable work has been done by historians on the "Great Divergence" debate launched by Kenneth Pomeranz in 2009. At issue is why Europe moved forward rapidly after 1700 while Asia did not. More traditional research methodologies have been combined with econometrics, for example in the comparison of merchant guilds in Europe.

Quantitative methods

Since the work of Sorokin, scholars in comparative history, especially if sociologists and political scientists, have often used quantitative and statistical data to compare multiple societies on multiple dimensions. There have been some efforts made to build mathematical dynamic models, but these have not come into the mainstream comparative history.Peter Turchin, ''History and Mathematics: Historical Dynamics and Development of Complex Societies'' (Moscow: KomKniga, 2006).

Footnotes

Bibliography

Historiography

* Barraclough; Geoffrey. ''Main Trends in History,'' ; Holmes & Meier, 197
online version
* Cohen, Deborah and Maura O'Connor; ''Comparison and History: Europe in Cross-National Perspective.'' Routledge, 200
online edition
* Cooper, Frederick. "Race, Ideology, and the Perils of Comparative History," ''American Historical Review,'' 101:4 (October 1996), 1122–1138
in JSTOR
* Detienne, Marcel. ''Comparing the Incomparable'' Stanford University Press (2008) * Frederickson, George M. "From Exceptionalism to Variability: Recent Developments in Cross-National Comparative History." ''Journal of American History'' 82:2 (September 1995), 587-604.
in JSTOR
* Guarneri, Carl. "Reconsidering C. Vann Woodward's The Comparative Approach to American History," ''Reviews in American History, Volume 23, Number 3, September 1995, pp. 552-563'' {{doi, 10.1353/rah.1995.0076 * Halperin, Charles J. et al. "AHR Forum: Comparative History in Theory and Practice: A Discussion." ''American Historical Review,'' 87:1 (February 1982), 123-143.
in JSTOR
* Haupt, Heinz-Gerhard. "Comparative History," in Neil J. Smelser et al. eds. ''International Encyclopedia of Social and Behavioral Sciences'' (2001) 4:2397–2403. * Hill, Alette Olin and Boyd H. Hill. "AHR Forum: Marc Bloch and Comparative History." ''The American Historical Review'' 85:4 (October 1980), 828-846.
in JSTOR
* Hroch, Miroslav. ''Comparative Studies in Modern European History'' Ashgate Variorum 2007 * Iriye, Akire. "The Internationalization of History," ''American Historical Review'' Vol. 94, No. 1 (Feb., 1989), pp. 1–1
in JSTOR
* Mazlish, Bruce. ''Conceptualizing Global History.'' Westview Press, 1993. * McGerr, Michael. "The Price of the 'New Transnational History.'" ''American Historical Review'' 96:4 (October 1991), 1056–1067
in JSTOR
* Magnaghi; Russell M. ''Herbert E. Bolton and the Historiography of the Americas'' Greenwood Press, 199
online edition
* Meritt, Richard L. and

Stein Rokkan Stein Rokkan (July 4, 1921 – July 22, 1979) was a Norwegian political scientist and sociologist. He was the first professor of sociology at the University of Bergen and a principal founder of the discipline of comparative politics. He foun ...

, editors. ''Comparing Nations: The Use of Quantitative Data in Cross-National Research.'' Yale University Press, 1966. * Rusen, Jorn. "Some Theoretical Approaches to Intercultural Comparative Historiography." ''History and Theory'' 35:4 (December 1996), 5–22. * Skocpol, Theda, and Margaret Somers. "The uses of comparative history in macrosocial inquiry." ''Comparative studies in society and history'' (1980) 22#2 pp: 174-197. * Stoler, Ann L. "Tense and Tender Ties: The Politics of Comparison in North American History and (Post) Colonial Studies." ''Journal of American History'' (Dec 2001), 831-864
in JSTOR
* Tipps, Dean. "Modernization Theory and the Comparative Study of Societies: A Critical Perspective." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 15:2 (1973), 199-226. * Welskopp, Thomas
''Comparative History''
European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2010, retrieved: June 14, 2012.

Comparative and world histories

* Bayly, C. A. ''The Birth of the Modern World, 1780-1914'' (2003) * Black, Cyril Edwin. ''The dynamics of modernization: a study in comparative history'' (Harper & Row, 1966) * Doyle, Michael W. ''Empires.'' Cornell University Press. 1986
online edition
* Eisenstadt, S.N. ''The Political Systems of Empires'' (1968), * Gombrich, Ernst. "

A Little History of the World ''A Little History of the World'' (originally in German, ) is a history book by Ernst Gombrich. It was written in 1935 in Vienna, Austria, when Gombrich was 26 years old. He was rewriting it for English readers when he died in 2001, at 92, in Lon ...

" (1936 & 1995) * Kennedy, Paul. ''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000'' (Random House, 1987) * Klooster, Wim. ''Revolutions in the Atlantic World: A Comparative History'' (2009) * Lieberman, Victor. ''Strange Parallels: Volume 2, Mainland Mirrors: Europe, Japan, China, South Asia, and the Islands: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c.800-1830'' (2009) * Mann, Michael. ''The sources of social power'' (1993) * McNeill, William H. "The Rise of the West: A History the Human Community" (1963) * Osterhammel, Jürgen. ''The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century'' (2014) * Palmer, Robert R. ''Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760-1800'' (2 vol 1966) * Rosenberg, Emily, et al. eds. ''A World Connecting: 1870-1945'' (2012) * Smith, S.A. ''Revolution and the People in Russia and China: A Comparative History'' (2009) * Sorokin; Pitirim A. ''Social Philosophies of an Age of Crisis.'' 195
online edition
* Sorokin; Pitirim A. ''Social and Cultural Dynamics'' (4 vol 1932; one-vol. edn., 1959). * Spengler; Oswald. ''The decline of the West'' 2 vol (1918) * Tilly, Charles. ''Big Structures, Large Processes, Huge Comparisons.'' Russell Sage Foundation, 1984. * Toynbee, Arnold J. ''A Study Of History'' 12 vol (1934–61); (2 vol abridgment 1957
online abridged version v. 1-6
* Voegelin, Eric. ''Order and History,'' 5 vol (1956–75) * Woodward, C. Vann, ed. ''The Comparative Approach to American History'' (1968) Comparative historical research Fields of history Historiography