Community practice also known as macro practice or community work is a branch of

social work Social work is an academic discipline and practice-based profession concerned with meeting the basic needs of individuals, families, groups, communities, and society as a whole to enhance their individual and collective well-being. Social wo ...

in the United States that focuses on larger social systems and

social change Social change is the alteration of the social order of a society which may include changes in social institutions, social behaviours or social relations. Definition Social change may not refer to the notion of social progress or soci ...

, and is tied to the historical roots of United States social work.Gibelman, M. (1999). The search for identity: Defining social work -- past, present, future. ''Social Work, 44''(4), 298-310. The field of community practice social work encompasses

community organizing Community organizing is a process where people who live in proximity to each other or share some common problem come together into an organization that acts in their shared self-interest. Unlike those who promote more-consensual community bu ...

and

community organization Community organization or Community Based Organization refers to organization aimed at making desired improvements to a community's social health, well-being, and overall functioning. Community organization occurs in geographically, psychosocially, ...

community building Community building is a field of practices directed toward the creation or enhancement of community among individuals within a regional area (such as a neighborhood) or with a common need or interest. It is often encompassed under the fields of c ...

, social planning, human service management,

community development The United Nations defines community development as "a process where community members come together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems." It is a broad concept, applied to the practices of civic leaders, activists ...

policy analysis Policy analysis is a technique used in the public administration sub-field of political science to enable civil servants, nonprofit organizations, and others to examine and evaluate the available options to implement the goals of laws and elected ...

, policy advocacy,

mediation Mediation is a structured, interactive process where an impartial third party neutral assists disputing parties in resolving conflict through the use of specialized communication and negotiation techniques. All participants in mediation are ...

electronic advocacy Internet activism is the use of electronic communication technologies such as social media, e-mail, and podcasts for various forms of activism to enable faster and more effective communication by citizen movements, the delivery of particular inf ...

and other larger systems interventions. In the UK the term is often used for community work or health visitors. Although community practice has overlap with many other applied

social science Social science is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original "science of s ...

disciplines, such as

urban planning Urban planning, also known as town planning, city planning, regional planning, or rural planning, is a technical and political process that is focused on the development and design of land use and the built environment, including air, water, ...

, economic development, public affairs,

rural sociology Rural sociology is a field of sociology traditionally associated with the study of social structure and conflict in rural areas. It is an active academic field in much of the world, originating in the United States in the 1910s with close ti ...

and nonprofit management, its roots go back as far as the 1890s. Community practice social workers typically have a

Master of Social Work The Master of Social Work (MSW) is a master's degree in the field of social work. It is a professional degree with specializations compared to Bachelor of Social Work (BSW). MSW promotes macro-, mezzo- and micro-aspects of professional social work ...

degree (MSW). There are several MSW programs in the United States that offer community practice concentrations, while others offer specializations in one or several types of community practice, such as social services administration or policy analysis. The professional group of community practitioners in the US is the

Association for Community Organization and Social Administration Association may refer to: *Club (organization), an association of two or more people united by a common interest or goal * Trade association, an organization founded and funded by businesses that operate in a specific industry *Voluntary associati ...

(ACOSA), which publishes '' The Journal of Community Practice''.

Theoretical models of community practice

Due to community work's applied nature,

theory A theory is a rational type of abstract thinking about a phenomenon, or the results of such thinking. The process of contemplative and rational thinking is often associated with such processes as observational study or research. Theories may ...

is not always considered necessary or even utilized. Despite this, there are number of theoretical models of community practice that guide the practitioner toward social action. These theoretical models have evolved from proto-models utilized in the Progressive Era to the present day. Synthesized from the work of

Jane Addams Laura Jane Addams (September 6, 1860 May 21, 1935) was an American Settlement movement, settlement activist, Social reform, reformer, social worker, sociologist, public administrator, and author. She was an important leader in the history of s ...

, Bessie McClanehan, Robert P. Lane, Murray Ross, Jack Rothman, Sam Taylor, and Robert Roberts, community workers Marie Weil and Dorothy Gamble have crafted eight theoretical models of community practice as: # Neighborhood and community organizing # Organizing functional communities # Social, economic, and sustainable development # Inclusive program development # Social planning # Coalitions # Political and social action # Movements for progressive change In any of these models, the theoretical outcomes, or goals, are as follows:

Community practice versus micro practice

Historically, social work practice has been divided between two different categories: micro practice and macro practice. Although there is often an overlap in skills between the two areas, micro-practitioners generally focus on working with individuals whereas macro-practitioners generally work on creating change in larger social, political or community systems.Segal-Engelchin, D., & Kaufman, R. (2008). "Micro- or Macro-Orientation? Israeli Students' Career Interests in an Antisocial Era". ''Journal of Social Work Education, 44''(3), 139-157. Macro-social work professions that typically engage in community practice methods include:

community organizers Community organizing is a process where people who live in proximity to each other or share some common problem come together into an organization that acts in their shared self-interest. Unlike those who promote more-consensual community bui ...

, political organizers, fundraisers, program managers, and community educators. A third social work practice category is sometimes referenced called 'mezzo practice'. Mezzo practice can be defined by its combination of micro and macro aspects with the focus of interventions being smaller groups or systems. Whereas macro practice often focuses on policy or systematic changes, some researchers and practitioners consider mezzo practice to focus more on change at the community or neighborhood level. Because there is often an overlap between macro and mezzo, some argue mezzo practice to be a sub-category within macro social work. Although it makes up a smaller portion of social work practice, mezzo practice represents an effective way to bridge some of the perceived distances between micro and macro practice methods.

Non-traditional settings

Traditionally social work practice is located within office or agency settings. However, community practice may also utilize alternative spaces. Emerging from the tradition of

settlement houses The settlement movement was a reformist social movement that began in the 1880s and peaked around the 1920s in United Kingdom and the United States. Its goal was to bring the rich and the poor of society together in both physical proximity and ...

of the nineteenth century, the use of existing spaces for services provided by social work and community organizing truly makes the services community based. Nontraditional settings are public spaces, often part of the

service industry The tertiary sector of the economy, generally known as the service sector, is the third of the three economic sectors in the three-sector model (also known as the economic cycle). The others are the primary sector (raw materials) and the second ...

where community members gather socially.Delgado, M. (1999). Social Work Practice in Non-traditional Urban Settings. Boston University. These spaces must be rooted in the cultural heritage of the community. The spaces should also be unique to the community and already heavily utilized for gathering. The primary role of nontraditional spaces is not to provide social work services, though they can be utilized for such services. These spaces are venues for

outreach Outreach is the activity of providing services to any population that might not otherwise have access to those services. A key component of outreach is that the group providing it is not stationary, but mobile; in other words, it involves meetin ...

, where social work services use existing gathering spaces to bring services to the community to provide additional resources to more individuals.Weatherill, S.H., Buston, J.A. & Daly, P.C. (2004) Immunization Programs in Non-Traditional Settings. Canadian Journal of Public Health 95(2). pp. 133-137. The goal of using existing gathering spaces as a venue for social work is to build on the existing structures of a community. Communities offer numerous characteristics that can be built upon for services and organizing. Furthermore, by organizing around an existing collective identity or shared experience there is a building block for

group cohesion Group cohesiveness (also called group cohesion and social cohesion) arises when bonds link members of a social group to one another and to the group as a whole. Although cohesion is a multi-faceted process, it can be broken down into four main co ...

and may increase effectiveness of organizing.Kerno, S.J. (2008). Limitations of Communities of Practice. SAGE Publications: Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies. 15(1). Pp. 69-78. Effectively navigating entry into these spaces may take time and diligence on behalf of the organizer. Once in these spaces, it is important to honor and build upon existing

leadership Leadership, both as a research area and as a practical skill, encompasses the ability of an individual, group or organization to "lead", influence or guide other individuals, teams, or entire organizations. The word "leadership" often gets v ...

. Nontraditional settings provide cultural access as well as access to multiple generations. These spaces are often seen as a bridge point where multiple generations gather and where cultural values and traditions are learned or passed on. In many instances these spaces are inclusive of non-English speaking members of the community.

Limitations

Macro-social workers and those engaging in community practice methods may encounter a number of limitations that will make their work in the community more challenging. Since macro-community practice is an ongoing and relatively time intensive process, the consequences can be felt throughout the community and by the organizer(s) when projects or efforts are perceived to fail. The community may reject or distrust the individuals or organizations involved with leading the organizing efforts, creating obstacles for future involvement in the community.Freund, A. (2003). "Teaching Successful Community Practice in Social Work". ''Journal of Community Practice''. 10(3). Pp. 75-91 Likewise, community organizers and organizations may burnout due to distress and chronic exposure to clients just as in micro-social work.Newell, J.M. & MacNeil, G.A. (2010). "Professional Burnout, Vicarious Trauma, Secondary Traumatic Stress, and Compassion Fatigue: A Review of Theoretical Terms, Risk Factors and Prevention Methods for Clinicians and Researchers". ''Best Practices in Mental Health'' 6(2). Pp. 57-68 However, macro-social workers may specifically burnout on community practice due to unsuccessful efforts or unique constraints of the community, shifting them from macro to micro based work. Currently, social workers engaging in community practice work comprise a minority within the larger social work profession. As of 2010, less than 20% of students in Master of Social Work programs in the United States have a macro-practice related concentration. Those concentrations include: community organizing, community planning,

social policy Social policy is a plan or action of government or institutional agencies which aim to improve or reform society. Some professionals and universities consider social policy a subset of public policy, while other practitioners characterize soci ...

and

program evaluation Program evaluation is a systematic method for collecting, analyzing, and using information to answer questions about projects, policies and programs, particularly about their effectiveness and efficiency. In both the public and private sectors, s ...

. This compares to 56% of students who concentrate in direct practice and clinical social work. Because macro-social work is pursued less within the field, macro-social workers can feel under-prepared by their education, unrepresented, and not supported.Fergusan, S., Hill, K. & Erickson, C. (2010). Sustaining and Strengthening a Macro Identity: The Association of Macro Practice Social Work. Taylor & Francis Group: Journal of Community Practice. 18(4). Pp.513-527

US Master of Social Work students' concentration areas as of 2010

Here is a breakdown of concentration areas for Master of Social Work students as of 2010.Council on Social Work Education (2010). ''2010 Statistics on Social Work Education in the United States: A Summary''. Pp. 1-16

References

;General *Hardcastle, D., Powers, P. & Wenecour, S. (2004). Community Practice: Theories and Skills for Social Workers. Oxford University Press *Weil, M. (2005) The Handbook of Community Practice. Sage Publications.