Clothing in the ancient world

The preservation of fabric fibers and leathers allows for insights into the attire of ancient societies. The clothing used in the ancient world reflects the technologies that these peoples mastered. In many cultures, clothing indicated the social status of various members of society.

The development of attire and fashion is an exclusively human characteristic and is a feature of most human societies. Clothing made of materials such as animal skins and vegetation was initially used by early humans to protect their bodies from the elements. The usage of clothing and textiles across the ages reflects the varying development of civilizations and technologies. Sources available for the study of clothing and textiles include material remains discovered via archaeology; representation of textiles and their manufacture in art; and documents concerning the manufacture, acquisition, use, and trade of fabrics, tools, and finished garments.

Ancient Egyptian clothing

Textile materials

Although aware of other materials, the ancient Egyptians most commonly used linen, a product made from the abundant flax plant. Due to a belief that animal based fabrics were impure, wool was rarely used and was forbidden in places like temples and sanctuaries. Other animal based products such as pelts were reserved for priests and eventually were adopted by only the highest class of ancient Egyptian citizenry. Linen is light, strong and flexible which made it ideal for life in the warm climate, where abrasion and heat would wear and tear at clothing. Thus, most ancient Egyptians used linen as their primary textile.

The material quality of garments differed between the classes, where those of the upper class used finer linens, depicted in statues and paintings by their translucency. They also used more complex drapery, designs and patterns that included dyed threads and feathers. These materials were expensive and the wearer showed greater status by wearing them. On the other hand, cheaper and thicker linen was used within the lower class, where shorter garments were worn by the working class for better mobility in the fields.

Garments

Men in ancient Egypt often wore the loincloth (or ''schenti'') common in all classes; although men of a higher class wore longer ''schenti'', often pairing them with a draped cape or tunic. It was considered acceptable for men and women alike to bare their chests, in both upper and lower classes. A complete lack of clothing, however, was often associated with youth or poverty; it was common for children of all social classes to be unclothed up to the age of six, and for slaves to remain unclad for the majority of their lives. Certain clothing common to both genders included the tunic and the robe. Around 1425 to 1405 BC, a light tunic or short-sleeved shirt was popular, as well as a pleated skirt.

Clothing for adult women remained unchanged over several millennia, save for small details. Draped clothes with very large rolls gave the impression of wearing several items. It was in fact a ''hawk'', often of very fine muslin. The dress was rather narrow and even constricting, made of white or unbleached fabric for the lower classes. Garments worn by higher classes featured sleeves starting under the chest and were held up by suspenders tied onto the shoulders. These suspenders sometimes covered the breasts, other times passing between them, and were painted and colored for various reasons such as to imitate the plumage on the wings of Isis.

The characteristic of the female garment in ancient Egypt Old Kingdom was a short skirt for the lower classes, or a ''kalasiris'', a longer skirt reaching from the ankles to just below, or just above the breasts. By the Middle Kingdom, long kilts were a fashion. They were like skirts, reaching from waist to ankles, sometimes even hanging from the armpits. The New Kingdom was the more luxurious period; people wore more clothing, sometimes in layers, with an inner and an outer garment. This outer layer was made of particularly fine, diaphanous pleated linen, and would appear almost transparent.

Clothing of the royal family was different, and was well documented; for instance the crowns of the Pharaohs as mentioned below, feather headdresses, and the ''khat'' or head cloth were all worn by nobility.

Shoes were the same for both sexes; sandals braided with leather, or, particularly for the bureaucratic and priestly classes, papyrus.

Perfume and cosmetics

Embalming made it possible to develop cosmetic products and perfumery very early. Perfumes in Egypt were scented oils which were very expensive. In antiquity, people made great use of them. The Egyptians used make-up much more than anyone else at the time. Kohl, used as eyeliner, was eventually obtained as a substitute for galena or lead oxide which had been used for centuries. Eye paint was the most common form and was used to shield the eyes from the sun.The reason for them to wear eye makeup is to protect the eyes from the sun's rays and ward off infection. The dramatic makeup also imitated the facial markings of the sun god Horus, who was often depicted as a falcon. Eye shadow was made of crushed malachite and lipstick of ochre. Substances used in some of the cosmetics were toxic, and had adverse health effects with prolonged use. Beauty products were generally mixed with animal fats in order to make them more compact, more easily handled and to preserve them. Nails and hands were also painted with henna. Only the lower class had tattoos. It was also fashionable at parties for men and women to wear a perfumed cone on top of their heads. The cone was usually made of ox tallow and myrrh and as time passed, it melted and released a pleasant perfume. When the cone melted it was replaced with a new one ''(see the adjacent image with the musician and dancers)''. The use of cosmetics differed slightly between social classes, where more make-up was worn by higher class individuals as wealthier individuals could afford more make-up. Although there was no prominent difference between the cosmetics styles of the upper and lower class, noble women were known to pale their skin using creams and powders. This was due to pale skin being a sign of nobility as lighter skin meant less exposure to the sun whereas dark skin was associated with the lower class who tanned while taking part in menial labor such as working in the fields. This led to paler skin represented the non-working noble class, as noble woman would not work in the sun.

Wigs and headdresses

Although heads were shaven as both as a sign of nobility and due to the hot climate, hairstyle was a huge part of ancient Egyptian fashion through the use of wigs. Wigs were used by both sexes of the upper and lower class; the quality of wigs depended on the amount of disposable income available, which created a visual rift between classes. Good quality wigs were made of human hair and were ornamented with jewels and woven with gold. In the court, the more elegant examples had small goblets at the top filled with perfume; Pharaohs even wore wig beards for certain special occasions. There is evidence of cheaper wigs made from wool and palm fibres, which were further substituted the woven gold used in its more expensive counterpart with beads and linen. The ancient Egyptians talent with substitution enabled wigs and headdresses to be worn by all social classes; for example. the ''nemes'' headdress, made from stiff linen and draped over the shoulders was reserved for the elite class to protect the wearer from the sun. On the other hand, headdresses such as the ''pschent'' were exclusive for the ''Pharaoh''. ''Pharaohs'' also wore various crowns to identify different divinities, such as the horned crown of the goddess Hathor. In both social classes children were represented with one lock of hair remaining on the right side of their head (''see the adjacent image''). The most common headgear was the ''kaften'', a striped fabric square worn by men.

Ornaments

Ornaments could be worn by all and was even woven into hair, resulting in wigs containing ornamental decorations. A peculiar ornament which the Egyptians created was ''gorgerin'', an assembly of metal discs which rested on the chest skin or a short-sleeved shirt, and tied at the back. Some of the lower-class people of this time also created many different types of piercings and body decorations; some of which even included genital piercings, commonly found on female prostitutes of the time.

Jewellers

It was common for ancient Egyptians to be covered in jewellery because they believed it made them more attractive to the Gods. The upper class Egyptians were fascinated with gold jewelry. They believe that gold is the color of the sun, and it symbolises the sun's permanence and immortality, because this metal does not corrode or oxidize with time. Accessories were often embellished with inlaid precious and semi-precious stones such as emeralds, pearls, and lapis lazuli, to create intricate patterns inspired from nature. Common motifs included white lotuses, palm leaves, and even animals that represented the gods. Although the jewellery used by the lower class had similar motifs and designs, they were made with cheaper substitute materials. Copper was used in place of gold, and glazed glass or faience – a mix of ground quartz and colorant – to imitate precious stones. The most popular stones used were lapis lazuli, carnelian, and turquoise. Jewels were heavy and rather bulky, which would indicate an Asian influence. The lower classes wore small and simple glassware; bracelets also were heavy. They wore a large disk as a necklace of strength, sometimes described as an aegis. Gold was plentiful in Nubia and imported for jewelry and other decorative arts.

Ancient Minoan clothing

As elsewhere, Cretan clothes in the ancient times were well documented in their artwork where many items worn by priestesses and priests seem to reflect the clothing of most. Wool and flax were used. Spinning and weaving were domestic activities, using a similar technique to the Egyptians of the time. Fabrics were often embroidered and dyed.

Minoan clothing is exceptionally gendered, male clothing is in general sparse and uniform, whereas female clothing has much variety and intricacy; indicating well defined social constructs around gender.

Female Minoan dress

In Minoan culture the loincloth was worn by both sexes. They are often illustrated in statuettes with a large dagger fixed at the belt. In contrast to Minoan males, females would wear less jewelry, though elaborate hairstyles were equally common.

Cretan women's clothing included the first sewn garments known to history. Dresses were long and low-necked, with the bodice being open almost all the way to the waist, leaving the breasts exposed. Dresses were often accompanied by the ''Minoan corset'', an early form of corset created as a close fitting blouse, designed to narrow the waist. The belt, also kept tight, and used to narrow the waist before the corset, a long or short coat, or a hat were used to supplement the female outfit. Ancient brooches, widespread in the Mediterranean, were used throughout the period.

The fabric of women's clothes in elite portraits shows that colourful dyes were common as was intricate embroidery.

Male Minoan dress

Our knowledge of the dress of male minoans is exceptionally limited as most depictions focus on women. Where we see men they are depicted they wearing a phallic sheath or codpiece. These would sometimes be embroidered or with a simple patterned border. Males are also frequently seen wearing a tight fitting belt, perhaps to accentuate the waist.

Men appear to have grown their hair long, and styled it in a variety of ways, including elaborate braids and knots.

Ancient Israelite clothing

Men

Undergarments

The earliest and most basic garment was the ''ezor'' ( ) or ''ḥagor'' ( ), an apron around the hips or loins, that in primitive times was made from the skins of animals. It was a simple piece of cloth worn in various modifications, but always worn next to the skin. Garments were held together by a belt or girdle, also called an ''ezor'' or ''ḥagor''.

The ''ezor'' later became displaced among the Hebrews by the ''kuttoneth'' ( ). an under-tunic.
The ''kuttoneth'' appears in Assyrian art as a tight-fitting undergarment, sometimes reaching only to the knee, sometimes to the ankle.

The ''kuttoneth'' corresponds to the undergarment of the modern Middle Eastern agricultural laborers: a rough cotton tunic with loose sleeves and open at the breast.
Anyone dressed only in the ''kuttoneth'' was considered naked.

Outer garments

;''simla''
The ''simla'' ( )Biblestudytools.com Hebrew lexicon: ''simlah''; The Hebrew lexicon is Brown, Driver, Briggs, Gesenius Lexicon
See als

/ref> was the heavy outer garment or shawl of various forms.
It consisted of a large rectangular piece of rough, heavy woolen material, crudely sewn together so that the front was unstitched and with two openings left for the arms. Flax is another possible material.

In the day it was protection from rain and cold, and at night peasant Israelites could wrap themselves in this garment for warmth (see ).
The front of the ''simla'' also could be arranged in wide folds (see ) and all kinds of products could be carried in it
(See , ).

Every respectable man generally wore the simla over the ''kuttoneth'' (See ), but since the ''simla'' hindered work, it was either left home or removed when working. (See ).
From this simple item of the common people developed the richly ornamented mantle of the well-off, which reached from the neck to the knees and had short sleeves.

;''me'il''
The ''me'il'' ( ) or cloak was generally worn over the undergarment, (See , ).
The ''me'il'' was a costly wrap (See , , , ) and, according to the description of the priest's ''me'il'', was similar to the sleeveless abaya ().
This, like the ''me'il'' of the high priest, may have reached only to the knees, but it is commonly supposed to have been a long-sleeved garment made of a light fabric, probably imported from Syria.

Religious wear

The Torah commands that Israelites wear tassels or fringes (''ẓiẓit'', Biblestudytools.com Hebrew lexicon: ''ẓiẓit''; The Hebrew lexicon is Brown, Driver, Briggs, Gesenius Lexicon
/ref> or ''gedilim'', ) attached to the corners of garments (see , ). Women would wear head coverings.

Phylacteries or ''tefillin'' (Hebrew: תְפִלִּין) are in use by New Testament times (see ). Tefillin are boxes containing biblical verses that are attached to the forehead and arm by leather straps.Tefillin, "The Book of Jewish Knowledge", Nathan Ausubel, Crown Publishers, NY, 1964, p.458

Headwear

Depictions show some Hebrews and Syrians bareheaded or wearing merely a band to hold the hair together. Hebrew peasants undoubtedly also wore head coverings similar to the modern keffiyeh, a large square piece of woolen cloth folded diagonally in half into a triangle. The fold is worn across the forehead, with the keffiyeh loosely draped around the back and shoulders, often held in place by a cord circlet. Men and women of the upper classes wore a kind of turban, cloth wound about the head. The shape varied greatly.

Footwear

Sandals (''na'alayim'') of leather were worn to protect the feet from burning sand and dampness. Sandals might also be of wood, with leather straps (, ). Sandals were not worn in the house nor in the sanctuary (see , ).

Women

A woman's garments mostly corresponded to those of men: they wore ''simla'' and ''kuttoneth''. Women's garments evidently differed too from that of men (see ). Women's garments were probably longer (compare , , , ), had sleeves (), presumably were brighter colors and more ornamented, and may also have been of finer material.

Women used to wear veils in public, which distinguished them from women in pagan ancient societies. Even as the custom of veiling dwindled among other ancient societies Israelite females retained it for religious identification. Shawls, dictated by Jewish piety, and other forms of head coverings were also worn by ancient Israelite women in towns such as Jerusalem.

Ancient Greek clothing

Ancient Greece is famous for its philosophy, art, literature, and politics. As a result, classical period Greek style in dress often has been revived when later societies wished to evoke some revered aspect of ancient Greek civilization, such as democratic government. A Greek style in dress became fashionable in France shortly after the French Revolution (1789–1799), because the style was thought to express the democratic ideals for which that revolution was fought, no matter how incorrect the understanding of the historical reality was.

Clothing reformers later in the 19th century AD admired ancient Greek dress because they thought it represented timeless beauty, the opposite of complicated and rapidly changing fashions of their time, as well as the more practical reasoning that Grecian-style dresses required far less cloth than those of the Rococo period.

Clothing in ancient Greece primarily consisted of the chiton, peplos, himation, and chlamys or wool fabric, which generally was rectangular.
Clothes were secured with ornamental clasps or pins (, ''perónē''; cf. fibula), and a belt, sash, or girdle (zone) might secure the waist.

;Peplos, Chitons
The inner tunic was a peplos or chiton. The peplos was a worn by women. It was usually a heavier woollen garment, more distinctively Greek, with its shoulder clasps. The upper part of the peplos was folded down to the waist to form an apoptygma. The chiton was a simple tunic garment of lighter linen, worn by both genders and all ages. Men's chitons hung to the knees, whereas women's chitons fell to their ankles. Often the chiton is shown as pleated. Either garment could be pulled up under the belt to blouse the fabric: kolpos.

;Strophion, Epiblema, Veil
A strophion was an undergarment sometimes worn by women around the mid-portion of the body, and a shawl (epiblema) could be draped over the tunic.
Women dressed similarly in most areas of ancient Greece although in some regions, they also wore a loose veil as well at public events and market.

;Chlamys
The chlamys

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