''Cleopatra and Caesar'' (french: links=no, Cléopâtre et César), also known as ''Cleopatra Before Caesar'', is an oil on canvas painting by the French

Academic An academy (Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of secondary or tertiary higher learning (and generally also research or honorary membership). The name traces back to Plato's school of philosophy, ...

artist

Jean-Léon Gérôme Jean-Léon Gérôme (11 May 1824 – 10 January 1904) was a French painter and sculptor in the style now known as academicism. His paintings were so widely reproduced that he was "arguably the world's most famous living artist by 1880." The ra ...

, completed in 1866. The work was originally commissioned by the French courtesan

La Païva Esther Lachmann (; better known as La Païva (); 7 May 181921 January 1884) was the most famous of the 19th-century French courtesans. A notable investor and architecture patron, and a collector of jewels, she had a personality so hard-bitten tha ...

, but she was unhappy with the finished painting and returned it to Gérôme. It was exhibited at the Salon of 1866 and the Royal Academy of Arts in 1871. Gérôme's painting is one of the earliest modern depictions of Cleopatra emerging from a carpet in the presence of

Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, ...

, a minor historical inaccuracy that arose out of the translation of a scene from

Plutarch Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for hi ...

's ''Life of Caesar'' and the

semantic change Semantic change (also semantic shift, semantic progression, semantic development, or semantic drift) is a form of language change regarding the evolution of word usage—usually to the point that the modern meaning is radically different from ...

of the word "carpet" over time. The work is considered a classic example of

Egyptomania Egyptomania refers to a period of renewed interest in the culture of ancient Egypt sparked by Napoleon's Egyptian Campaign in the 19th century. Napoleon was accompanied by many scientists and scholars during this Campaign, which led to a large ...

and was mass-produced by

Goupil Goupil may refer to: People *Eugène Goupil (1831–1896), French Mexican philanthropist and collector *Guillaume François Charles Goupil de Préfelne (1727–1801), member of the Council of Five Hundred *Jeanne Goupil (born 1950), French ...

, allowing it to reach a wide audience. The painting was held by California banker

Darius Ogden Mills Darius Ogden Mills (September 25, 1825 – January 3, 1910) was a prominent American banker and philanthropist. For a time, he was California's wealthiest citizen. Early life Mills was born in North Salem, in Westchester County, New York ...

and remained in the Mills family art collection for over a century until it was sold to a private collector in 1990.

Background

(1824–1904) was a nineteenth century French painter and sculptor. At the age of twenty-three, he came to the attention of the art world at the Salon of 1847 with '' The Cock Fight'' (1846), a

Neo-Grec Néo-Grec was a Neoclassical Revival style of the mid-to-late 19th century that was popularized in architecture, the decorative arts, and in painting during France's Second Empire, or the reign of Napoleon III (1852–1870). The Néo-Grec v ...

painting that was praised by

Théophile Gautier Pierre Jules Théophile Gautier ( , ; 30 August 1811 – 23 October 1872) was a French poet, dramatist, novelist, journalist, and art and literary critic. While an ardent defender of Romanticism, Gautier's work is difficult to classify and rema ...

. With works informed by his frequent travels throughout the Middle East and visits to Egypt, Gérôme specialized in historical and

Orientalist painting In art history, literature and cultural studies, Orientalism is the imitation or depiction of aspects in the Eastern world. These depictions are usually done by writers, designers, and artists from the Western world. In particular, Orientalist p ...

and became known as a leader of the

Academic art Academic art, or academicism or academism, is a style of painting and sculpture produced under the influence of European academies of art. Specifically, academic art is the art and artists influenced by the standards of the French Académie ...

movement. According to historian Charles Sowerwine, Gérôme

painted erotic subjects with a photographic approach and sensual charge, but avoided 'indecency' by the use of Oriental and historical contexts . . . To us, Gérôme's nudes seem pornographic, but to contemporaries they were idealized by their removal from contemporary society and their insertion in the Oriental context.Sowerwine, Charles (2009). ''France Since 1870: Culture, Society and the Making of the Republic''. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 46-47. ..

French writer

Prosper Mérimée Prosper Mérimée (; 28 September 1803 – 23 September 1870) was a French writer in the movement of Romanticism, and one of the pioneers of the novella, a short novel or long short story. He was also a noted archaeologist and historian, and a ...

first proposed the subject of ''Cleopatra and Caesar'' in a letter sent to Gérôme in December 1860.

, a wealthy French courtesan, later commissioned the painting from Gérôme, intending it for display in the Hôtel de la Païva, her mansion on the

Champs-Élysées The Avenue des Champs-Élysées (, ; ) is an avenue in the 8th arrondissement of Paris, France, long and wide, running between the Place de la Concorde in the east and the Place Charles de Gaulle in the west, where the Arc de Triomphe is l ...

. According to American art critic Earl Shinn, the work was originally painted on silk and was designed as a "transparency to be lowered or raised midway of a long saloon" in La Païva's mansion, "which it was desirable to divide occasionally into two".Shinn, Earl dward Strahan(1881).
Gerome: A Collection of the Works of J.L. Gerome in One Hundred Photogravures
'. Volume 10, Plate 6. Samuel L. Hall. .

Development

Gérôme made at least two previous oil paintings and a number of sketches in preparation for the work. One shows Cleopatra lying on the ground stretching out to

with Apollodorus crouching behind her. In one variation before the finished version, Caesar is shown by himself with his hands on the desk (instead of outstretched) without his four secretaries. When the work was finished in 1866, Cleopatra's position changed to show her standing before Caesar with Apollodorus bent down beside her.Trafton, Scott (2004). ''Egypt Land: Race and Nineteenth-Century American Egyptomania''. Duke University Press. pp. 198, 298–299. . . Gérôme painted the scene based on the meeting between Cleopatra and Caesar written in the '' Life of Caesar'' by Greek historian

(c. AD 46 – AD 120) more than a century after the incident took place. Even though Gérôme visited Egypt in 1857, where George W. Whiting of Rice University notes "he acquired numerous abundant local color and exact detail" that informed the painting of ''Cleopatra and Caesar'',Whiting, George W. (1960).
The Cleopatra Rug Scene: Another Source
" ''The Shaw Review'', 3 (1): 15–17. January. the Egyptian background setting in the work is derived from a

plate Plate may refer to: Cooking * Plate (dishware), a broad, mainly flat vessel commonly used to serve food * Plates, tableware, dishes or dishware used for setting a table, serving food and dining * Plate, the content of such a plate (for example: ...

in a volume from the ''

Description de l'Égypte The ''Description de l'Égypte'' ( en, Description of Egypt) was a series of publications, appearing first in 1809 and continuing until the final volume appeared in 1829, which aimed to comprehensively catalog all known aspects of ancient and m ...

'' (1809–29) that depicts a temple at Deir el-Medina.

Completion and exhibition

La Païva disliked the finished painting she had commissioned and returned it to Gérôme. Ackerman notes that La Païva felt the work was too expensive. Gérôme modified the painting by adding canvas to the back for strength, and it was subsequently purchased by his father-in-law, Adolphe Goupil (1806–1893) of

Goupil & Cie Goupil & Cie is an international auction house and merchant of contemporary art and collectibles. Jean-Baptiste Adophe Goupil founded Goupil & Cie in 1850. Goupil & Cie became a leading art dealership in 19th-century France, with its headquart ...

, the leading art dealership in nineteenth-century France. Gérôme first met Goupil in 1859 and married his daughter Marie several years later.Papet, Edoard; Laurence des Cars; Dominique de Font-Réaulx (2006).
The Spectacular Art of Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904)
." Musée d'Orsay. Retrieved June 6, 2015. ''Cleopatra and Caesar'' was one of three works Gérôme presented at the Salon of 1866 where it was exhibited with the title ''César et Cléopâtre''. The painting appeared at the Royal Academy of Arts exhibition in 1871 under the longer name ''Cléopâtre apportée à César dans un tapis'' (''Cleopatra brought to Caesar in a carpet'').Graves, Algernon (1905).
The Royal Academy of Arts: A Complete Dictionary of Contributors and their Work from its Foundation in 1769 to 1904
'. Volume 3. London: H. Graves and co., ltd. p. 226. .

Description

The painting depicts the year 47 BC, when Cleopatra stands before Julius Caesar after Apollodorus, her servant, has just finished smuggling her into the palace inside a rug. The figures are shown approximately half life-size.Ackerman, Gerald M. (1986). ''The Life and Work of Jean-Léon Gérôme''. Sotheby's Publications. p. 218. . . Since the 1866 exhibition, the work has become known by other titles, such as ''Cleopatra Before Caesar'', and more recently, ''Cleopatra and Caesar''.Humbert, Jean-Marcel; Michael Pantazzi; Christiane Ziegler (1994). ''Egyptomania''. National Gallery of Canada. pp. 574-575. . .

Critical reception

The American Egyptomania project at George Mason University describes the painting as a classic example of

, containing "sex, slavery, nudity, and decadence". Lucy H. Hooper called it a companion piece to Gérôme's earlier work, '' Phryne before the Areopagus'' (1861).Hooper, Lucy H. (1877).
Léon Gérôme
" ''The Art Journal'', 3: 26–28. The painting was one of two notable depictions of Cleopatra from the nineteenth century along with '' Cleopatra and the Peasant'' (1838) by

Eugène Delacroix Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix ( , ; 26 April 1798 – 13 August 1863) was a French Romantic artist regarded from the outset of his career as the leader of the French Romantic school.Noon, Patrick, et al., ''Crossing the Channel: Britis ...

.Grafton, Anthony; Glenn W Most; Salvatore Settis (2010). ''The Classical Tradition''. Harvard University Press. p. 207. . .

Historical inaccuracy

A translation of Plutarch's ''Life of Caesar'' by John Langhorne and his brother William published in 1770 was the first source to use the word "carpet" to describe the material used by Cleopatra's servant to sneak her into the palace. Although the original meaning used by Plutarch was more akin to what is today known as a duffel bag, at the time of Langhorne's translation a carpet meant a type of "thick fabric", not an actual rug. But by the nineteenth century,

led to the word taking on a different meaning. The legend of Cleopatra hiding in a rug, although historically inaccurate, became the most popular image, with Gérôme one of the first to popularize it in modern art.Pelling, Christopher (2011). ''Plutarch Caesar: Translated with an Introduction and Commentary''. Oxford University Press. p. 385. . .

Influence

Gérôme's professional relationship with art collector Adolphe Goupil allowed his paintings to become mass-produced in the form of engravings and photographs, reaching more people and impacting the wider culture throughout Britain and the United States. Over time, both theatrical and Hollywood productions about Cleopatra looked to Gérôme's painting for inspiration.Not just theatre and film but also art. ''Dream of the Shulamite'' (1934), an oil on canvas by American painter

R. H. Ives Gammell Robert Hale Ives Gammell (1893 – 1981) was an American artist best known for his sequence of paintings based on Francis Thompson's poem " The Hound of Heaven". Gammell painted symbolic images that reflected his study of literature, mythol ...

, is said to show the influence of Gérôme's ''Cleopatra and Caesar'', in both its idea and composition. See Ackerman, Gerald M. and Elizabeth Ives Hunter (2001). ''Transcending Vision: R. H. Ives Gammell 1893–1981''. R.H. Ives Gammell Studios Trust. p. 104. .Morcillo, Marta Garcia; Pauline Hanesworth (2015). ''Imagining Ancient Cities in Film: From Babylon to Cinecittà''. Routledge. pp. 118, 176, 181. . . Whiting argues that Gérôme's work may have influenced Irish playwright

George Bernard Shaw George Bernard Shaw (26 July 1856 – 2 November 1950), known at his insistence simply as Bernard Shaw, was an Irish playwright, critic, polemicist and political activist. His influence on Western theatre, culture and politics extended from ...

's play '' Caesar and Cleopatra'' (1898), particularly the carpet scene in Act III. Many of Gérôme's history paintings influenced the composition of cinematic scenes portraying ancient history.

Provenance

The painting was bought by California banker, philanthropist, and New York real estate developer

in the 1870s and remained in the Mills family art collection until it was sold to a private collector in 1990.New York Top Art
". ''Yareah Magazine''. April 24, 2014.