Claude Adrien Helvétius
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Claude Adrien Helvétius (; ; 26 January 1715 – 26 December 1771) was a French philosopher, freemason and '' littérateur''.


Life

Claude Adrien Helvétius was born in
Paris, France Paris () is the capital and most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), making it the 30th most densely populated city in the world in 2020. Si ...
, and was descended from a family of physicians, originally surnamed ''Schweitzer'' (meaning " Swiss" in German; Latinized as '' Helvétius''). His great-grandfather
Johann Friedrich Schweitzer Johann Friedrich Schweitzer or Sweitzer, usually known as Helvetius (1630 – 1709) was a Dutch physician and alchemical writer of German extraction. He is known for his books ''Ichts aus Nichts, für alle Begierigen der Natur'' published in 1655, ...
known as "Helvetius", was an Dutch physician and alchemist, of German extraction. His grandfather
Adriaan Helvetius Adriaan is the Dutch and Afrikaans spelling of the given name Adrian. Before the 19th century the spelling Adriaen was also common, and people used the spelling interchangeably. Adriaan may refer to: People Artists * Adriaen Backer (1635–1684) ...
introduced the use of ipecacuanha; his father
Jean Claude Adrien Helvétius Jean may refer to: People * Jean (female given name) * Jean (male given name) * Jean (surname) Fictional characters * Jean Grey, a Marvel Comics character * Jean Valjean, fictional character in novel ''Les Misérables'' and its adaptations * J ...
was first physician to
Marie Leszczyńska Maria Karolina Zofia Felicja Leszczyńska (; ; 23 June 1703 – 24 June 1768), also known as Marie Leczinska, was Queen of France as the wife of King Louis XV from their marriage on 4 September 1725 until her death in 1768. The daughter of Stanis ...
, queen of France. Claude Adrien was trained for a financial career, apprenticed to his maternal uncle in Caen,''Helvetius: A Study in Persecution'' by David Warner Smith, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1965. but he occupied his spare time with poetry. Aged twenty-three, at the queen's request, he was appointed as a farmer-general, a tax-collecting post worth 100,000 crowns a year. Thus provided for, he proceeded to enjoy life to the utmost, with the help of his wealth and liberality, his literary and artistic tastes - he attended, for example, the progressive
Club de l'Entresol The Club de l'Entresol (, "Mezzanine Club") was a discussion group and early think tank in Paris, active from 1723 to 1731, created and primarily led by Abbot Pierre-Joseph Alary. Name and background The club's name came from the fact that a ...
. As he grew older, he began to seek more lasting distinctions, stimulated by the success of
Pierre Louis Maupertuis Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (; ; 1698 – 27 July 1759) was a French mathematician, philosopher and man of letters. He became the Director of the Académie des Sciences, and the first President of the Prussian Academy of Science, at the ...
as a
mathematician A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in their work, typically to solve mathematical problems. Mathematicians are concerned with numbers, data, quantity, structure, space, models, and change. History On ...
, of
Voltaire François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778) was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher. Known by his ''nom de plume'' M. de Voltaire (; also ; ), he was famous for his wit, and his criticism of Christianity—es ...
as a
poet A poet is a person who studies and creates poetry. Poets may describe themselves as such or be described as such by others. A poet may simply be the creator ( thinker, songwriter, writer, or author) who creates (composes) poems ( oral or wri ...
, and of
Montesquieu Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (; ; 18 January 168910 February 1755), generally referred to as simply Montesquieu, was a French judge, man of letters, historian, and political philosopher. He is the princi ...
as a philosopher. His wife,
Anne-Catherine de Ligniville, Madame Helvétius Anne-Catherine de Ligniville, Madame Helvétius (23 July 1722 – 12 August 1800), also Anne-Catherine de Ligniville d'Autricourt, nicknamed "Minette", maintained a renowned salon in France in the eighteenth century. Life One of the twenty-one ...
, maintained a salon attended by the leading figures of the Enlightenment for over five decades. In 1758 Helvétius published his philosophical magnum opus, a work called ''De l'esprit'' (On Mind), which claimed that all human faculties are attributes of mere physical sensation, and that the only real motive is self-interest, therefore there is no good and evil, only competitive pleasures. Its
atheistic Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there no d ...
,
utilitarian In ethical philosophy, utilitarianism is a family of normative ethical theories that prescribe actions that maximize happiness and well-being for all affected individuals. Although different varieties of utilitarianism admit different charac ...
and
egalitarian Egalitarianism (), or equalitarianism, is a school of thought within political philosophy that builds from the concept of social equality, prioritizing it for all people. Egalitarian doctrines are generally characterized by the idea that all hu ...
doctrines raised a public outcry, and the
Sorbonne Sorbonne may refer to: * Sorbonne (building), historic building in Paris, which housed the University of Paris and is now shared among multiple universities. *the University of Paris (c. 1150 – 1970) *one of its components or linked institution, ...
publicly burned it in 1759, forcing Helvétius to issue several retractions. In 1764 Helvétius visited England, and the next year, at the invitation of Frederick II, went to
Berlin Berlin ( , ) is the capital and List of cities in Germany by population, largest city of Germany by both area and population. Its 3.7 million inhabitants make it the European Union's List of cities in the European Union by population within ci ...
, where the king paid him much attention. After 10 years, when he thought his fortune sufficient, he gave up the post of farmer-general, and retired to a country estate in France, where he employed his fortune in the relief of the poor, the encouragement of agriculture and the development of industries. For this he won the admiration of many of the philosophers. Helvétius' family lived alternately on ''Château de Voré'' (Collines des Perches, Loir-et-Cher) and their Parisian townhouse at the ''rue Sainte-Anne''. Religiously, Helvétius was a
Deist Deism ( or ; derived from the Latin '' deus'', meaning "god") is the philosophical position and rationalistic theology that generally rejects revelation as a source of divine knowledge, and asserts that empirical reason and observation ...
, albeit a "most indifferent" one. He died in Paris on December 26, 1771. A work found in his papers called ''De l'homme, de ses facultés intellectuelles et de son éducation'' (On Man), was published in 1773.


Philosophy


''De l'esprit'' and its reception

Helvétius' philosophical studies ended in the production of his famous book ''De l'esprit'' (On Mind). It was first published in 1758 and was intended to be the rival of
Montesquieu Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (; ; 18 January 168910 February 1755), generally referred to as simply Montesquieu, was a French judge, man of letters, historian, and political philosopher. He is the princi ...
's ''
The Spirit of the Laws ''The Spirit of Law'' (French: ''De l'esprit des lois'', originally spelled ''De l'esprit des loix''), also known in English as ''The Spirit of the Laws'', is a treatise on political theory, as well as a pioneering work in comparative law, publis ...
'', with Helvétius arguing strongly against Montesquieu's theory that climate influenced the character of nations. The work attracted immediate attention and aroused the most formidable opposition, especially from the dauphin
Louis Louis may refer to: * Louis (coin) * Louis (given name), origin and several individuals with this name * Louis (surname) * Louis (singer), Serbian singer * HMS ''Louis'', two ships of the Royal Navy See also Derived or associated terms * Lewis ( ...
, son of King
Louis XV Louis XV (15 February 1710 – 10 May 1774), known as Louis the Beloved (french: le Bien-Aimé), was King of France from 1 September 1715 until his death in 1774. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five. Until he reached ...
. The Advocate General Joly de Fleury condemned it in the
Parlement of Paris The Parliament of Paris (french: Parlement de Paris) was the oldest ''parlement'' in the Kingdom of France, formed in the 14th century. It was fixed in Paris by Philip IV of France in 1302. The Parliament of Paris would hold sessions inside the ...
in January 1759. The
Sorbonne Sorbonne may refer to: * Sorbonne (building), historic building in Paris, which housed the University of Paris and is now shared among multiple universities. *the University of Paris (c. 1150 – 1970) *one of its components or linked institution, ...
condemned the book, while the priests persuaded the court that it was full of the most dangerous doctrines. The book was declared to be hereticalso atheistic that it was condemned by Church and State and was burned. Helvétius, terrified at the storm he had raised, wrote three separate and humiliating retractions. In spite of his protestations of orthodoxy, the book was publicly burned by the Paris hangman. It had far-reaching negative effects on the rest of the ''philosophes'', in particular,
Denis Diderot Denis Diderot (; ; 5 October 171331 July 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer, best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the '' Encyclopédie'' along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert. He was a promi ...
, and the great work he was doing on the ''Encyclopédie''. The religious authorities, particularly the
Jesuits , image = Ihs-logo.svg , image_size = 175px , caption = ChristogramOfficial seal of the Jesuits , abbreviation = SJ , nickname = Jesuits , formation = , founders = ...
and the new Pope, began to fear the spread of atheism and wanted to clamp down on the 'modern thought' hard and quickly. ''De l'esprit'' became almost a scapegoat for this. This great publicity resulted in the book being translated into almost all the languages of Europe. Voltaire said that it lacked originality.
Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolu ...
declared that the very benevolence of the author gave the lie to his principles.
Grimm Grimm may refer to: People * Grimm (surname) * Brothers Grimm, German linguists ** Jacob Grimm (1785–1863), German philologist, jurist and mythologist ** Wilhelm Grimm (1786–1859), German author, the younger of the Brothers Grimm * Christia ...
thought that all the ideas in the book were borrowed from Diderot.
Madame du Deffand Marie Anne de Vichy-Chamrond, marquise du Deffand (25 September 1696 – 23 September 1780) was a French hostess and patron of the arts. Life Madame du Deffand was born at the Château de Chamrond, in Ligny-en-Brionnais, a village near Charolle ...
felt that Helvétius had raised such a storm by saying openly what everyone thought in secret.
Madame de Graffigny Madame may refer to: * Madam, civility title or form of address for women, derived from the French * Madam (prostitution), a term for a woman who is engaged in the business of procuring prostitutes, usually the manager of a brothel * ''Madame'' ...
claimed that all the good things in the book had been picked up in her own salon.


Psychological egoism

Helvétius' philosophy belongs to the Egoist school: #All man's faculties may be reduced to physical
sensation Sensation (psychology) refers to the processing of the senses by the sensory system. Sensation or sensations may also refer to: In arts and entertainment In literature * Sensation (fiction), a fiction writing mode * Sensation novel, a Britis ...
, even memory, comparison, judgment. Our only difference from the lower animals lies in our external organization. #Self-interest, founded on the love of pleasure and the fear of pain, is the sole spring of judgment, action, and affection. Human beings are motivated solely by the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. "These two," he says, "are, and always will be, the only principles of action in man." Self-sacrifice is prompted by the fact that the sensation of pleasure outweighs the accompanying pain and is thus the result of deliberate calculation. #We have no freedom of choice between good and evil. There is no such thing as absolute rightideas of justice and injustice change according to customs. This view of man was largely
Hobbesian Thomas Hobbes ( ; 5/15 April 1588 – 4/14 December 1679) was an English philosopher, considered to be one of the founders of modern political philosophy. Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book ''Leviathan'', in which he expounds an influent ...
man is a system deterministically controllable by a suitable combination of reward and punishment, and the ends of government are to ensure the maximization of pleasure.


Natural equality of intelligences

"All men," Helvétius maintained, "have an equal disposition for understanding." As one of the French Enlightenment's many
Lockean John Locke (; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "father of liberalism". Considered one of ...
disciples, he regarded the human mind as a blank slate, but free not only from innate ideas but also from innate natural dispositions and propensities. Physiological constitution was at most a peripheral factor in men's characters or capabilities. Any apparent inequalities were independent of natural organization, and had their cause in the unequal desire for instruction. This desire springs from passions, of which all men commonly well organized are susceptible to the same degree. We thus owe everything to education. Social engineering is therefore an enterprise unconstrained by the natural abilities of men. This natural equality applied to all men in all nations, and thus the differences in national characteristics were not the result of innate differences between the people therein, but rather a byproduct of the system of education and government. "No nation," wrote Helvétius, "has reason to regard itself superior to others by virtue of its innate endowment." This radically egalitarian aspect of Helvétius' philosophy caused Diderot to remark that if it were true, ''De l'esprit'' might just as well have been written by Helvétius' dogkeeper.


Omnipotence of education

Since all men have the same natural potential, Helvétius argued, they all have the same ability to learn. Thus, education is the method by which to reform society, and there are few limits to the drastic social improvements that could be brought about by the appropriate distribution of education. Although people seem to possess certain qualities in greater abundance than their neighbours, the explanation for this comes 'from above' – it is caused by education, law and government. "If we commonly meet in London, with knowing men, who are with much more difficulty found in France," this is because it is a country where "every citizen has a share in the management of affairs in general." "The art of forming men," he concludes, "is in all countries ..strictly connected to the form of the government", and thus education via governmental intervention is the method of reform. The crux of his thought was that public
ethics Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior".''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concer ...
has a utilitarian basis, and he insisted strongly on the importance of culture and education in national development. His thinking can be described as unsystematic.


Influence

The original ideas in his system are those of the ''natural equality of intelligences'' and the ''omnipotence of education'', neither of which gained general acceptance, though both were prominent in the system of John Stuart Mill. Cesare Beccaria states that he was largely inspired by Helvétius in his attempt to modify penal laws. Helvétius also exerted some influence on the utilitarian
Jeremy Bentham Jeremy Bentham (; 15 February 1748 Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">O.S._4_February_1747.html" ;"title="Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="nowiki/>Old Style and New Style dates">O.S. 4 February 1747">Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.htm ...
. The materialistic aspects of Helvétius, along with Baron d'Holbach, had an influence on
Karl Marx Karl Heinrich Marx (; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist, critic of political economy, and socialist revolutionary. His best-known titles are the 1848 ...
, the theorist of
historical materialism Historical materialism is the term used to describe Karl Marx's theory of history. Marx locates historical change in the rise of class societies and the way humans labor together to make their livelihoods. For Marx and his lifetime collaborat ...
and
communism Communism (from Latin la, communis, lit=common, universal, label=none) is a far-left sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology and current within the socialist movement whose goal is the establishment of a communist society, a ...
, who studied the ideas of Helvétius in
Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), ma ...
and later called the materialism of Helvétius and d'Holbach "the social basis of communism".


Criticism

German philosopher
Johann Georg Hamann Johann Georg Hamann (; ; 27 August 1730 – 21 June 1788) was a German Lutheran philosopher from Königsberg known as "the Wizard of the North" who was one of the leader figures of post-Kantian philosophy. His work was used by his student J. G. ...
vigorously opposed Helvétius's rationalistic doctrines. British philosopher Isaiah Berlin listed Helvétius, along with Hegel,
Fichte Johann Gottlieb Fichte (; ; 19 May 1762 – 29 January 1814) was a German philosopher who became a founding figure of the philosophical movement known as German idealism, which developed from the theoretical and ethical writings of Immanuel Ka ...
,
Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolu ...
, Saint-Simon and
Maistre Maistre is a surname. It may refer to: Persons * Joseph de Maistre (1753 – 1821), French-language Savoyard political philosopher and diplomat * Casimir Maistre (1867-1957), French geographer * François Maistre François Maistre (14 May 1 ...
as one of the six "enemies of freedom" who constituted the ideological basis for modern
authoritarianism Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political ''status quo'', and reductions in the rule of law, separation of powers, and democratic voti ...
, in his book ''Freedom and Betrayal: Six Enemies of Human Liberty''.Berlin, Isaiah, ''Freedom and Betrayal: Six Enemies of Human Liberty'' (Princeton University Press, 2003)


Poetry

His poetic ambitions resulted in the poem called ''Le Bonheur'' (published posthumously, with an account of Helvétius's life and works, by
Jean François de Saint-Lambert Jean François de Saint-Lambert (; 26 December 1716 – 9 February 1803) was a French poet, philosopher and military officer. Biography Saint-Lambert was born at Nancy and raised on his parents' estate at Affracourt, a village in Lorraine near ...
, 1773), in which he develops the idea that true happiness is only to be found in making the interest of one person that of all.


Bibliography

A work called ''De l'homme, de ses facultés intellectuelles et de son éducation'', found among his manuscripts, was published after his death. There is a complete edition of the works of Helvétius, published at Paris, 1818. For an estimate of his work and his place among the philosophers of the 18th century see
Victor Cousin Victor Cousin (; 28 November 179214 January 1867) was a French philosopher. He was the founder of "eclecticism", a briefly influential school of French philosophy that combined elements of German idealism and Scottish Common Sense Realism. As ...
's ''Philosophie sensualiste'' (1863); PL Lezaud, ''Résumés philosophiques'' (1853); FD Maurice, in his ''Modern Philosophy'' (1862), pp. 537 seq.; J Morley, ''Diderot and the Encyclopaedists'' (London, 1878); DG Mostratos, ''Die Pädagogik des Helvétius'' (Berlin, 1891); A Guillois, ''Le Salon de Madame Helvétius'' (1894); A Piazzi, ''Le idee filosofiche specialmente pedagogiche de C. A. Helvétius'' (Milan, 1889); Georgi Plekhanov, ''Beiträge zur Geschichte des Materialismus'' (Stuttgart, 1896); L Limentani, ''Le teorie psicologiche de C. A. Helvétius'' (Verona, 1902); A Keim, ''Helvétius, sa vie et son œuvre'' (1907); Isaiah Berlin, "Helvétius" in ''Freedom and Its Betrayal: Six Enemies of Liberty'', ed. Henry Hardy, (Oxford, 2002), pp. 11–26.


References

Attribution: *


External links

*
''A Treatise on Man: His Intellectual Faculties & His Education'' by Helvétius
- English translation by W. Hooper, 1777, Google Books
''De l'Esprit, or Essays on the Mind and Its Several Faculties'' by Helvétius
- English translation by William Mudford, 1807, Google Books {{DEFAULTSORT:Helvetius, Claude Adrien Writers from Paris 1715 births 1771 deaths 18th-century atheists 18th-century French writers 18th-century French male writers 18th-century French philosophers French atheism activists Atheist philosophers Fermiers généraux Members of the French Academy of Sciences Enlightenment philosophers French ethicists French Freemasons