lamellar A ''lamella'' (plural ''lamellae'') is a small plate or flake, from the Latin, and may also be used to refer to collections of fine sheets of material held adjacent to one another, in a gill-shaped structure, often with fluid in between though s ...

Warring States period The Warring States period () was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the Qin wars of conquest ...

scale armour Scale armour (or scale mail) is an early form of armour consisting of many individual small armour scales (plates) of various shapes attached to each other and to a backing of cloth or leather in overlapping rows.plate armour was popular from the Northern and Southern dynasties (420–589), and

mail The mail or post is a system for physically transporting postcards, letters, and parcels. A postal service can be private or public, though many governments place restrictions on private systems. Since the mid-19th century, national postal sys ...

and mountain pattern armour from the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdom ...

(618–907).

Chain mail Chain mail (properly called mail or maille but usually called chain mail or chainmail) is a type of armour consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh. It was in common military use between the 3rd century BC and ...

had been known since the

Han Dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...

, but did not see widespread production or battlefield use, and may have seen as "exotic foreign armor" used as a display of wealth for wealthier officers and soldiers. During the

Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peo ...

(1368–1644),

brigandine A brigandine is a form of body armour from the Middle Ages. It is a garment typically made of heavy cloth, canvas, or leather, lined internally with small oblong steel plates riveted to the fabric, sometimes with a second layer of fabric on t ...

began to supplant lamellar armour and was used to a great degree into the

Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-spea ...

(1644–1912). By the 19th century most Qing armour, which was of the brigandine type, were purely ceremonial, having kept the outer studs for aesthetic purposes, and omitted the protective metal plates.

Ancient armour

Bronze helmet, Warring States period, Henan Museum

Warring States Lacquered Shield, Chu State (10161968595)

Shang dynasty (c. 1600 BC–c. 1046 BC)

The earliest archaeological evidence of armour in China dates to the

Shang dynasty The Shang dynasty (), also known as the Yin dynasty (), was a Chinese royal dynasty founded by Tang of Shang (Cheng Tang) that ruled in the Yellow River valley in the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and ...

. These were either breastplates made of shell tied together or a one-piece rawhide or leather breastplate. Helmets were made of bronze and often sported elaborate designs consisting of animal motifs. Armour was almost exclusively for nobles; regular folks had little to no protection and more commonly used a hide covered shield made of wood or bamboo.

Zhou dynasty (c. 1046 BC–256 BC)

Armour in the

Zhou dynasty The Zhou dynasty ( ; Old Chinese ( B&S): *''tiw'') was a royal dynasty of China that followed the Shang dynasty. Having lasted 789 years, the Zhou dynasty was the longest dynastic regime in Chinese history. The military control of China by ...

consisted of either a sleeveless coat of rhinoceros or buffalo hide, or leather scale armour. Helmets were largely similar to Shang predecessors but less ornate. Chariot horses were sometimes protected by tiger skins. File:Jinan 2009 1153.jpg,

Shang dynasty The Shang dynasty (), also known as the Yin dynasty (), was a Chinese royal dynasty founded by Tang of Shang (Cheng Tang) that ruled in the Yellow River valley in the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and ...

helmet fittings (leather helmet no longer extant) File:Shang Bronze Helmet.JPG,

Shang dynasty The Shang dynasty (), also known as the Yin dynasty (), was a Chinese royal dynasty founded by Tang of Shang (Cheng Tang) that ruled in the Yellow River valley in the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and ...

bronze helmet File:W Zhou Yan helmet.JPG,

Western Zhou The Western Zhou ( zh, c=, p=Xīzhōu; c. 1045 BC – 771 BC) was a royal dynasty of China and the first half of the Zhou dynasty. It began when King Wu of Zhou overthrew the Shang dynasty at the Battle of Muye and ended when the Quanrong n ...

helmet File:MET 2002 201 3 O1.jpg,

Zhou dynasty The Zhou dynasty ( ; Old Chinese ( B&S): *''tiw'') was a royal dynasty of China that followed the Shang dynasty. Having lasted 789 years, the Zhou dynasty was the longest dynastic regime in Chinese history. The military control of China by ...

helmet File:MET 2002 201 3 d1.jpg, Helmet front File:Inner Mongolia Museum bronze helmet of Warring States period.jpg, Warring States bronze helmet

Warring States (c. 475 BC–221 BC)

In the 4th century BC, rhinoceros armour was still used. In the following passage

Guan Zhong Guan Zhong (; c. 720–645 BC) was a Chinese philosopher and politician. He served as chancellor and was a reformer of the State of Qi during the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history. His given name was Yiwu (). ''Zhong'' was his courte ...

advises Duke Huan of Qi to convert punishments to armour and weapons: By the late

Warring States period The Warring States period () was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the Qin wars of conquest ...

in the 3rd century BC, iron weapons and armour had come into widespread use.

Lamellar armour

Lamellar armour of leather (more appropriately considered untanned or superficially tanned rawhide), bronze and iron appeared by the mid-4th century BC. It consisted of individual armour pieces (lamellae, lamella singular) that were either riveted or laced together to form a suit of armour. Iron helmets constructed with multiple lamellae began to replace the one piece bronze helmets of old. One sample discovered in Yi county,

Hebei Province Hebei or , (; alternately Hopeh) is a northern province of China. Hebei is China's sixth most populous province, with over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. The province is 96% Han Chinese, 3% Manchu, 0.8% Hui, and 0 ...

was composed of 89 lamellae, averaging 5 cm x 4 cm. In the 3rd century BC, both iron weapons and armour became more common. According to the ''Xunzi'', "the hard iron spears of Wan (宛) city in Chu, near modern Nanyang (南陽), Henanare as cruel as wasps and scorpions." Iron weapons also gave Chinese armies an edge over barbarians.

Han Fei Han Fei (233), also known as Han Feizi or Han Fei Zi, was a Chinese philosopher or statesman of the "Legalist" (Fajia) school during the Warring States period, and a prince of the state of Han. Han Fei is often considered to be the greatest r ...

recounts that during a battle with the Gonggong (共工) tribe, "the iron-tipped lances reached the enemy, and those without strong helmets and armour were injured." The effectiveness of bronze axes and shields may have been superseded by new iron weaponry and armor. The efficiency of crossbows however outpaced any progress in defensive armour. It was considered a common occurrence in ancient China for commoners or peasants to kill a lord with a well aimed crossbow bolt, regardless of whatever armour he might have been wearing at the time. The heaviest and most protective armours were often restricted to elite soldiers, though each state distributed armour in their own ways. The state of Chu favoured elite armoured crossbow units known for their endurance, and were capable of marching 160 km 'without resting.' Wei's elite forces were capable of marching over 40 km in one day while wearing heavy armour, a large crossbow with 50 bolts, a helmet, a side sword, and three days worth of rations. Those who met these standards earned an exemption from corvée labor and taxes for their entire family. By the time of the Qin Dynasty, approximately half the soldiers could be equipped with some form of heavy armor as indicated by the

Terracotta Army The Terracotta Army is a collection of terracotta sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China. It is a form of funerary art buried with the emperor in 210–209 BCE with the purpose of protecting the emperor ...

. According to

Su Qin Su Qin (380–284 BCE) was a Chinese political consultant and philosopher who was an influential political strategist during the Warring States period. He was born in Chengxuan Village, Luoyang in present-day Henan Province. According to legend S ...

, the state of Han made the best weapons, capable of cleaving through the strongest armour, shields, leather boots and helmets. Their soldiers wore iron facemasks. The state of Wu divided its army into three sections. The main army wore plain armour, the army of the left wore lacquered red armour, and the army of the right wore black armour. By the end of the 3rd century BC at least a few horsemen wore armour of some kind. File:Leather armour, Warring States period, Hubei Museum.jpg, Warring States leather armour File:Terracotta Army 5.jpg,

Qin dynasty The Qin dynasty ( ; zh, c=秦朝, p=Qín cháo, w=), or Ch'in dynasty in Wade–Giles romanization ( zh, c=, p=, w=Ch'in ch'ao), was the first dynasty of Imperial China. Named for its heartland in Qin state (modern Gansu and Shaanxi), ...

Terracotta Army The Terracotta Army is a collection of terracotta sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China. It is a form of funerary art buried with the emperor in 210–209 BCE with the purpose of protecting the emperor ...

soldier wearing

lamellar A ''lamella'' (plural ''lamellae'') is a small plate or flake, from the Latin, and may also be used to refer to collections of fine sheets of material held adjacent to one another, in a gill-shaped structure, often with fluid in between though s ...

armour File:Dinastia qin, elmo e armatura in pietra calcarea, 221-206 ac ca, da xian (ist. provinciale di archeologia dello shaanxi).jpg, Qin limestone armour set resembling iron and leather armour at that time. File:Group of terracotta warriors at Xian.jpg, Group of

Terracotta Army The Terracotta Army is a collection of terracotta sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China. It is a form of funerary art buried with the emperor in 210–209 BCE with the purpose of protecting the emperor ...

soldiers File:Terracotta Warrior (2661127771).jpg, Terracotta soldier (upper body) File:Terracotta army xian assembling warriors.jpg, Terracotta soldiers being reassembled

Qin armour

The Qin calculated fines for more severe crimes in terms of one or two coats of armour, lower crimes in terms of shields, and the lowest in terms of coins. Qin soldiers sometimes threw off their armour in a kind of berserk rage and engaged in fanatical charges. Qin armour usually used rectangular lamellae with dimensions of 7.5 cm x 8.5 cm and 10.5 cm x 7.8 cm. Dimensions of lamellae used for charioteer armour varies between the upper body, lower body, and arms. Lamellae on the upper body were 7 cm x 6 cm, the lower body 9 cm x 6.5 cm, and arms 4–7.5 cm x 4 cm. Lamellae on cavalrymen were 8 cm x 5.7 cm. A complete set of Qin armour, judging by the finds in the

Terracotta Army The Terracotta Army is a collection of terracotta sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China. It is a form of funerary art buried with the emperor in 210–209 BCE with the purpose of protecting the emperor ...

consisted of 250 to 612 pieces in total, not including the helmet. Six groups of armour have been identified in the Terracotta Army corresponding to rank and military division. Some soldiers are outfitted with little to no armour at all, cavalrymen with armour that covered the chest, charioteers with longer armour, armed infantry with armour covering the torso and shoulders, low-ranking officers with armour using large lamellae, middle-ranking officers with shorter armour covering the torso and waist or just the breast, but with decorations such as ribbons, and generals with a distinctive coat showing torso armour and ribbons to signify their status. None of the terracotta soldiers have been found wearing a helmet or holding a shield. However, this may be because the terracotta soldiers are simulating a funerary procession for their ruler, and according to protocol, subordinates had to remove their helmets when appearing before the emperor. Helmets have been found in other excavated pits near the terracotta soldiers. Furthermore, another explanation for both the lack of both weapons and helmets for the terracotta army is that most of the functional, usable equipment made for the terracotta army were believed to have been looted during the rebellion against the Qin dynasty. There is some evidence that armour for horses might have existed for Qin cavalry judging by 300 lamellae too large for human use.

Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD)

Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...

armour was largely the same as the

Qin dynasty The Qin dynasty ( ; zh, c=秦朝, p=Qín cháo, w=), or Ch'in dynasty in Wade–Giles romanization ( zh, c=, p=, w=Ch'in ch'ao), was the first dynasty of Imperial China. Named for its heartland in Qin state (modern Gansu and Shaanxi), ...

with minor variations. Infantry wore suits of lacquered rawhide, hardened and lacquered leather r partially tanned rawhide? or iron r iron alloys such as steellamellar armour and caps or iron helmets. A suit of iron armour dating to the Western Han period consisted of 328 lamellae pieces. Some riders wore armour and carried shields and some horses were armored. However, more widespread and more comprehensive horse armour is not attested to until the late 2nd century. During the late 2nd century BC, the government created a monopoly on the ironworks, which may have caused a decrease in quality of iron and armour. Bu Shi claimed that the resulting products were inferior because they were made to meet quotas rather than for practical use. These monopolies as debated in the

Discourses on Salt and Iron The Discourses on Salt and Iron () was a debate held at the imperial court in 81 BCE on state policy during the Han dynasty in China. The previous emperor, Emperor Wu, had reversed the laissez-faire policies of his predecessors and imposed a wide ...

were abolished by the beginning of the 1st century AD. In 150 AD, Cui Shi made similar complaints about the issue of quality control in government production due to corruption: "...not long thereafter the overseers stopped being attentive, and the wrong men have been promoted by Imperial decree. Greedy officers fight over the materials, and shifty craftsmen cheat them... Iron .e. steelis quenched in vinegar, making it brittle and easy to... The suits of armour are too small and do not fit properly." Composite bows were considered effective against unarmoured enemies at 165 yards, and against armoured opponents at 65 yards. File:Western Han Terracotta Soldier 2.jpg,

Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...

soldier figurine File:Western Han Terracotta Soldier 5.jpg, Gourd shield File:Western Han Terracotta Soldier 4.jpg, Gourd shield File:Shaanxi, han occidentali, fante, II sec. ac. 02.JPG, File:Han shieldbearers 04.jpg, Shield bearer with armored hood File:Soldier of Han.jpg, Soldier with armored hood

Hook shield

During the Han dynasty, a hook shield was used in combination with a sword when fighting against polearms. The hook shield was a small iron shield that had hooks at the top and bottom for hooking halberds or spears. Sometimes it had a thorny protrusion in the middle for attacking. File:Han Iron Shield and Hook.jpg, Han iron hook shield File:Han Iron Shield and Hook Weapon.jpg, Han iron hook shield

Three Kingdoms (220–280)

By the Three Kingdoms period many cavalrymen wore armour and some horses were equipped with their own armour as well. In one battle, the warlord Cao Cao boasted that with only ten sets of horse armour he had faced an enemy with three hundred sets. The horse armour may however have just been metal partial frontal barding or a mixture of metal and rawhide barding rather than fully comprehensive all metal barding. References to "great shields" occur in their usage on the front line to protect spearmen and crossbowmen. Shields were also commonly paired with the single edged dao and used among cavalrymen. Descriptions of the Battle of Guandu mention that Cao Cao's soldiers employed shield cover above their heads each time they moved out into the open due to oppressive arrow fire from Yuan Shao's wooden towers.

Dark armour

A report in 231 AD mentions the capture of 5,000 suits of "dark armour" (''xuan kai'' or ''xuan jia'' 玄鎧/玄甲) and 3,100 crossbows. Dark armour appears in Han texts as well, but only as the attire worn by honor guards at funeral processions. The only trait known about dark armour is that it reflected the sun's rays. This probably means dark armour was made of high quality steel, which was often associated with black ferrous material.

Brilliant armour

Cao Zhi mentioned three different kinds of armour, two of which were variants of "brilliant" armour: Brilliant armour was made of decarburized steel, which shines blue-black when polished, giving it its name. Chen Lin described brilliant armour in the following manner:

Jin dynasty and the Sixteen Kingdoms (265–439)

Western Jin Pottery Figures (9833200104)

Fully comprehensive metal horse armour covering the horse's entire body appeared in northeastern China in the mid-4th century during the

Eastern Jin dynasty Eastern may refer to: Transportation *China Eastern Airlines, a current Chinese airline based in Shanghai *Eastern Air, former name of Zambia Skyways *Eastern Air Lines, a defunct American airline that operated from 1926 to 1991 *Eastern Air Li ...

, probably as a result of

Xianbei The Xianbei (; ) were a Proto-Mongolic ancient nomadic people that once resided in the eastern Eurasian steppes in what is today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Northeastern China. They originated from the Donghu people who splintered into th ...

influence. By the end of the 4th century, murals depicting horse armour covering the entire body were found in tombs as far as

Yunnan Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the C ...

. Sources mention the capture of thousands of "armored horses" in a single battle.

Five colored armour

Shi Hu Shi Hu (; 295–349), courtesy name Jilong (季龍), formally Emperor Wu of (Later) Zhao ((後)趙武帝), was an emperor of the Jie-led Chinese Later Zhao dynasty. He was the founding emperor Shi Le's distant nephew, who took power in a coup ...

's bodyguard was said to have worn "fine five-colored armour" (''wuse xikai''), which was so dazzling it blinded the eye. This was probably similar in construction to brilliant armour. File:三國盾.jpg, Wei or Jin shieldbearer File:Western Jin Pottery Figures (9833313763).jpg, Jin cavalry with single mounting stirrup File:Western Jin cavalry.jpg,

Western Jin Western may refer to: Places *Western, Nebraska, a village in the US *Western, New York, a town in the US * Western Creek, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western Junction, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western world, countries that i ...

rider File:Western Jin soldier.jpg, Jin soldier with shield File:Western Jin Pottery Warrior.jpg, Jin pottery soldier File:Western Jin Pottery Warrior, Luoyang.jpg, Jin pottery soldier

Northern and Southern dynasties (420–589)

Northern Dynasties Pottery Figures (10128628153)

Cord and plaque

During the Northern and Southern dynasties period (420–589), a style of armour called "cord and plaque" became popular, as did shields and long swords. "Cord and plaque" armour consisted of double breast plates in the front and back held together, sometimes on a frame, by two shoulder straps and waist cords, worn over the usual lamellar armour. "Cord and plaque" wearing figurines are also often depicted holding an oval or rectangular shield and a long sword. Types of armour had also apparently become distinct enough for there to be separate categories for light and heavy armour. Bright brilliant armour continued to be prominent. In 518 AD, the Northern Wei court gave a visiting Avar chieftain a set of fine bright brilliant cavalry armour and six sets of iron cavalry armour. Deployment of armoured cavalry was common for the Northern Wei, especially among the "iron-clad" Erzhu tribe who specialized in armoured cavalry. References to heavy cavalry as "iron horses" occur in the poetry of Lu Chui. In 543 AD, the

Western Wei Wei (), known in historiography as the Western Wei (), was an imperial dynasty of China that followed the disintegration of the Northern Wei. One of the Northern dynasties during the era of the Northern and Southern dynasties, it ruled the weste ...

general Cai Yu came to be known as "iron tiger" for his distinctive bright brilliant armour. The elite guards of the

Liang dynasty The Liang dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Liang () in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the third of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. It was preceded by the South ...

(502–557) were equipped with helmets, uniforms, and armour that "trimmed in gold and silver and glistening under the sun's glare," cost in all some several hundred thousand coppers for each soldier. The display reportedly sapped the spirits of Jin warriors, although the Jin commander Zhou Dewei said they were "more intent on posing than engaging the enemy."

Banded armour

The earliest depictions of "banded" armour have been found in bronze figurines made by the

Dian Kingdom Dian () was an ancient kingdom established by the Dian people, a non-Han Chinese metalworking civilization that inhabited around the Dian Lake plateau of central northern Yunnan, China from the late Spring and Autumn period until the Eastern Han d ...

that existed from 279 BCE to 109 BCE. Later banded armor also appears in Northern and Southern dynasties and Tang era art. This type of armour was built up of long horizontal bands or plates, similar to the

lorica segmentata The ''lorica segmentata'' (), also called ''lorica lamminata'' (see Lorica segmentata#Name, §Name), is a type of personal armour that was used by soldiers of the Roman army, consisting of Laminar armor, metal strips fashioned into circular band ...

. The imperial guards of the Jurchen Jin dynasty have been described wearing banded armour. The left guards wore blue banded armour and held yellow dragon flags while the right guards wore red banded armour and held red dragon flags. Banded armour is even more rarely depicted than the elusive mountain pattern armour or

mail armour Chain mail (properly called mail or maille but usually called chain mail or chainmail) is a type of armour consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh. It was in common military use between the 3rd century BC and ...

.

Co-fusion steel weapons on armour

In the 6th century, Qimu Huaiwen introduced to

Northern Qi Qi, known as the Northern Qi (), Later Qi (後齊) or Gao Qi (高齊) in historiography, was a Chinese imperial dynasty and one of the Northern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties era. It ruled the eastern part of northern China ...

the process of 'co-fusion' steel-making, which used metals of different carbon contents to create steel. Apparently sabers made using this method were capable of penetrating 30 armour lamellae. It's not clear if the armour was of iron or leather. File:Nordynasty soldier.jpg, NS dynasties shieldbearer in "cord and plaque" armour File:Norqi guardian.jpg,

Northern Qi Qi, known as the Northern Qi (), Later Qi (後齊) or Gao Qi (高齊) in historiography, was a Chinese imperial dynasty and one of the Northern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties era. It ruled the eastern part of northern China ...

soldier File:北齊壁畫 02.jpg, Northern Qi soldier wearing banded armour File:North and South dynasty soldiers 03.jpg, NS dynasties shieldbearer File:Cernuschi Museum 20060812 127.jpg, Northern Wei heavy cavalry funerary figurine. File:Story of the Five Hundred Robbers (535–557 CE), Mogao Cave 285, Dunhuang, China.jpg,

Western Wei Wei (), known in historiography as the Western Wei (), was an imperial dynasty of China that followed the disintegration of the Northern Wei. One of the Northern dynasties during the era of the Northern and Southern dynasties, it ruled the weste ...

cavalry

Medieval armour

Sui dynasty (581–618)

The Sui dynasty made prodigious use of heavy cavalry. Both men and horses were heavily armoured. Armoured Sui horsemen found it difficult to engage with lighter Turkic cavalry on the steppes. They were mainly used to break infantry formations. The '' Book of Sui'' provides an account of the cavalry battalions of the dynasty's 24 armies. They first battalion wore "bright-brilliant" (''mingguang'') armour made of decarburized steel connected by dark green cords, their horses wore iron armour with dark green tassels, and they were distinguished by lion banners. The second battalion wore armour of vermillion leather joined with red cords, their horse armour had an animal pattern with red tassels, and their unit flag was a panther-like beast. Other battalions were also distinguished by their own colors, patterns, and flags, but neither the bright-brilliant armour or iron armour are mentioned. File:Sui Pottery Tomb Guardian (9979211685).jpg, Sui warrior with shield File:Sui Warrior.jpg, Sui soldier with shield File:Sui Tomb Guard.jpg, Sui soldier File:Funerary Sculpture of a Soldier LACMA 48.3.18.jpg, Sui soldier File:Funerary Sculpture of a Soldier LACMA 48.3.16 (3 of 3).jpg, Sui soldier File:Sui Pottery Horse & Rider (9924059624).jpg, Sui armoured cavalry

Tang dynasty (618–907)

Dinastia tang, coppia di guerrieri, 600-620 ca

Zhang Yichao Victory Procession Mural 07

By the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdom ...

it was possible for armour to provide immense personal protection. Heavy cavalry played an important role in the Tang army during the wars following the Sui dynasty's collapse. In one instance

Li Shimin Emperor Taizong of Tang (28January 59810July 649), previously Prince of Qin, personal name Li Shimin, was the second emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. He is traditionally regarded as a co-founder of the dynasty ...

's cousin, Li Daoxuan, was able to cut his way through the entire enemy mass of Xia soldiers and then cut his way back again, repeating the operation several times before the battle was won, at which point he had so many arrows sticking out of his armour that he looked like a "porcupine." In another battle between Li Shimin and

Wang Shichong Wang Shichong (; 567– August 621), courtesy name Xingman (行滿), was a Chinese military general, monarch, and politician during the Sui dynasty who deposed Sui's last emperor Yang Tong and briefly ruled as the emperor of a succeeding state ...

, Li and his entourage of 500 armoured cavalry were attacked by a light cavalry force led by

Shan Xiongxin Shan Xiongxin (? - 5 June 621) was a general, top warrior and peasant uprising leader during the Transition from Sui to Tang, transitional era between Sui and Tang dynasties. In history Shan Xiongxin was born in Cao County, Caoxian, Shandong reg ...

. Shan charged at Li directly but was intercepted by one of Li's generals,

Yuchi Gong Yuchi Gong (尉遲恭) or Yuchi Rong (尉遲融) (585 – 25 December 658), courtesy name Jingde (敬德), also known by his posthumous name Duke Zhongwu of E, was a prominent general who lived in the early Tang dynasty. Yuchi Jingde and another ...

, who knocked Shan off his horse. Yuchi then led the armoured cavalry force and broke through the enemy army while Li rallied his forces and drove through Shan's light cavalry several times. The arrows and spears of Wang's forces had little effect on Tang heavy cavalry. The effective range of a composite bow against armoured troops in this era was considered to be around 75 to 100 yards. Li Shimin's elite cavalry forces were known to have worn distinctive black "iron clad" armour, and Li Shimin himself was said to have been able to forgo food for two days and keep armour on for three days, but heavy cavalry declined as Turkic influence became more prevalent and light cavalry became the dominant mode of mounted warfare. Tang expeditionary forces to

Central Asia Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...

preferred a mixture of light and heavy Chinese horse archers. After the

An Lushan An Lushan (; 20th day of the 1st month 19 February 703 – 29 January 757) was a general in the Tang dynasty and is primarily known for instigating the An Lushan Rebellion. An Lushan was of Sogdian and Göktürk origin,Yang, Zhijiu, "An Lush ...

rebellion of the mid-9th century and losing the northwestern pastures to the Tibetans, Chinese cavalry almost disappeared altogether as a relevant military force. Many southern horses were considered too small or frail to carry an armoured soldier. Infantry armour became more common in the Tang era and roughly 60 percent of active soldiers were equipped with armour of some kind. Armour could be manufactured natively or captured as a result of war. For instance 10,000 suits of iron armour were captured during the

Goguryeo–Tang War The Goguryeo–Tang War occurred from 645 to 668 and was fought between Goguryeo and the Tang dynasty. During the course of the war, the two sides allied with various other states. Goguryeo successfully repulsed the invading Tang armies dur ...

. Armour and mounts, including pack animals, were supplied by the state through state funds, and thus considered state property. Private ownership of military equipment such as horse armour, long lances, and crossbows was prohibited. Possession was taken as intent of rebellion or treason. The army staff kept track of armour and weapons with detailed records of items issued. If a deficiency was discovered, the corresponding soldier was ordered to pay restitution. The state also provided clothing and rations for border garrisons and expeditionary armies. Soldiers not on active duty were expected to pay for themselves, although "professional" soldiers were given tax exemptions. Tang iron lamellae were between 9.6 and 9 cm long, 2.6 to 1.3 cm wide, and 0.28 to 0.22 cm thick. File:Tang Pottery Cavalry 01.jpg, Tang cavalry figurine File:Tang shieldbearer mural.jpg, Tang soldier in a mural File:Tang soldier figurine.jpg, Tang soldier File:Soldier of Tang 02.jpg, Tang soldier File:1971贴金彩绘武官俑.jpg, 7th century painted figure of a Tang military officer File:Dinastia tang, shanxi-henan, coppia di guerrieri corazzati, 650-700 ca..JPG, Tang figurines with cord and plaque armour

Mail armour

Mail was already known to the Chinese since they first encountered it in 384 AD when their allies in the nation of Kuchi arrived wearing "armor similar to chains". However mail armour was not mentioned again until 718 AD when a tributary mission from Samarkand presented to the Tang emperor a coat of "link armour". Mail was later improved on during the

Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...

to withstand arrows better, by which H. Russell Robinson believes meant using interlocked rings. However mail was never used in any significant numbers and was seen as foreign and exotic, originating from the Qiang people from the west. The dominant form of armour continued to be lamellar.

Mountain pattern armour

References to mountain pattern armour () appear as early as the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdom ...

in the ''Six Statutels of the Tang Dynasty'', but historical texts provide no explanation or diagram of how it actually worked. There are also no surviving examples of it. Everything that is known about mountain pattern armour comes from paintings and statues, typically of the Song and Ming periods. It is not unique to China and has been found in depictions in Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and even Thailand, however non-religious depictions are limited to only China, Korea, and Vietnam. Reconstruction projects of this type of armour have largely failed to produce good results. The current theory is that this type of armour is made from a multitude of small pieces of iron or steel shaped like the Chinese character for the word "mountain" (山). One theory is that they were zigzag lines of pointed scale heads similar to lamellar armour. The pieces are interlocked and riveted to a cloth or leather backing. It covers the torso, shoulders and thighs while remaining comfortable and flexible enough to allow movement. Also during this time, senior Chinese officers used

mirror armour Mirror armour (russian: зерцало, , meaning "mirror"; zh, 护心镜, , meaning "protect-heart mirror"), sometimes referred to as disc armour or as or ( fa, چهاﺮآﻳنه meaning "four mirrors"; whence kk, шар-айна, ), was ...

() to protect important body parts, while cloth, leather, lamellar, and/or Mountain pattern armor were used for other body parts. This overall design was called "shining armor" (). There is an alternative theory that mountain pattern armour is simply a result of very stylistic depictions of mail armour, but known depictions of mail armour in Chinese art do not match with mountain pattern armour either. Chinese Mountain Scale Scheme.jpg, Scale armor with interlocking mountain-shaped pieces File:Tang tomb guardians.jpg, Tang tomb guardians wearing mountain pattern armour, from the tomb of Wang Jian (c. 900 AD) File:Tang Pottery Warrior1.jpg, Tang soldier wearing a combination of mail, cord and plaque, and mountain pattern armour. File:扶棺力士雕像03516.jpg, Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period stone guardian wearing mountain pattern armour File:山文甲.jpg, Close up view of the

Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peo ...

painting "Departure Herald" showing riders wearing lamellar and mountain pattern armour File:Tomb of Chang Yuchun 20 2013-05.jpg, Tomb guardian in mountain pattern armour at the tomb of

Chang Yuchun Chang Yuchun (1330 – 9 August 1369), courtesy name Boren and art name Yanheng, was a Chinese military general of the Ming dynasty. He was a follower of Zhu Yuanzhang, the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty, and contributed heavily to the est ...

(1330–1369) File:Tomb of Chang Yuchun 23 2013-05.jpg, Close up of mountain pattern armour sculpture

Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960)

Paper armour

During the wars between the

Later Zhou Zhou, known as the Later Zhou (; ) in historiography, was a short-lived Chinese imperial dynasty and the last of the Five Dynasties that controlled most of northern China during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Founded by Guo Wei ( ...

and

Southern Tang Southern Tang () was a state in Southern China that existed during Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, which proclaimed itself to be the successor of the former Tang dynasty. The capital was located at Nanjing in present-day Jiangsu Province. ...

, civilians on the Tang side formed "White Armor Armies", named after the white paper armour they wore. These Tang civilian armies experienced some success in driving off small contingents of Zhou forces but avoided confrontation with the larger army. The White Armour militia army was later revived to fight against the

Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...

, but they were ineffective and disbanded. Later Ming texts provide descriptions of paper armour. One version was made of silk paper and functioned as a gambeson, worn under other armour or by itself. Silk paper could also be used for arm guards. Another version used thicker, more flexible paper, hammered soft, and fastened with studs. It's said that this type of paper armour performed better when soaked with water. Paper armour was still worn by the Hui people in

Yunnan Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the C ...

in the late 19th century. Bark paper armour in layers of thirty to sixty sheets in addition to silk and cotton was considered to be fairly good protection against musket balls and bayonets, which got stuck in the layers of paper, but not breech loading rifles at close quarters. File:武備要略程子頤明朝二 23.jpg, Sleeved paper armour File:武備要略程子頤明朝二 22.jpg, Cotton, paper, and rattan helmets File:武備要略程子頤明朝二 24.jpg, Barbarian paper armour File:武備要略程子頤明朝二 25.jpg, Barbarian paper armour File:武備要略程子頤明朝二 26.jpg, Barbarian paper armour File:武備要略程子頤明朝二 27.jpg, Barbarian paper armour

Liao dynasty (907–1125)

The Khitans of the Liao dynasty employed heavy armoured cavalry as the core of their army. In battle they arrayed light cavalry in the front and two layers of armoured cavalry in the back. Even foragers were armoured. Units of Khitan heavy cavalry were organized in groups of 500 to 700 men. Unlike some other empires originating from nomadic tribes, the Khitans preferred to fight in dense heavy cavalry formations rather than the wide formations of horse archers.

Song dynasty (960–1279)

During the

Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...

(960–1279) it became fashionable to create warts on pieces of armour to imitate cold forged steel, a product typically produced by non-Han people in modern

Qinghai Qinghai (; alternately romanized as Tsinghai, Ch'inghai), also known as Kokonor, is a landlocked province in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. It is the fourth largest province of China by area and has the third smallest po ...

. Warts created from cold work were actually spots of higher carbon in the original steel, thus aesthetic warts on non-cold forged steel served no purpose. According to Shen Kuo, armour constructed of cold forged steel was impenetrable to arrows shot at a distance of 50 paces. Even if the arrow happened to hit a drill hole, the arrowhead was the one which was ruined. However crossbows were still prized for their ability to penetrate heavy armour. The '' History of Song'' notes that Song "tools of war were exceedingly effective, never before seen in recent times," and "their weapons and armor were very good", but "their troops weren't always effective." According to

Sima Guang Sima Guang (17 November 1019 – 11 October 1086), courtesy name Junshi, was a Chinese historian, politician, and writer. He was a high-ranking Song dynasty scholar-official who authored the monumental history book ''Zizhi Tongjian''. Sima was ...

, since most military problems came from the north, the military establishment in the south was neglected, leaving soldiers without armour and even cities without gates. The

Zhuang people The Zhuang (; ; za, Bouxcuengh, italic=yes; ) are a Tai-speaking ethnic group who mostly live in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in Southern China. Some also live in the Yunnan, Guangdong, Guizhou, and Hunan provinces. They form one of ...

of Nong Zhigao's army during the Nong Zhigao rebellions (1042, 1048, 1052) fought in units of three. One person held a large shield while the other two threw javelins.

Western Xia (1038–1227)

The Western Xia made modest use of heavy cavalry, of which it had 3,000 at its height.

Jurchen Jin dynasty (1115–1234)

The

Jurchens Jurchen (Manchu: ''Jušen'', ; zh, 女真, ''Nǚzhēn'', ) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian Tungusic-speaking peoples, descended from the Donghu people. They lived in the northeast of China, later known as Manch ...

had a reputation for making high quality armour and weapons. Both metal and quilted armour were worn by Jurchens. The Jurchen army was organized into units of a thousand and a hundred. Every hundred was composed of two fifty men social and economic units called ''punian''. Each punian was supposed to have 20 men equipped with armour and lances or halberds. These 20 men formed a standard two rank five deep battle formation while the others formed three ranks of archers. In 1232 the Jurchens used cast iron bombs against the

Mongols The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal membe ...

at the siege of

Kaifeng Kaifeng () is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and is best known for having been the Chinese capital during the No ...

. The '' History of Jin'' states that the fire created by the blast could penetrate even iron armour. File:金朝铁骑.jpg, Jurchen "iron pagoda" cavalry from the scroll painting ''Ruiyingtu'',

Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...

File:Jurchen Jin cavalry.jpg, Jurchen "iron pagoda" cavalry File:明朝瑞應圖 (51588959496).png,

Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peo ...

copy of the painting depicting "iron pagoda" cavalry File:金朝戰馬壁畫 01.jpg, Relief of a Jin rider facing off against a Song cavalryman File:金朝戰馬壁畫 02.jpg, Jin depiction of Song cavalry File:Jin Iron Armor.jpg, Jin lamellar armour

Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)

According to Meng Hong, the reason for the Mongols' success was that they possessed more iron than previous steppe peoples. Both Chinese and European sources concur that Mongols wore substantial armour capable of stopping arrows. A Song source notes that one way to pierce heavily clad Mongol warriors was to use small arrows capable of entering the eye slits of their helmet. According to

Thomas the Archdeacon Thomas the Archdeacon ( la, Thomas Archidiaconus; it, Tommaso Arcidiacono; hr, Toma Arhiđakon; c. 1200 – 8 May 1268), also known as Thomas of Spalato ( la, Thomas Spalatensis, hu, Spalatói Tamás), was a Roman Catholic cleric, historian and ...

, Mongol arrows were capable of penetrating all known types of armour at the time, but their own leather armour could withstand the arrows of their enemies. However he also mentions that the Mongols feared crossbows.

Giovanni da Pian del Carpine Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, variously rendered in English as ''John of Pian de Carpine'', ''John of Plano Carpini'' or ''Joannes de Plano'' (c. 11851 August 1252), was a medieval Italian diplomat, archbishop and explorer and one of the firs ...

describing Mongol lamellar armour: File:War Mask MET DP146429.jpg, alt=Mongol war mask, 12-14th century. One of the only two Mongolian or Tibetan armour masks., Mongol war mask, 12–14th century. One of the only two Mongolian or Tibetan armour masks. File:Mongolian Empire Iron Helmet.jpg, Iron helmet, Mongol Empire File:The helmet of a Mongolian army (7).JPG, Yuan helmet File:Yuan Iron Hat, Mongolia (10196136153).jpg, Yuan helmet File:Yuan Iron Hat (19655339659).jpg, Yuan helmet with wide brim File:Inner Mongolia Museum suit of armour A.jpg, Yuan lamellar armour

Late imperial armour

Ming dynasty (1368–1644)

Shang Xi, Guan Yu Captures General Pang De

Ming glaive warriors on boats return clearing (51172485500)

Brigandine wearing pikemen departure herald (51171618048)

As the development of military industry saw rapid growth during the Ming dynasty as well as the need for greater defence especially around the northern borders. Although armour never lost all meaning during the Ming dynasty, it became less and less important as the power of firearms became apparent. It was already acknowledged by the early Ming artillery officer Jiao Yu that guns "were found to behave like flying dragons, able to penetrate layers of armor." Fully armoured soldiers could and were killed by guns. The Ming Marshall Cai was one such victim. An account from the enemy side states, "Our troops used fire tubes to shoot and fell him, and the great army quickly lifted him and carried him back to his fortifications." It is possible that Chinese armour had some success in blocking musket balls later on during the Ming dynasty. A composite shield made of several layers of material known as the Duo Qian Fang Pai (Lead-catching defence shield) was specifically designed to stop bullets. According to the Japanese, during the Battle of Jiksan, the Chinese wore armour and used shields that were at least partially bulletproof. Frederick Coyett later described Ming lamellar armour as providing complete protection from "small arms", although this is sometimes mistranslated as "rifle bullets". According to the '' Jixiao Xinshu'', written in 1584, rattan shields were preferable to wooden shields in the south because they were lighter and easier to use in muddy and rainy conditions and on the sloped pathways of farming fields. Rattan shields were sometimes paired with javelins, which were used to distract the enemy. The writer considered the rattan shields ineffective against guns. Rocket handlers often wore heavy armour for extra protection so that they could fire at close range.

Brigandine armour

Brigandine A brigandine is a form of body armour from the Middle Ages. It is a garment typically made of heavy cloth, canvas, or leather, lined internally with small oblong steel plates riveted to the fabric, sometimes with a second layer of fabric on t ...

armour (''bumianjia'' ( Chinese: 布面甲;

Pinyin Hanyu Pinyin (), often shortened to just pinyin, is the official romanization system for Standard Chinese, Standard Mandarin Chinese in China, and to some extent, in Singapore and Malaysia. It is often used to teach Mandarin, normally writte ...

: bùmiànjiǎ)) became the most dominant form of armour, particularly in the north, during the Ming and Qing era. It consisted of riveted plates covered with fabric. Popularly known as ''dingjia'' (nailed armour), it was actually called ''bumianjia'' (cloth covered armour). It was also sometimes called ''anjia'' (dark armour) in contrast to ''mingjia'' (bright armour) which referred to lamellar.

Plate armour

Partial plate armour in the form of a cuirass sewn together with fabric is mentioned in the ''Wubei Yaolue'', 1638. Called ''quantiejia'' (complete metal armour), the text describes the usage of 100 catties of Fujian iron, 4–5 piculs of northern coal, and over 10 piculs of southern coal in the creation process of the plates. After finishing the plates, they were lacquered and linked together using cotton and woolen ropes. A full set of ''quantiejia'' weighed around 34.4 catties. One Ming catty was around 590 grams, making a full set of ''quantiejia'' around 20 kg in weight. It's not known how common plate armour was during the Ming dynasty, and no other source mentions it. There are no records of mail and plate used together from Chinese records but the ''

Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty The ''Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty'' (also known as the ''Annals of the Joseon Dynasty'' or the ''True Record of the Joseon Dynasty''; ko, 조선왕조실록 and ) are the annual records of Joseon, the last royal house to rule K ...

'' does mention the dismissal of an official for failing to supervise the production of "Chinese mail-and-plate armour" in the 15th century. File:Ming helmet, breast plate, and mask.jpg, Ming helmet, breastplate, and mask from the ''Wubei Yaolue'' File:Ming arm guards, thigh armor, and back plate.jpg, Ming arm guards, thigh armour, and back plate from the ''Wubei Yaolue'' File:明朝鐵甲.png, Ming plate armour File:明朝全鐵甲 (51586713536).png, Modern replica of ''quantiejia'' File:明朝全鐵甲1 (51587370099).png, Replica front File:明朝全鐵甲4 (51587614980).png, Replica back

Leather armour

Leather armour was made using cowhide. The cowhide was cut into small scales, painted with tung oil, baked dry, and then hammered together with powdered iron. This process was repeated multiple times until each piece of leather scale hardened. The hardened scales were then laced together into a suit of armour. Another version of leather armour used by sailors in

Guangdong Guangdong (, ), alternatively romanized as Canton or Kwangtung, is a coastal province in South China on the north shore of the South China Sea. The capital of the province is Guangzhou. With a population of 126.01 million (as of 2020) ...

and Guangxi cut the hides into bands that were riveted together horizontally. Soldiers recruited from the miners of Chuzhou used a type of leather armour that only protected the left side of the body. The lower part of the armour was suspended by a hook to allow for ease of movement. Aside from cowhide, leather armour could also be made from pangolin hides. File:武備要略程子頤明朝二 30.jpg, Soldier wearing leather armour only protecting the left side, holding a wolf brush (anti-polearm weapon), from the ''Wubei Yaolue'' File:武備要略程子頤明朝二 31.jpg, Leather armour, back File:武備要略程子頤明朝二 29.jpg, Leather armour, left side File:籌海圖編鄭若曾明朝 18.jpg, Horizontal leather armour used by sailors in southern China File:武備要略程子頤明朝二 32.jpg, Pangolin armour File:武備志茅元儀明朝盔甲 14.jpg, Rattan armour from the ''

Wubei Zhi The ''Wubei Zhi'' (; ''Treatise on Armament Technology'' or ''Records of Armaments and Military Provisions''), also commonly known by its Japanese translated name Bubishi, is a military book in Chinese history. It was compiled in 1621 by Mao Yu ...

''

Qing dynasty (1636–1912)

In the 17th century the Qing army was equipped with both lamellar and brigandine armour. The quality of metal could differ greatly from a common soldier, whose armour could have only a thin soft sheet of metal, to an officer's brigandine, made of thin but tough and elastic steel. After the conquest of China and peace was established in the majority of the empire, many soldiers became lazy and refused to wear armour. In the 18th century, the Qianlong Emperor said, "Our old Manchu customs respect righteousness and revere justice. Young and old, none are ashamed to fight for them. But after enjoying such a long period of peace, inevitably, people want to avoid putting on armor and joining the ranks of war." As early as the 18th century, some brigandine armour had parts that were studded but did not actually include plates. By the 19th century most Qing armour were purely for show. Some uniforms and show pieces imitated brigandine armour by keeping the outer studs for aesthetic purposes but omitted the protective iron plates on the inside. According to one English source in the late 19th century, only the emperor's immediate body guard wore armour of any kind, and these guards were all nobles of the imperial family. English literature in the early 19th century mentions Chinese rattan shields that were "almost musket proof", however another English source in the late 19th century states that they did nothing to protect their users during an advance on a Muslim stronghold, in which they were all invariably shot to death. File:Ayusi.jpg, Ayusi, a Dzungar officer in the Qing army, in mail armour. File:Fude.jpg, Fude (d. 1776), a Manchu officer of the Plain Yellow Banner, in brigandine armour. File:Armoured Kangxi Emperor.jpg, The Kangxi Emperor in ceremonial armour File:The Qianlong Emperor in Ceremonial Armour on Horseback.jpg, The Qianlong Emperor in ceremonial armour File:William Alexander Chinese Military Post 1793.jpg, Qing soldiers 1793 File:Su Yuanchun.jpg, Su Yuanchun, who fought in the Sino-French War (1884–1885)

References

Citations

Works cited

* . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Peers, C. J. ''Imperial Chinese Armies (1): 200 BC-AD 589''; illustrated by Michael Perry, Osprey Publishing «Men-at-arms», * --do.--''Imperial Chinese Armies (2): 590-1260 AD''; illustrated by Michael Perry, Osprey Publishing «Men-at-arms», * --do.--''Medieval Chinese Armies: 1260-1520''; illustrated by David Sque, Osprey Publishing «Men-at-arms», * --do.--''Late Imperial Chinese Armies: 1520-1840''; illustrated by Christa Hook, Osprey Publishing «Men-at-arms», *--do.--''Ancient Chinese Armies: 1500-200B''; illustrated by Angus McBridge, Osprey Publishing «Men-at-arms», * * * * * * * * * * * *

External links

Brigandine pictures.Video Evolution of Chinese Armor by Dynasty.
{{Ancient and Dynastic Chinese Military History East Asian armour Military history of China Military equipment of China

Ancient armour

Shang dynasty (c. 1600 BC–c. 1046 BC)

Zhou dynasty (c. 1046 BC–256 BC)

Warring States (c. 475 BC–221 BC)

Lamellar armour

Qin armour

Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD)

Hook shield

Three Kingdoms (220–280)

Dark armour

Brilliant armour

Jin dynasty and the Sixteen Kingdoms (265–439)

Five colored armour

Northern and Southern dynasties (420–589)

Cord and plaque

Banded armour

Co-fusion steel weapons on armour

Medieval armour

Sui dynasty (581–618)

Tang dynasty (618–907)

Mail armour

Mountain pattern armour

Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960)

Paper armour

Liao dynasty (907–1125)

Song dynasty (960–1279)

Western Xia (1038–1227)

Jurchen Jin dynasty (1115–1234)

Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)

Late imperial armour

Ming dynasty (1368–1644)

Brigandine armour

Plate armour

Leather armour

Qing dynasty (1636–1912)

See also

References

Citations

Works cited

External links