The Chibchan languages (also Chibchan, Chibchano) make up a

language family A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in h ...

indigenous to the Isthmo-Colombian Area, which extends from eastern

Honduras Honduras, officially the Republic of Honduras, is a country in Central America. The republic of Honduras is bordered to the west by Guatemala, to the southwest by El Salvador, to the southeast by Nicaragua, to the south by the Pacific Oce ...

to northern

Colombia Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the ...

and includes populations of these countries as well as

Nicaragua Nicaragua (; ), officially the Republic of Nicaragua (), is the largest country in Central America, bordered by Honduras to the north, the Caribbean to the east, Costa Rica to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Managua is the coun ...

Costa Rica Costa Rica (, ; ; literally "Rich Coast"), officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( es, República de Costa Rica), is a country in the Central American region of North America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the no ...

, and

Panama Panama ( , ; es, link=no, Panamá ), officially the Republic of Panama ( es, República de Panamá), is a transcontinental country spanning the southern part of North America and the northern part of South America. It is bordered by Co ...

. The name is derived from the name of an

extinct language An extinct language is a language that no longer has any speakers, especially if the language has no living descendants. In contrast, a dead language is one that is no longer the native language of any community, even if it is still in use, l ...

called ''

Chibcha The Muisca (also called Chibcha) are an indigenous people and culture of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, Colombia, that formed the Muisca Confederation before the Spanish conquest. The people spoke Muysccubun, a language of the Chibchan lan ...

'' or ''Muysccubun'', once spoken by the people who lived on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense of which the city of

Bogotá Bogotá (, also , , ), officially Bogotá, Distrito Capital, abbreviated Bogotá, D.C., and formerly known as Santa Fe de Bogotá (; ) during the Spanish period and between 1991 and 2000, is the capital city of Colombia, and one of the larges ...

was the southern capital at the time of the Spanish Conquista. However, genetic and linguistic data now indicate that the original heart of Chibchan languages and Chibchan-speaking peoples might not have been in Colombia, but in the area of the

border, where the greatest variety of Chibchan languages has been identified.

External relations

A larger family called '' Macro-Chibchan'', which would contain the

Misumalpan languages The Misumalpan languages (also Misumalpa or Misuluan) are a small family of languages spoken by indigenous peoples on the east coast of Nicaragua and nearby areas. The name "Misumalpan" was devised by John Alden Mason and is composed of syllables ...

, Xinca, and Lenca, was found convincing by Kaufman (1990). Pache (2018) suggests a distant relationship with the

Macro-Jê languages Macro-Jê (also spelled Macro-Gê) is a medium-sized language stock in South America, mostly in Brazil but also in the Chiquitanía region in Santa Cruz, Bolivia, as well as (formerly) in small parts of Argentina and Paraguay. It is centered o ...

Language contact

Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Andaki, Barbakoa, Choko, Duho, Paez, Sape, and Taruma language families due to contact.

Classification

* A ** Waimí (Guaymi) *** Guaymí (Ngäbere, Movere) – 170,000 speakers, vulnerable in

, endangered in

*** Buglere (Bokotá) – 18,000 speakers, endangered ** Borũca (Brunca) – 140 speakers, moribund ** Talamanca *** Huetar (Güetar) † *** Bribri (Talamanca), 7,000 speakers – vulnerable in

, endangered in

*** Cabécar (Talamanca) – 8,800 speakers, vulnerable ***

Teribe Teribe is a town and Corregimientos of Panama, corregimiento in the Naso Tjër Di Comarca of Panama. It has a land area of and had a population of 2,578 as of 2010, giving it a population density of . It was created by Law 5 of January 19, 199 ...

(Norteño) – 3,300 speakers, endangered * B ** Pech (Paya) – 990 speakers, endangered ** Dorasque † ** Votic ***

Rama Rama (; ), Ram, Raman or Ramar, also known as Ramachandra (; , ), is a major deity in Hinduism. He is the seventh and one of the most popular '' avatars'' of Vishnu. In Rama-centric traditions of Hinduism, he is considered the Supreme Bei ...

– 740 speakers, moribund *** Voto † *** Maléku (Guatuso) – 750 speakers, endangered *** Corobicí – northwestern Costa Rica † ** Cuna–Colombian ***

Kuna Kuna may refer to: Places * Kuna, Idaho, a town in the United States ** Kuna Caves, a lava tube in Idaho * Kuna Peak, a mountain in California * , a village in the Orebić municipality, Croatia * , a village in the Konavle municipality, Croatia ...

(Dulegaya) – 60,600 speakers, vulnerable in

, endangered in

*** Chibcha–Motilon **** Barí (Motilón) – 5,000 speakers, vulnerable **** Chibcha–Tunebo ***** Muysccubun - † *****

Duit The duit (plural: ''duiten''; en , doit) was a copper Dutch coin worth 2 ''penning'', with 8 duit pieces equal to one ''stuiver'' and 160 duit pieces equal to one ''gulden''. In Dutch Indonesia 4 duit pieces were equal to one ''stuiver''. ...

† ***** U'wa (Tunebo) – 2,550 speakers, endangered ***** Guane † – Colombia *** Arwako–Chimila **** Chimila – 350 speakers, endangered **** Arwako ***** Wiwa (Malayo, Guamaca) – 1,850 speakers, endangered ***** Kankuamo † *****

Arhuaco The Arhuaco are an indigenous people of Colombia. They are Chibchan-speaking people and descendants of the Tairona culture, concentrated in northern Colombia in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Name The Arhuaco are also known as the Aruaco, ...

(Ika) – 8,000 speakers, vulnerable *****

Kogi Kogi State is a state in the North Central region of Nigeria, bordered to the west by the states of Ekiti and Kwara, to the north by the Federal Capital Territory, to the northeast by Nasarawa State, to the northwest by Niger State, to th ...

( Cogui) – 9,910 speakers, vulnerable The extinct languages of Antioquia, Old Catío and Nutabe have been shown to be Chibchan (Adelaar & Muysken, 2004:49). The language of the Tairona is unattested, apart from a single word, but may well be one of the Arwako languages still spoken in the Santa Marta range. The Zenú Sinú language of northern Colombia is also sometimes included, as are the Malibu languages, though without any factual basis.

Adolfo Constenla Umaña Adolfo Constenla Umaña (born January 14, 1948 in San José, Costa Rica; died November 7, 2013) was a Costa Rican philologist and linguist who specialized in the indigenous languages of Central America. He is especially known as a leading scholar ...

argues that Cueva, the extinct dominant language of Pre-Columbian Panama long assumed to be Chibchan based on a misinterpreted Kuna vocabulary, was actually

Chocoan The Choco languages (also Chocoan, Chocó, Chokó) are a small family of Native American languages spread across Colombia and Panama. Family division Choco consists of six known branches, all but two of which are extinct. *The Emberá langua ...

, but there is little evidence. The Cofán language (Kofán, Kofane, A'i) of Ecuador and Colombia has been erroneously included in Chibchan due to borrowed vocabulary.

Jolkesky (2016)

Internal classification by Jolkesky (2016):Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho De Valhery. 2016.
Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas
'. Ph.D. dissertation,

University of Brasília The University of Brasília ( pt, Universidade de Brasília, UnB) is a federal public university in Brasília, the capital of Brazil. It was founded in 1960 and has since consistently been named among the top five Brazilian universities and the ...

. († = extinct) ;Chibcha *'' Pech'' *Votic **'' Maleku'' **''

'' **'' Wetar'' *Isthmus **Boruka-Talamanca ***'' Boruka'' ***Talamanca ****''

'' ****Bribri-Kabekar *****'' Bribri'' *****'' Kabekar'' **Doraske-Changena ***'' Changena'' † ***'' Doraske'' **Guaymi ***'' Buglere'' ***'' Ngäbe'' **

***''Kuna Paya-Pukuro'' ***''Kuna San Blas'' *Magdalena **'' Barí'' **'' Chimila'' **'' Nutabe'' † **'' Tunebo'' **Muisca ***'' Guane'' † ***'' Muisca'' **Sierra de Santa Marta ***'' Kaggaba'' ***'' Tairona'' † ***Wiwa-Ika ****'' Ika'' ****'' Kankuamo'' † ****'' Wiwa''

Varieties

Below is a full list of Chibchan language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties. ;Rama group *Rama - language spoken around Bluefields Lagoon and on the Rama River, Nicaragua. *Melchora - extinct language once spoken on the San Juan Melchoras River, Nicaragua. (Unattested.) ;Guatuso group *Guatuso - spoken on the Frío River, Costa Rica, now perhaps extinct. *Guetar / Brusela - extinct language once spoken on the Grande River, Costa Rica. *Suerre / Camachire / Chiuppa - extinct language once spoken on the Tortuguero River, Costa Rica. (Benzoni 1581, p. 214, only five words.) *Pocosi - extinct language once spoken on the Matina River and around the modern city of

Puerto Limón Puerto, a Spanish word meaning ''seaport'', may refer to: Places * El Puerto de Santa María, Andalusia, Spain *Puerto, a seaport town in Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines * Puerto Colombia, Colombia * Puerto Cumarebo, Venezuela * Puerto Galera, Or ...

, Costa Rica. (Unattested.) *Voto - extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the San Juan River, Costa Rica. (Unattested.) *Quepo - extinct language once spoken in Costa Rica on the

Pacuare River The Pacuare River, or the Río Pacuare, in Costa Rica has its source in the Cordillera de Talamanca and flows approximately to the Caribbean. It is a popular location for white water rafting, whitewater kayaking and riverboarding. The rainfo ...

. (W. Lehmann 1920, vol. 1, p. 238, only one single word.) *Corobisi / Corbesi / Cueresa / Rama de rio Zapote - spoken by a few individuals in Costa Rica on the Zapote River. (Alvarez in Conzemius 1930, pp. 96–99.) ;Talamanca group *Terraba / Depso / Quequexque / Brurán - extinct language once spoken in Costa Rica on the Tenorio River. *Tirub / Rayado / Tiribi - extinct language spoken once in Costa Rica on the Virilla River. *Bribri / Lari - spoken on the

Coca River The Coca River is a river in eastern Ecuador. It is a tributary of the Napo River. The two rivers join in the city of Puerto Francisco de Orellana. The Payamino River The Payamino River is a river of Ecuador. It is a tributary of the Napo River ...

and Tarire River, Costa Rica. *Estrella - Spanish name of an extinct language, the original name of which is unknown, once spoken on the Estrella River, Costa Rica. *Cabecar - language spoken on the Moy River, Costa Rica. *Chiripó - language spoken in Costa Rica on the Matina River and

Chirripó River Chirripó River is a river of Costa Rica.Instituto Costarricense de Turis ...

. *Viceyta / Abiseta / Cachi / Orosi / Tucurrique - extinct language once spoken on the Tarire River, Costa Rica. *Brunca / Boruca / Turucaca - extinct language of Costa Rica, spoken on the Grande River and in the

Boruca The Boruca (also known as the Brunca or the Brunka) are the indigenous people living in Costa Rica. The tribe has about 2,660 members, most living on a reservation in the Puntarenas Province in southwestern Costa Rica, a few miles away from t ...

region. *Coto / Cocto - extinct language once spoken between the sources of the Coto River and Grande River, Costa Rica. (Unattested.) ;Dorasque group *Chumulu - extinct language once spoken in El Potrero, Veraguas (Potrero de Vargas), Panama. *Gualaca - extinct language once spoken on the Chiriqui River, Panama. *Changuena - once spoken in Panama, on the Changuena River. ;Guaymi group *Muoi - extinct language once spoken in the Miranda Valley of Panama. *Move / Valiente - now spoken on the Guaymi River and in the Veragua Peninsula. *Norteño - dialect without an aboriginal name, spoken on the northern coast of Panama, now perhaps extinct. *Penonomeño - once spoken in the village of Penonemé. *Murire / Bucueta / Boncota / Bogota - spoken in the Serranía de Tabasara by a few families. *Sabanero / Savaneric / Valiente - extinct dialect without aboriginal name, once spoken on the plains south of the Serranía de Tabasara. *Pariza - extinct dialect spoken in the Conquest days on the Veragua Peninsula. (G. Espinosa 1864, p. 496, only one single word.) ;Cuna group *Coiba - extinct language once spoken on the Chagres River, Panama. (W. Lehmann 1920, vol. I, pp. 112–122; A. Santo Tomas 1908, pp. 124–128, only five words.) *Cuna / Bayano / Tule / Mandingo / San Blas / Karibe-Kuna / Yule - language spoken in eastern Panama, especially on the Bayano River, in San Blas and the small islands on the northern coast. *Cueva / Darien - extinct language Once spoken at the mouth of the

Atrato River The Atrato River () is a river of northwestern Colombia. It rises in the slopes of the Western Cordillera and flows almost due north to the Gulf of Urabá (or Gulf of Darién), where it forms a large, swampy delta. Its course crosses the Ch ...

, Colombia. *Chochama - extinct language once spoken on the Suegro River, Panama. (Unattested.) ;Antioquia group *Guazuzú - once spoken in the Sierra de San Jerónimo, department of Antioquia, Colombia. (Unattested.) *Oromina / Zeremoe - extinct language once spoken south of the Gulf of Urabá, Antioquia, Colombia. (Unattested.) *Catio - once spoken in the region of Dabaiba, Colombia. (only a few words.) *Hevejico - once spoken in the Tonusco and Ebéjico Valleys. (Unattested.) *Abibe - once spoken in the Sierra de Abibe. (Unattested.) *Buritaca - once spoken at the sources of the

Sucio River The Sucio River (Spanish: Río Sucio, ) is a river of Costa Rica. The river gets its name from the sulfur deposits found on the Irazú Volcano, which give the waters a brownish color. It is a tributary of the Río San Juan.Caramanta. *Cartama - once spoken around the modern city of Cartama. (Unattested.) *Pequi - once spoken in the

Pequi ''Caryocar brasiliense'', known as pequi (, ) or "souari nut", like its congeners, is an edible fruit popular in some areas of Brazil, especially in Centerwestern Brazil. Taxonomy The pequi tree grows up to 10 m (30 ft) tall. It ...

region. (Unattested.) *Arma - once spoken on the Pueblanco River. (Unattested.) *Poze - once spoken on the Pozo River and Pacova River. (Cieza de Leon 1881, p. 26, only one single word.) *Nutabé - once spoken in the San Andrés Valley. *Tahami - once spoken on the

Magdalena River The Magdalena River ( es, Río Magdalena, ; less commonly ) is the main river of Colombia, flowing northward about through the western half of the country. It takes its name from the biblical figure Mary Magdalene. It is navigable through much of ...

and Tora River. (Unattested.) *Yamesi - once spoken at the mouth of the Nechi River and on the Porce River. (Simon 1882-1892, vol. 5, p. 80, only one single word.) *Avurrá - once spoken in the

Aburrá Valley Aburrá Valley (in Spanish ''Valle de Aburrá''), is the natural river basin of the Medellín River and one of the most populous valleys of Colombia in its Andean Region with near 4 million inhabitants in its biggest urban agglomeration: The ...

. (Piedrahita (Fernandez de Piedrahita) 1688, cap. 2, f. 9, only one single word.) *Guamoco - once spoken around the modern city of

Zaragoza, Antioquia Zaragoza () is a municipality in the Colombian department Department may refer to: * Departmentalization, division of a larger organization into parts with specific responsibility Government and military *Department (administrative division) ...

. (Unattested.) *Anserma / Humbra / Umbra - once spoken on the

Cauca River The Cauca River () is a river in Colombia that lies between the Occidental and Central cordilleras. From its headwaters in southwestern Colombia near the city of Popayán, it joins the Magdalena River near Magangue in Bolivar Department, and ...

around the city of Anserma, Caldas. (J. Robledo 1865, pp. 389 and 392, only a few words.) *Amachi - once spoken in the San Bartolomé Valley. (Unattested.) ;Chibcha group *Chibcha / Muisca / Mosca - extinct language once spoken on the upper plateau of Bogotá and

Tunja Tunja () is a city on the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes, in the region known as the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, 130 km northeast of Bogotá. In 2018 it had a population of 172,548 inhabitants. It is the capital of Boyacá departmen ...

, department of Cundinamarca, Colombia. **Duit dialect - once spoken on the

River and Tundama River. *Tunebo / Tame - language now spoken by many tribes living in the area east of the Chibcha tribe. Dialects: **Tegría - spoken on the Tegría River, department of Boyaca. (Rochereau 1926-1927, 1946-1950, 1959.) **Pedraza - spoken on the Pedraza River. **Boncota - spoken on the Boncota River. **Manare - spoken on the Manare River. **Sinsiga / Chita - spoken in the village of

Chita, Boyacá Chita is a town and municipality in the Colombian Department Department may refer to: * Departmentalization, division of a larger organization into parts with specific responsibility Government and military *Department (administrative division ...

and on the Chisca River. **Uncasica - spoken in the Sierra Librada. **Morcote - spoken on the Tocaría River and in the village of

Morcote Morcote is a municipality in the Swiss canton of Ticino situated about 10 kilometres from Lugano in the district of Lugano on the shore of Lake Lugano. History Morcote is first mentioned historically in 926 as ''Murcau'', which comes from the ...

. (Unattested.) *Chitarero - extinct language once spoken around the modern city of

Pamplona Pamplona (; eu, Iruña or ), historically also known as Pampeluna in English, is the capital city of the Chartered Community of Navarre, in Spain. It is also the third-largest city in the greater Basque cultural region. Lying at near above ...

, department of Santander. (Unattested.) *Lache - extinct language once spoken on the

Chicamocha River Chicamocha River is a river of Boyacá and Santander in central-eastern Colombia. It is part of the Magdalena river system that flows into the Caribbean Sea. Chicamocha River originates in the municipality of Tuta in the department of Boyac ...

and in the Sierra de Chita, department of Boyacá. (Unattested.) ;Motilon group *Dobocubí / Motilon - spoken on the

Tarra River The Tarra River is a river of Colombia. It drains into Lake Maracaibo via the Catatumbo River. Several discredited claims of large monkey-like creatures originated in this region. See also *List of rivers of Colombia Atlantic Ocean Amazon R ...

and around the old mission of Atacarayo, department of Norte de Santander, Colombia. *Bartra / Cunaguasáya - spoken by a tribe on the Oro River, Rincón River, and Lora River in the Norte de Santander region. *Mape - spoken by a little known tribe on the

Catatumbo River The Catatumbo River ( es, Río Catatumbo) is a river rising in northern Colombia, flowing into Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela. The Catatumbo River is approximately long. It forms a part of the international boundary between the two countries. The ...

and Agua Blanca River in the Norte de Santander region and in the state of Zulia, Venezuela. ;Arhuaco (Arwako) group *Tairona / Teyuna - extinct language once spoken on the

Frio River The Frio River is a river in the U.S. state of Texas. The word ''frío'' is Spanish for ''cold'', a clear reference to the spring-fed coolness of the river. Geography The Frio River has three primary tributaries; the East, West, and Dry Frio R ...

and on the Caribbean coast, department of Magdalena, Colombia, now a secret language of the priests in the Cagaba tribe. *Zyuimakane - extinct language once spoken on the Volador River in the same region. (Unattested.) *Bungá - extinct language once spoken on the Santa Clara River. (Unattested.) *Ulabangui - once spoken on the

Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to: Rivers Brazil * Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River * Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul) * Rio Negro (Paraná) * Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro) * Rio Negro (Rondônia) * ...

, in the Santa Clara River region. (Unattested.) *Cashingui - once spoken on the Palomino River. (Unattested.) *Masinga - once spoken on the Bonda River, in the Palomino River region. (Unattested.) *Bonda / Matuna - once spoken on the Bonda River and Santa María River. (Holmer 1953a, p. 313, only one single word; Preuss 1927, only a few toponyms.) *Cágaba / Köggaba / Kaugia / Koghi - language spoken in the

Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (English: ''Snow-Covered Mountain Range of Saint Martha'') is an isolated mountain range in northern Colombia, separate from the Andes range that runs through the north of the country. Reaching an elevation of ...

in the villages of San Andrés, San Miguel, San José, Santa Rosa, and Pueblo Viejo. *Guamaca / Nábela / Sanha / Arsario - spoken in the

region in the villages of El Rosario, Potrerito, and Marocaso. *Bintucua / Ijca / Ika / Iku / Machaca / Vintukva - spoken in the

region in the village of San Sebastián (near Atanquez). *Atanque / Campanaque / Busintana / Buntigwa / Kallwama - spoken in the

, in the village of Atanquez. *Upar / Eurpari / Giriguana - extinct language once spoken on the César River. (Unattested.) *Cariachil - once spoken between the Molino River and Fonseca River. (Unattested.) *Ocanopán / Itoto - once spoken around Cerro Pintado. (Unattested.) ;Paya group *Paya / Poyuai / Seco - language spoken on the

Guayape River The Guayape River (Spanish: Río Guayape) is a major river that drains much of the Department of Olancho and central Honduras. The largest tributary to the Guayape is the Río Jalán, which joins it at El Plomo, not far from the town of Jutical ...

and between the Patuca River and

Sico River The Sico River is a river in Honduras. It was historically called the Black River or Rio Tinto. See also *List of rivers of Honduras Rivers in Honduras is a list of the rivers in Honduras, including those it shares with neighbours. Among the mos ...

, Honduras.

Proto-language

Pache (2018) is the most recent reconstruction of Proto-Chibchan.Pache, Matthias J. 2018.
Contributions to Chibchan Historical Linguistics
'. Doctoral dissertation, Universiteit Leiden. Other reconstructions include Holt (1986).

Constenla (1981)

Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Constenla (1981): Proto-Chibchan horticultural vocabulary (Constenla 2012):Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. 2012. Chibchan languages. In Lyle Campbell and Verónica Grondona (eds.), ''The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide'', 391-440. Berlin: Mouton. * *dihke ‘to sow’ * *te¹ ‘cultivated clearing’ * *ike ‘manioc’ * *tuʔ ‘tuber, yam’ (''

Dioscorea ''Dioscorea'' is a genus of over 600 species of flowering plants in the family Dioscoreaceae, native throughout the tropical and warm temperate regions of the world. The vast majority of the species are tropical, with only a few species extendi ...

'' spp.; ''

Xanthosoma sagittifolium ''Xanthosoma sagittifolium'', the arrowleaf elephant ear, arrowleaf elephant's ear, malanga or American taro, is a species of tropical flowering plant in the genus ''Xanthosoma'', which produces an edible, starchy corm. Cultivars with purple stem ...

'') * *apì ‘pumpkin, squash’ * *e, *ebe ‘maize’ * *du, *dua¹ ‘tobacco’ * *tã¹ ‘rattles from gourd’ * *toka ‘gourd cup’

Pache (2018)

Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Pache (2018):

References

Bibliography

* Constenla Umaña, A. (1981). ''Comparative Chibchan Phonology''. (Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia). * Constenla Umaña, A. (1985). Las lenguas dorasque y changuena y sus relaciones genealógicas. ''Filologia y linguística'', 11.2:81-91. * Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1991). ''Las lenguas del Área Intermedia: Introducción a su estudio areal''. Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica, San José. * Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1995). Sobre el estudio diacrónico de las lenguas chibchenses y su contribución al conocimiento del pasado de sus hablantes. ''Boletín del Museo del Oro'' 38–39: 13–56. * ''Estudios de Lingüística Chibcha'', a journal of Chibchan linguistics, is published by the Universidad de Costa Rica. * Greenberg, Joseph H. (1987). ''Language in the Americas''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. * Headland, E. (1997). ''Diccionario bilingüe con una gramatica Uw Cuwa (Tunebo)''. Bogotá: Summer Institute of Linguistics. * Holt, Dennis (1986). ''The Development of the Paya Sound-System''. (Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of California, Los Angeles). * Margery Peña, E. (1982). ''Diccionario español-bribri, bribri-español''. San José: Editorial Universidad de Costa Rica. * Margery Peña, E. (1989). ''Diccionario Cabécar-Español, Español-Cabécar''. Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica. * Pinart, A. L. (1890). ''Vocabulario Castellano-Dorasque: Dialectos Chumulu, Gualaca y Changuina''. (Petite Bibliothèque Américaine, 2). Paris: Ernest Leroux. * Pinart, A. L. (1892). ''Vocabulario Guaymie: Dialectos Move-Valiente Norteño y Guaymie Penonomeño''. (Petite Bibliothèque Américaine, 3). Paris: Ernest Leroux. * Pinart, A. L. (1897). ''Vocabulario Guaymie: Dialectos Murıre-Bukueta, Mouı y Sabanero''. (Petite Bibliothèque Américaine, 4). Paris: Ernest Leroux. * Quesada, J. Diego (2007). ''The Chibchan Languages''. Editorial Tecnológica de Costa Rica. . * Quesada Pacheco, M. A.; Rojas Chaves, C. (1999). ''Diccionario boruca-español, español-boruca''. San José: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica.

External links

Comparative Chibchan phonology
— 1981 dissertation by Adolfo Constenla. {{authority control Language families Indigenous languages of Central America Indigenous languages of the South American Northeast Macro-Chibchan languages