Blockade of Saint-Domingue

The Blockade of Saint-Domingue was a naval campaign fought during the first months of the Napoleonic Wars in which a series of British Royal Navy squadrons blockaded the French-held ports of Cap Français and Môle-Saint-Nicolas on the northern coast of the French colony of Saint-Domingue, soon to become Haiti, after the conclusion of the Haitian Revolution on 1 January 1804. In the summer of 1803, when war broke out between the United Kingdom and the French Consulate, Saint-Domingue had been almost completely overrun by Haitian forces commanded by Jean-Jacques Dessalines. In the north of the country, the French forces were isolated in the two large ports of Cap Français and Môle-Saint-Nicolas and a few smaller settlements, all supplied by a French naval force based primarily at Cap Français.

At the outbreak of war on 18 May 1803, the Royal Navy immediately despatched a squadron under Sir John Duckworth from Jamaica to cruise in the region, seeking to eliminate communication between the French outposts and to capture or destroy the French warships based in the colony. On 28 June, the squadron encountered a French convoy from Les Cayes off Môle-Saint-Nicolas, capturing one ship although the other escaped. Two days later, an independently-sailing French frigate was chased down and captured in the same waters. On 24 July, another British squadron intercepted the main French squadron from Cap Français, which was attempting to break past the blockade and reach France. The British, led by Commodore John Loring gave chase, but one French ship of the line and a frigate escaped. Another ship of the line was trapped against the coast and captured after coming under fire from Haitian shore batteries. The remainder of the squadron was forced to fight two more actions on their return to Europe but eventually reached the Spanish port of Corunna.

On 3 November, the frigate HMS ''Blanche'' captured a supply schooner near Cap Français, and by the end of the month, the garrison was starving and agreed to terms with Dessalines that permitted it to evacuate safely if it left the port by 1 December. Commodore Loring, however, refused the French permission to sail. The French commander, Rochambeau, procrastinated until the last possible moment but eventually was forced to surrender to the British commander. One of Rochambeau's ships was almost wrecked while it left the harbour but was saved by a British lieutenant acting alone, who not only rescued the 900 people on board but also refloated the ship. At Môle-Saint-Nicolas, General Louis de Noailles refused to surrender and instead sailed to Havana, Cuba in a fleet of small vessels on 3 December but was intercepted and mortally wounded by a Royal Navy frigate. The few remaining French-held towns in Saint-Domingue surrendered soon afterwards, and on 1 January 1804, the newly-independent nation of Haiti was declared.

Background

During the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), the wealthy French colony of Saint-Domingue on the western half of the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea was the scene of heavy fighting. In addition to unsuccessful British and Spanish invasions, the colony was wracked by a brutal civil war as the black population of newly emancipated slaves, under the command of Toussaint Louverture, fought forces from the French Republic before allying themselves with the Republic against foreign powers.Brenton, p. 274 By 1801, Louverture had seized control of almost the entire island, including much of the neighbouring colony of Santo Domingo. Louverture officially pledged allegiance to France, declaring himself the island's governor. However, following the Peace of Amiens in Europe that brought an end to the French Revolutionary Wars in 1802, French First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte sent a large expeditionary force to Saint-Domingue under General Charles Leclerc.Brenton, p. 275

Leclerc's army had some initial success and Louverture was captured after signing a peace treaty with the French general, later dying in unclear circumstances in a French prison.Woodman, p. 179 However, following Louverture's arrest and under threat of the restoration of slavery, the Haitian general Jean Jacques Dessalines renewed the campaign against the French. Leclerc and much of his army died in an epidemic of yellow fever in the autumn of 1802, and command fell to the Vicomte de Rochambeau, whose forces were rapidly driven back into a few well fortified towns, relying for communication and supply on maritime links.Brenton, p. 277 In May 1803, the situation in Haiti deteriorated still further for the French when Britain and France once again went to war, after a peace lasting just fifteen months. In preparation for the coming conflict, the French had ordered a number of ships to sail from their southern ports in Saint-Domingue, the frigate ''Franchise'' sailing ''en flute'' from Port-au-Prince on 3 May. ''Franchise'' was however intercepted in the Bay of Biscay by a British battle squadron and captured on 28 May, as was the corvette ''Bacchante'' on 25 June which had sailed in April.James, p. 186 The remaining French naval forces in the colony were consolidated at the port of Cap Français.Brenton, p. 278

The blockade

The Royal Navy was well prepared for the renewed conflict, with a squadron of ships of the line and numerous frigates based at the Jamaica station, the Navy's western Caribbean base, under Rear-Admiral John Thomas Duckworth. On 18 June 1803 two squadrons were sent to enact a blockade of the principal northern ports in French hands, Cap Français to the east and Môle-Saint-Nicolas to the west.James, p. 207 The first squadron, which cruised off Môle-Saint-Nicolas consisted of the 74-gun ships of the line HMS ''Cumberland'' under Captain Henry William Bayntun, HMS ''Goliath'' under Captain Charles Brisbane and HMS ''Hercule'' under the acting command of Lieutenant John B. Hills.James, p. 187 The second squadron, assigned to the blockade of Cap Français, was commanded by Commodore John Loring in HMS ''Bellerophon'' and included HMS ''Elephant'' under Captain George Dundas, HMS ''Theseus'' under Captain John Bligh and HMS ''Vanguard'' under Captain James Walker. Loring's force was accompanied by the frigates HMS ''Aeolus'' under Captain Andrew Fitzherbert Evans and HMS ''Tartar'' under Captain John Perkins.

Actions off Môle-Saint-Nicolas

On 28 June, the squadron off Môle-Saint-Nicolas sighted two sails close to the Haitian shoreline and closed to investigate. These were revealed to be the French heavy 44-gun frigate ''Poursuivante'' under Captain Jean-Baptiste Philibert Willaumez and the 16-gun corvette ''Mignonne'' under Captain Jean-Pierre Bargeau. The French ships had sailed with a reduced armament from Les Cayes in southern Saint-Domingue on 26 June with orders to visit Môle-Saint-Nicolas before returning to France. On identifying the ships as French, the British squadron separated under orders from Bayntun, the senior captain. Captain Brisbane was instructed to chase ''Mignonne'', ''Goliath'' rapidly closing the gap between the ships as they exchanged a few distant shot without effect. ''Mignonne'' was becalmed close inshore, and when it became apparent that his ship would be caught by the far larger ''Goliath'', Captain Bargeau surrendered without either side having suffered any damage or casualties. ''Mignonne'' was later commissioned into the Royal Navy as HMS ''Mignonne''.Clowes, p. 317

Bayntun had also ordered Lieutenant Hills to pursue ''Poursuivante'', but ''Hercule'' suffered in the light winds, and Hills ordered ''Hercule'''s broadside to be fired much too early. This allowed Willaumez to pull much closer to Môle-Saint-Nicolas. When the much faster ''Hercule'' did find the wind, the ship of the line soon gained on the frigate and a sharp exchange of fire followed, in which both ships were damaged. ''Hercule'' was hit heavily in the sails and rigging, although casualties were limited to a few minor wounds, while ''Poursuivante'' was more severely damaged: the rigging, sails, masts and hull were all cut and battered with six men killed and 15 wounded. During the brief battle, Willaumez had manoeuvered his ship close to the shoreline, and Hills, his ship less manageable due to damage, suffered a devastating raking broadside that forced him to pull off in fear that ''Hercule'' might be grounded in shallow water. Working through the shallows, Willaumez managed to bring his frigate safely to Môle-Saint-Nicolas and then subsequently to Rochefort, although ''Poursuivante'' was soon afterwards decommissioned due to age and poor condition. Hills was forced to retire with his ship to Jamaica for repairs, his ship's place taken in Bayntun's squadron by ''Vanguard''.James, p. 188

Two days after the engagement between ''Hercule'' and ''Poursuivante'', ''Vanguard'' and ''Cumberland'' were cruising off the northern coast of Haiti to the east of Môle-Saint-Nicolas when another strange ship was sighted attempting to enter the nearby port of Jean-Rabel. This ship was the 40-gun French frigate ''Créole'' under Captain Jean-Marie-Pierre Lebastard, travelling to Jean-Rabel from Cap Français with 530 troops under General Morgan. The ship was however in a poor state, the crew reduced to only 150 due to the yellow fever epidemic which had devastated the crews of the French ships in Saint-Domingue as well as the army ashore. Both ''Vanguard'' and ''Cumberland'' immediately gave chase to the frigate, which was unable to escape as a ship of the line rapidly overhauled Lebastard's vessel on either side. Walker fired a few shot from ''Vanguard'' at the frigate, and Lebastard fired a single shot in reply before striking his colours. ''Créole'' was subsequently conveyed to Port Royal in Jamaica for repairs and was there commissioned into the Royal Navy as HMS ''Creole'' under Captain Austin Bissell, but the ship was in a poor state, and foundered on the voyage to Britain, although the crew were saved by nearby British vessels.Clowes, p. 318 A French naval schooner was also captured by the squadron the same day, carrying a hundred bloodhounds from Cuba for use by the French armies in Saint-Domingue against their Haitian enemies.

Flight of Touffet

In the month following the capture of ''Créole'' there was little further movement from the French naval forces on the island, the yellow fever raging in the harbours and Loring's blockade squadron at sea constraining operations. The only action of any note during this period was fought off Léogâne in the Gulf of Gonâve on the afternoon of 11 July when the 10-gun French brig ''Lodi'' was intercepted by the 18-gun British brig HMS ''Racoon'' under Austen Bissell, and forced to surrender after an action lasting 40 minutes in which the British ship had one man wounded and the French one killed and 14 wounded.

In late July the strategic situation altered when orders arrived from France demanding the return of the French squadron, primarily based at Cap Français under Contre-Admiral Latouche Tréville.Clowes, p. 321 Command of the returning squadron was given to Commodore Quérangal in the ''Duquesne'', a 74-gun ship. Consolidating enough healthy sailors to crew three of his ships, Latouche Tréville gave orders for ''Duquesne'', the 74-gun ship ''Duguay-Trouin'' under Captain Claude Touffet that following a recent accident only carried 54 guns,Clowes, p. 322 and the 40-gun frigate ''Guerrière'' under Captain Louis-Alex Beaudoin to sail from Cap Français when it became possible. On the afternoon of 24 July, a rain squall drove the blockade force away from the post and Quérangal's ships slipped out of the harbour, initially sailing westwards with the prevailing wind. All were in a weakened state, none with full crews and all carrying large numbers of sick passengers aboard.

The French ships were sighted almost immediately by the frigates of Loring's blockade squadron, which began pursuit. At 21:00, Quérangal took advantage of the darkness to divide his ships, ''Duguay-Trouin'' tacking to the east while ''Duquesne'' continued following the shoreline to the west. In response, Loring ordered Dundas in ''Elephant'' to chase ''Duguay-Trouin'' while he remained in pursuit of ''Duquesne'' with ''Aeolus'' and ''Tartar''.Brenton, p. 282 During the night both British pursuits gained significant ground on their targets, Loring joined by ''Theseus'' and ''Vanguard''. At 07:00 on 15 July, Quérangal's ship was sighted by a Haitian battery on shore and came under fire, Loring sending ''Theseus'' to investigate the gunfire and arriving on the scene himself soon afterwards, ''Tartar'' and ''Vanguard'' leading the squadron. Perkins was the first to come within range of the French ship, opening fire at 15:30, followed soon afterwards by Walker. Quérangal returned fire briefly, but his ship was too weak to face the British force, having only 275 crewmen aboard of whom only 215 were fit for duty. ''Duquesne'' was so poorly-manned that only 12 guns could be crewed at any one time, although one shot did strike ''Vanguard'', killing one man and wounding another. Before the British ships could take up more effective firing positions however, Quérangal surrendered. His ship was taken into the Royal Navy as HMS ''Duquesne'', but was broken up in 1804 following damage in an accident at Morant Cays.James, p. 192

The second pursuit, that of Dundas in ''Elephant'' and Touffet in ''Duguay-Trouin'' continued throughout the night, the British ship coming within range of the French at 06:00 on 25 July. Touffet opened fire on ''Elephant'' with his stern-mounted guns, striking the British ship several times, although without serious effect. Dundas was able, despite the French fire, to pull up at some distance from the French starboard quarter, firing broadsides although at such long range that they too had little effect. The action was decided soon afterwards by the arrival of two ships, the 18-gun British sloop HMS ''Snake'' under Commander William Roberts to the northwest and the absent ''Guerrière'' from the opposite direction. Dundas considered that the arrival of the frigate favoured the French too much, and dropped back allowing both ships to combine and escape. This was a serious miscalculation: historian William Laird Clowes notes that the French ships were both desperately under-armed and undermanned and even if they fought alongside one another they would have been unable to match Dundas's weight or rate of shot. By the time night fell, the French ships had reached open water in preparation for the journey across the Atlantic.

Touffet's voyage was however far from over: on 29 August while in the Eastern Atlantic close to the Bay of Biscay, they were spotted by the independently cruising 38-gun frigate HMS ''Boadicea'' under Captain John Maitland, which gave chase, the French ships turning southwards toward the friendly-neutral port of Ferrol in Spain. Throughout the following day, ''Boadicea'' followed the French squadron, losing them during the night of 30 August in a fog, but rediscovering them at 13:30 on 31 August when the wind shifted from the west to the northeast. Maitland could now see that ''Duguay-Trouin'' was a ship of the line, but was also aware that weakened ships were travelling to Europe from Saint-Domingue and consequently closed with Touffet's force, firing on his ship from a distance of at 14:00, the French ship of the line returning fire. The fire from ''Duguay-Trouin'' was fierce enough that, in combination with the approaching ''Guerrière'', Maitland considered that they were too powerful for ''Boadicea'' to effectively fight and he sheered away, briefly followed by the French ships. At 14:50 however, with ''Boadicea'' rapidly widening the gap between the forces, Touffet abandoned the chase, turning southwards towards Ferrol.James, p. 193

At Ferrol, a British battle squadron cruised off the port under the command of Commodore Sir Edward Pellew, HMS ''Culloden'' under Captain Barrington Dacres sailing at some distance from the remainder of the squadron. On 2 September, Touffet's small squadron appeared to windward sailing for the port of Corunna and Dacres was well situated to intercept them, opening fire at long range at 11:50. The French were faster than ''Culloden'' however, ''Duguay-Trouin'' successfully entering Corunna ahead of ''Guerrière'' as the Spanish batteries opened fire on the British ship. Although Dacres managed to damage ''Guerrière'''s masts and rigging severely, inflicting casualties of six killed and 15 wounded, the French frigate was able to enter Corunna ahead of ''Culloden''. Dacres, who had brought his ship right into the entrance to the port was forced to retire, having suffered four men wounded.Clowes, p. 323

Surrender of Cap Français

With the removal of the ships of the line from the squadron at Saint-Domingue, the only remaining force of any significance was based at Cap Français, consisting mainly of the frigates ''Surveillante'', ''Clorinde'' and ''Vertu''. In September, the southern port of Les Cayes surrendered, the garrison capitulating to the British brig HMS ''Pelican'', while in the north Captain Bligh in ''Theseus'' bombarded Fort Labouque at the harbour of Fort Dauphin, an important anchorage for small craft resupplying the garrison of Cap Français, on 8 September. The fort rapidly surrendered, as did a 20-gun corvette ''Sagesse'', which was at anchor nearby but with only 75 men aboard. Fort Dauphin also capitulated later in the day, the French prisoners requesting that Bligh intercede with the Haitian forces nearby which had captured a number of soldiers including General Dumont and were intending to execute them. Bligh successfully obtained the release of Dumont and transported all of the prisoners, including many suffering from yellow fever, to Cap Français. While Loring remained off Northern Saint-Domingue, the brig ''Raccoon'' was active against ships travelling between Saint-Domingue and Spanish-held Cuba, destroying two small convoys in September and October.Brenton, p. 287

In October, Latouche-Tréville obtained free passage from the British due to his poor health, and returned to France leaving Captain Jean-Baptiste Barré in command of the squadron. Attempts were still made however to supply the ports, which were under siege by Haitian forces. On 3 November the frigate HMS ''Blanche'' under Captain Zachary Mudge discovered an armed cutter in Mancenille Bay carrying 52 bullocks to the garrison of Cap Français and Mudge sent boats under Lieutenant Nicholls of the Royal Marines into the bay during the night. Nicholls, despite unhelpful interference from Lieutenant Warwick Lake of ''Blanche'', successfully cut the ship out from under French shore batteries, losing two killed and two wounded to French losses of two killed and four wounded.Woodman, p. 183 In early November, Captain Walker in ''Vanguard'' took 850 French soldiers as prisoners of war from the port of Saint-Marc, General D'Henin surrendering his garrison after Dessalines's advancing forces had threatened to massacre them all. Captured in the harbour were the 12-gun corvette ''Papillon'', naval schooner ''Courier'' and the transports ''Mary Sally'' and ''Le Trois Amis''. On 16 November, ''Vanguard'' captured an American merchant schooner ''Independence'' attempting to enter Cap Français.

On 17 November Rochambeau sent a message to Loring's squadron requesting that he be allowed to safely evacuate the port and return with his men to France. Loring refused, and so on 20 November the French general instead concluded a peace treaty with Dessalines, the terms of which insisted that the French garrison and population had to evacuate the port within ten days.Brenton, p. 292 Loring was informed of the terms of the agreement and although Rochambeau was ready to depart on 25 November, his ships crammed with thousands of refugees, the British squadron blocked all of the escape routes. On 30 November, as Haitian soldiers took possession of the vacated batteries and forts that protected the harbour, Rochambeau was still prevaricating, his ships lying at anchor directly under the guns of the forts. Orders were given to the Haitian garrisons to make preparations to fire heated roundshot at the French in order to burn their ships to the waterline should the squadron still be in the harbour following the deadline. Concerned with the delay, Loring ordered Captain Bligh to enter the harbour and offer terms of surrender to Rochambeau.

After meeting Captain Barré, Bligh obtained a signed treaty establishing Rochambeau's total surrender to the British blockade squadron. Under the terms, the French ships would sail from the port flying the tricolour, fire a ceremonial broadside each, and then formally surrender to Loring's squadron.Clowes, p. 57 Having obtained French acquiescence, Bligh then had to carry the terms to a reluctant Dessalines, who ultimately agreed to permit the French to leave Cap Français unmolested, although he refused to provide pilots to ensure safe passage out of the harbour.Brenton, p. 293 During the afternoon, Rochambeau sailed out first in ''Surveillante'', firing his broadside and striking his colours to Loring. He was followed by a procession of ships, including ''Vertu'', the 12-gun brig , the naval schooner ''Découverte'', and the French merchant vessels ''Endymion'', ''Casar'', ''L'Augusta'', ''Louis Cherie'', ''Jason'', ''Bonnevallere'', ''Jeremie'', ''Havre de Grace'', ''Necessaire'', ''Union'', ''Nicholas Debarre'', ''Marin'', and an unnamed schooner, all of which were heavily laden with refugees and taken as prizes. The French hospital ships ''Nouvelle Sophie'' and ''Justice'' also surrendered, but were packed with hundreds of sick soldiers and sailors and were subsequently reprovisioned and sent back to France as cartels. Five American ships: ''Sisters'', ''Eugene'', ''Thesbald'', ''Adventurer'', and ''Hiram'', and two Danish vessels, ''Diana'' and ''Bentley'', were also filled with refugees and seized by Loring's force. Duckworth had arrived during the evacuation on ''Hercule'', adding its boats to the numerous British craft assisting the overloaded French ships.

Disaster struck the operation however when the frigate ''Clorinde'' attempted to leave the harbour. Weighed down with 900 refugees and soldiers including General Jean François Cornu de La Poype and his staff, the ship accidentally grounded on rocks directly beneath Fort St. Joseph, now manned by Haitian soldiers. ''Clorinde'' was stuck fast, heeled over and being repeatedly bashed against the rocks so that the ship's rudder had been torn away, leaving it helpless. The situation was deemed so hopeless that a number of British ship's boats that had been supervising the evacuation of the harbour turned away without offering assistance, abandoning the frigate as a total wreck.James, p. 208 One of the rearmost boats however, the launch from ''Hercule'' containing 30–40 men and commanded by Acting-Lieutenant Nesbit Willoughby, turned towards the frigate. Willoughby was determined to assist the wrecked crew and passengers, well aware that without help they would either be drowned or massacred by the Haitians, who could be seen making preparations to fire heated shot from the fort at the frigate.

Aware that the people on ''Clorinde'' would swamp his boat if he drew alongside the frigate, possibly drowning all concerned, Willoughby instead commandeered a punt and used it to come aboard the frigate. Once on board, Willoughby persuaded La Poype to surrender the ship without the formalities observed outside the harbour, raising the Union Flag. The Haitians were consequently unable to fire on a ship in possession of their ally, Willoughby going ashore to meet with Dessalines, who promised assistance. Willoughby returned with a number of boats crewed by Haitians and was joined by several British boats in anticipation of removing the crew and passengers from the stricken ship. On his return however, Willoughby discovered that the wind had fallen significantly, allowing him to use the boats instead to haul ''Clorinde'' off the rocks and into deeper water. Her hull was still intact, and by the evening ''Clorinde'' had joined the rest of the British squadron off the mouth of the harbour.James, p. 209

Final actions

With the surrender of the main French city in Northern Haiti, the Haitian Revolution was almost at an end, only Môle-Saint-Nicolas remaining in French hands. On 2 December, Loring's squadron reached the port and offered the same terms to Noailles as had been offered to Rochambeau, who refused, claiming he had stores to last a five-month siege and so Loring continued to Port Royal in Jamaica, his ships laden with prisoners, leaving ''Cumberland'' and the frigate HMS ''Pique'' to enforce the blockade. That evening however Noailles made a desperate attempt to escape the port with six small vessels. The French convoy was sighted during the night of 5–6 December, and soon overrun, the ''Republic'', ''Temeraire'', ''Belle Louise'', ''Active'' and ''Sally Warner'' all seized by the British warships. Only one vessel, Noailles's flagship, escaped pursuit, although Noailles had apparently been mortally wounded as he died shortly after reaching Havana, Cuba as a result of his reported injuries. French histories recount that Noailles's vessel was able to board and overpower a small British warship ''en route'', but no British warships of any size were lost in these waters during 1803 and so the origin of this story is unknown.James, p. 210

Haitian independence

The fall of Môle-Saint-Nicolas marked the end of the Haitian Revolution and the final destruction of the French colony of Saint-Domingue. Although vestigial French forces remained in Spanish San Domingo, they were too few and too weak to make any impression on the forces of Dessalines which now controlled the western half of the island. In the process, Dessalines became arguably the most successful military commander in the struggle against Napoleonic France.Christer Petley, ''White Fury: A Jamaican Slaveholder and the Age of REvolution'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), p. 182.

On 1 January 1804, Dessailines proclaimed the foundation of the new nation of Haiti, the first independent Caribbean nation since the days before European settlement.

Notes

References

Bibliography

*
*
*
*
*

{{DEFAULTSORT:Blockade of Saint-Domingue
Saint-Domingue
Saint-Domingue
Conflicts in 1803
Saint-Domingue
Haitian Revolution
History of Hispaniola
Military history of the Caribbean
19th century in Haiti
1800s in Haiti
1803 in the Caribbean
1803 in the British Empire
1803 in Haiti