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Find spot Provenance (from the French ''provenir'', 'to come from/forth') is the chronology of the ownership, custody or location of a historical object. The term was originally mostly used in relation to works of art but is now used in similar senses i ...

s of inscriptions issued during the reign of Bhima I" width="260" height="260" zoom="6" longitude="71.477051" latitude="24.196869" align="right"> Bhima I (r. c. 1022–1064 CE) was a

Chaulukya The Chaulukya dynasty (), also Solanki dynasty, was a dynasty that ruled parts of what are now Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western India, between and . Their capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended ...

king who ruled parts of present-day

Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...

, India. The early years of his reign saw an invasion from the

Ghaznavid The Ghaznavid dynasty ( fa, غزنویان ''Ġaznaviyān'') was a culturally Persianate, Sunni Muslim dynasty of Turkic ''mamluk'' origin, ruling, at its greatest extent, large parts of Persia, Khorasan, much of Transoxiana and the northwest ...

ruler

Mahmud Mahmud is a transliteration of the male Arabic given name (), common in most parts of the Islamic world. It comes from the Arabic triconsonantal root Ḥ-M-D, meaning ''praise'', along with ''Muhammad''. Siam Mahmud *Mahmood (singer) (born 1 ...

, who sacked the Somnath temple. Bhima left his capital and took shelter in Kanthkot during this invasion, but after Mahmud's departure, he recovered his power and retained his ancestral territories. He crushed a rebellion by his vassals at Arbuda, and unsuccessfully tried to invade the Naddula Chahamana kingdom. Towards the end of his reign, he formed an alliance with the Kalachuri king Lakshmi-Karna, and played an important role in the downfall of the

Paramara The Paramara dynasty ( IAST: Paramāra) was an Indian dynasty that ruled Malwa and surrounding areas in west-central India between 9th and 14th centuries. They belonged to the Parmara clan of the Rajputs. The dynasty was established in either t ...

king

Bhoja Bhoja (reigned c. 1010–1055 CE) was an Indian king from the Paramara dynasty. His kingdom was centered around the Malwa region in central India, where his capital Dhara-nagara (modern Dhar) was located. Bhoja fought wars with nearly all ...

. The earliest of the Dilwara Temples and the Modhera Sun Temple were built during Bhima's reign. The construction of Rani ki vav is attributed to his queen Udayamati.

Early life

Bhima's father Nagaraja was a son of the Chaulukya king Chamunda-raja. Chamunda was succeeded by Nagaraja's brothers, Vallabha-raja and Durlabha-raja, in that order. Both Vallabha and Durlabha died childless. According to the 12th century author

Hemachandra Hemachandra was a 12th century () Indian Jain saint, scholar, poet, mathematician, philosopher, yogi, grammarian, law theorist, historian, lexicographer, rhetorician, logician, and prosodist. Noted as a prodigy by his contemporaries, he gain ...

, Durlabha was very fond of his nephew Bhima, and appointed Bhima as his successor before his death. Durlabha and Nagaraja died soon after Bhima's ascension to throne.

Military career

Ghaznavid invasion

Early during his reign, Bhīma faced an invasion by Mahmūd of Ghazni, whose plunder of the Somnāth temple has been described in detail by the medieval Muslim historians. According to Ali ibn al-Athīr, Mahmūd started out from

Ghazni Ghazni ( prs, غزنی, ps, غزني), historically known as Ghaznain () or Ghazna (), also transliterated as Ghuznee, and anciently known as Alexandria in Opiana ( gr, Αλεξάνδρεια Ωπιανή), is a city in southeastern Afghanistan ...

on 18 October 1025. At

Multan Multan (; ) is a city in Punjab, Pakistan, on the bank of the Chenab River. Multan is Pakistan's seventh largest city as per the 2017 census, and the major cultural, religious and economic centre of southern Punjab. Multan is one of the old ...

, he planned his march in detail and gathered supplies. He left Multan on 26 November, with a large army well-equipped to cross the

Thar desert The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is an arid region in the north-western part of the Subcontinent that covers an area of and forms a natural boundary between India and Pakistan. It is the world's 20th-largest desert, a ...

, and reached the Chaulukya capital in December 1025 CE. According to the Muslim accounts, Bhīma fled his capital Aṇahilapāṭaka (called Nahrwāla by the medieval Muslim historians). He took shelter in Kanthakot, allowing Mahmud to enter the Chaulukya capital unopposed. Mahmūd's sudden invasion, coupled with the lack of any fortifications in Nahrwāla, may have forced Bhima to abandon his capital. Other residents of the city also appear to have evacuated it, as the Muslim historians do not mention any massacre or looting in the Chaulukya capital. Mahmūd rested at Nahrwāla for a few days, replenished his supplies, and then left for Somnāth. A relatively small force of 20,000 soldiers unsuccessfully tried to check Mahmūd's advance at

Modhera Modhera is a village in Mehsana district of Gujarat, India. The town is well known for the Sun Temple of Chaulukya era. The town is located on the bank of Pushpavati river. History The town was known as Dharmaranya during Puranic age. It is be ...

. Historian A. K. Majumdar theorizes that the Modhera Sun Temple, might have been built to commemorate this defence. The upside down inscription in the cella of the temple proper evidences the destruction and reconstruction probably shortly after 1026 CE. Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujarat, India

Mahmūd then advanced to Delavada. Although the town surrendered without offering any resistance, Mahmūd massacred all its residents. Finally, Mahmūd's army reached Somnāth on 6 January 1026 CE. The Muslim historians suggest that the town was well-defended, probably by a fort guarding the temple. According to Abu Sa'id Gardizi, the commander of the defending force fled to a nearby island. Other defenders put up a resistance, but Mahmūd managed to capture the fort by 8 January. Mahmūd then desecrated the temple, and looted a huge amount of wealth including jewels and silver idols. During his return journey, Mahmūd came to know that a powerful Hindu king named Param Dev had gathered a large army to fight him. Gardezi, in his ''Kitab Zainu'l-Akhbar'' (c. 1048 CE), states that Mahmūd chose to avoid any confrontation with this king. The invader was carrying back a large amount of looted wealth, which may have motivated him to avoid a battle. Mahmūd decided to return via Mansura in Sindh, although the route connecting Gujarat and Sindh was more dangerous than the desert route to Multan. Later Muslim historians also mention this incident. The 16th century historian

Firishta Firishta or Ferešte ( fa, ), full name Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah Astarabadi ( fa, مُحَمَّد قاسِم هِندو شاہ), was a Persian historian, who later settled in India and served the Deccan Sultans as their court historian. He was ...

identified Param Dev with Bhīma I, calling him the king of Nahrwāla. Historian A. K. Majumdar agrees with this identification, arguing that "Param" might be a Muslim mistranscription of "Bhīma". Scholars who are critical of this theory identify Param dev with the

king

, who ruled the neighbouring territory of Mālwa. K. N. Seth and Mahesh Singh point out that Bhīma had ascended the throne recently, and was not a powerful ruler at the time of Mahmud's raid. In fact, as attested by the Muslim historians, he had fled his capital and hid in Kanthkot. The Muslim historians before Firishta, such as Gardizi and Nizamuddin Ahmad, mention the king of Nahrwāla and Param Dev as two distinct kings. Unlike Bhīma, Bhoja was a powerful and famous ruler at that time. Bhoja was also a

Shaivite Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangin ...

, and according to the ''Udaipur

Prashasti ''Prashasti'' (IAST: Praśasti, Sanskrit for "praise") is an Indian genre of inscriptions composed by poets in praise of their rulers. Most date from the 6th century CE onwards. Written in the form of poetry or ornate prose, the ''prashastis'' s ...

'', had constructed a temple dedicated to Somanātha (an aspect of Śiva). Thus Mahmīd's desecration of the Somnāth temple in Gujarat would have motivated Bhoja to lead an army against him. Based on these evidences, several scholars identify Param Dev with Bhoja. "Param Dev" is probably a corruption of "Paramara-Deva" or of Bhoja's titles ''Paramabhattakara''-''Parameshvara''.

Invasion of Sindh

According to the 12th century scholar Hemacandra, who was patronized by the Caulukyas, Bhīma defeated Hammuka, a ruler of Sindh. This claim has also been repeated by the 14th century chronicler Merutuṅga. Hemacandra's account of Bhīma's war against Sindh goes like this: one day Bhīma's spies told him that the kings of

Andhra Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...

, Puṇḍra and

Magadha Magadha was a region and one of the sixteen sa, script=Latn, Mahajanapadas, label=none, lit=Great Kingdoms of the Second Urbanization (600–200 BCE) in what is now south Bihar (before expansion) at the eastern Ganges Plain. Magadha was ruled ...

obeyed him. On the other hand, Hammuka (the king of Sindhu, that is, Sindh) and Karṇa (the king of Cedi) not only refused to acknowledge his supremacy, but also defamed him. Bhīma then marched to Sindh, bridging and crossing the Indus river in the process. He defeated Hammuka, who was forced to acknowledge his supremacy. Later, he also defeated Karṇa. There is no epigraphic evidence of Bhima having defeated the king of Sindh. In absence of any corroborating evidence, the historical accuracy of this account is uncertain. Historian A. K. Majumdar theorizes that Hammuka might have been a descendant of the

Saindhava The Saindhavas, also known as Jayadrathas, was a Medieval Indian dynasty that ruled western Saurashtra (now in Gujarat, India) from c. 735 CE to c. 920 CE, probably in alliance with Maitrakas in its early years. Their capital was at Bhutamab ...

dynasty, which probably originated from Sindh. This dynasty is known to have last ruled western Saurashtra in 915 CE. Like Hammuka, the names of its rulers ended in -ka: Ranaka, Jaika and Agguka.

Paramāras of Arbuda

The Paramāra branch of Arbuda had been feudatories of the Caulukyas since Mūlarāja's reign. However, sometime before 1031 CE, the Abu Paramāra ruler Dhandhuka rebelled against Bhīma. Bhima defeated him, and appointed Vimala as the new ''daṇḍapati'' (governor) of Arbuda. Vimala commissioned the

shrine A shrine ( la, scrinium "case or chest for books or papers"; Old French: ''escrin'' "box or case") is a sacred or holy space dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor, hero, martyr, saint, daemon, or similar figure of respect, wherein they ...

of Adinātha at

Mount Abu Mount Abu () is a hill station in the Aravalli Range in Sirohi district of the state of Rajasthan in western India.The mountain forms a rocky plateau 22 km long by 9 km wide. The highest peak on the mountain is Guru Shikhar at above ...

in 1031 CE, so Dhandhuka's rebellion must have happened before this year. Dhandhuka took shelter with

, the

king of Mālava. According to Jinaprabha Suri's ''Tirtha Kalpa'', Bhima later restored Dhandhuka as his vassal. A 1042 CE inscription of Dhandhuka's son Pūrṇapāla states that he was ruling over Arbuda- maṇḍala as a Mahārājadhirāja ("king of great kings"), after having defeated his enemy. This suggests that the Paramāras of Arbuda may have again rebelled against Bhīma's authority. However, the area was back under Bhīma's control by 1062 CE, as attested by an inscription of Vimala.

Paramāras of Bhinmal

Bhima defeated and imprisoned Kṛṣṇa-deva, a ruler of the Paramāra branch of

Bhinmal Bhinmal (previously Shrimal Nagar) is an ancient town in the Jalore District of Rajasthan, India. It is south of Jalore. Bhinmal was the capital of the Bhil king, then the capital of Gurjaradesa, comprising modern-day southern Rajasthan and n ...

. However, the Naḍḍula Cāhamānas defeated Bhima, and freed Krishna-deva. This is attested by the Sundha Hill inscription of the Cāhamānas. Subsequently, Kṛṣṇa-deva ruled independent of Bhīma; his inscriptions describe him as a Mahārājadhirāja.

Cāhamanas of Naḍḍula

The Cāhamānas of Nāḍḍula ruled the territory to the north of the Caulukya kingdom. According to their Sundha Hill inscription, the Cāhamāna king Aṇahilla defeated Bhīma. Aṇahilla probably repulsed an invasion from Bhīma. The Sundha Hill inscription as well as another Chahamana inscription state that the later king

Anahilla Anahilla ( IAST: Aṇahilla, r. c. 1024–1055 CE) was an Indian king belonging to the Naddula Chahamana dynasty. He ruled the area around Naddula (present-day Nadol in Rajasthan). He defeated the Chaulukya king Bhima I, defeated a general of t ...

also defeated the elephant force of Bhima. Anahilla is also said to have destroyed Bhima's army and captured a large part of his territory. His sons Balaprasada and Jendraraja also took part in the war against Bhima. Balaprasada forced Bhima to release Krishna-deva (the Paramara ruler of Bhimal) from the prison. Jendraraja defeated Bhima's force at Shanderaka (modern Sanderao). The location of the battles suggests that Bhima was the aggressor in this war, and the Chahamanas repulsed his invasion. The war continued during the reign of Bhima's successor Karna.

Paramaras of Malwa

Bhima formed an alliance with the Kalachuri king Lakshmi-Karna, and played a significant role in the downfall of

, the

dynasty of

Malwa Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also syn ...

. This achievement has been recorded by several Chaulukya chroniclers and inscriptions. The most detailed account of the rivalry between Bhima and Bhoja is given by the 14th century chronicler Merutunga. However, it is hard to separate the historical truth from fiction in Merutunga's legendary account, which goes like this: Bhima and Bhoja were initially friends, but Bhoja made a plan to invade Gujarat. When Bhima's spy informed him about Bhoja's plan, Bhima sent his ambassador Damara to Bhoja's court. Damara instigated Bhoja to attack the

Chalukyas of Kalyani The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This Kannadiga dynasty is sometimes called the ''Kalyani Chalukya'' after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in the ...

, who had killed the earlier Paramara ruler Munja. Thus, Damara managed to divert Bhoja's attention away from Bhima's kingdom. While Bhoja was facing a war with the Kalyani Chalukyas, Damara lied to him that Bhima had also started a march against him. This worried Bhoja, who begged Damara to convince Bhima to abandon his march towards Malwa. Damara agreed to do so if Bhoja gifted Bhima an elephant couple, which Bhoja did. Merutunga further states that while Bhima was engaged in a war against the king of Sindh, Bhoja's

digambara ''Digambara'' (; "sky-clad") is one of the two major schools of Jainism, the other being '' Śvētāmbara'' (white-clad). The Sanskrit word ''Digambara'' means "sky-clad", referring to their traditional monastic practice of neither possessing ...

general Kulachandra sacked the Chaulukya capital Anahilapataka. Subsequently, Merutunga mentions several incidents that suggest that the two kings maintained diplomatic ties. One day, while Bhoja was worshipping his family deity at a temple on the outskirts of his capital Dhara, the goddess warned him that he was surrounded by enemy soldiers. Bhoja was nearly killed by the Gujarati soldiers Aluya and Koluya, but managed to escape. Merutunga finally describes Bhoja's death as follows: One day, the Kalachuri king Karna challenged Bhoja to a war or a temple-building contest. Bhoja chose the second option, and lost the contest to Karna. However, Bhoja refused to acknowledge Karna's supremacy. As a result, Karna invaded Malwa from the east, supported by 136 vassals. He also asked Bhima to invade Malwa from the east. Bhoja died of a disease, as these two kings invaded his kingdom. After his death, Karna captured his capital and all his wealth. According to Merutunga, it was Karna who captured Dhara after Bhoja's death. Other Chaulukya chroniclers claim that Bhima captured Dhara. It is possible that Bhima raided Dhara at a later date. One particular chronicle ''Kirti-Kaumudi'' claims that Bhima captured Bhoja, but generously released him and spared his life. This is not corroborated by historical evidence.

Kalachuris of Tripuri

Bhima and the Kalachuri king Lakshmi-Karna remained allies until Bhoja's death. Subsequently, there seems to have been a dispute between them over sharing the spoils of their victory. The Chaulukya chroniclers claim that Bhima subdued Karna easily, but such claims are of little historical value. The 12th century writer

claims that Bhima sent his ambassador Damodara to Karna, demanding his share of the Paramara assets. Damodara's description of Bhima's power scared Karna, who started praising Bhima and gifted him Bhoja's golden throne. The 14th century chronicler Merutunga claims that Bhima demanded half of Bhoja's kingdom from Karna. When Karna refused, Bhima's ambassador Damara entered Karna's palace with 32 foot soldiers and abducted Karna as the Kalachuri king slept. Karna ultimately made peace by surrendering a golden shrine to Bhima. These accounts by the Chaulukya chroniclers appear to be historically inaccurate, as Karna was too powerful to be subdued by an ambassador of Bhima. Hemachandra does not mention Bhima's conflict with Bhoja at all, and Bhima's allies named by him in the struggle against Karna are all fictitious. Merutunga's account seems to be derived partly from Hemachandra's ''Dvyashraya'' and partly from ''Kirti-Kaumudi''. That said, there is some historical evidence of a conflict between Bhima and Karna. Karna's

Rewa Rewa may refer to: Places Fiji * Rewa (Fijian Communal Constituency, Fiji), a former electoral division of Fiji * Rewa Plateau, between the Kaimur and Vindhya Ranges in Madhya Pradesh * Rewa Province, Fiji * Rewa River, the widest river in Fiji ...

stone inscription claims that when he approached the Gurjara country (that is, Bhima's kingdom of Gujarat), the Gurjara women shed tears and became widows. It is possible that Bhima gained some advantage over Karna, after the Kalachuris were decisively defeated by the

Kalyani Chalukya The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This Kannadiga dynasty is sometimes called the ''Kalyani Chalukya'' after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in the ...

king

Someshvara I Someshvara I (; ) was a king of the Western Chalukyas. Also known as "Ahavamalla" or "Trilokamalla", Someshvara succeeded his father Jayasimha II to the throne. His several military successes in Central India made him a formidable ruler of ...

Personal life

Bhima's queen was Udayamati. According to

, he had three sons: Mularaja, Kshemaraja, and

Karna Karna (Sanskrit: कर्ण, IAST: ''Karṇa''), also known as Vasusena, Anga-raja, and Radheya, is one of the main protagonists of the Hindu epic '' Mahābhārata''. He is the son of the sun god Surya and princess Kunti (mother of the ...

. Mularaja died during Bhima's lifetime, and Kshemaraja rejected the throne. As a result, Karna succeeded Bhima. Merutunga, on the other hand, states that Bhima's three sons were Mularaja, Karna and Haripala. Of these, Haripala was born of a courtesan named Bakuladevi. Historian A. K. Majumdar theorizes that Merutunga's account appears to be more accurate, since voluntary rejections of thrones were very rare. Hemachandra, who was a royal courtier, probably wanted to avoid mentioning the illegitimate son Haripala, and therefore, glossed over the genealogy.

Temples and constructions

File:Kumbhariya Jain temple, Banaskantha.jpg, Intrinsic carvings inside Kumbharia Mahavira temple File:Ancient shrines of sander,Patan District.jpg, Shiva temple near Sanderi Mata temple File:Ancient shrines,sander,Dist. Patan.jpg, Another temple near Sanderi Mata temple File:Mata Bhavani's Stepwell Ahmedabad 1866.jpg,

Mata Bhavani's Stepwell Mata Bhavani's Stepwell or Mata Bhavani ni Vav is a stepwell in Asarwa area of Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India. History and architecture Mata Bhavani's stepwell was built in the 11th century during Chaulukya dynasty rule in Gujarat. It is one of the e ...

, Ahmedabad Merutunga states that he built Tripurushaprasada temple at Anahilapataka (now Patan) for merit of his deceased son. He also built Bhimeshwara and Bhattarika Bhiruani temples. He rebuilt Somnath Temple after its destruction by Ghazni. Merutunga credits Udayamati with excavating a reservoir at Anahilapataka; this tank is said to have been better than the

Sahastralinga Tank Sahasralinga Tank or Sahasralinga Talav is a medieval artificial water tank in Patan, Gujarat, India. It was commissioned during Chaulukya (Solanki) rule, but now it is empty and in a ruined state. It is a Monument of National Importance protected ...

in the town. According to popular tradition, she also commissioned the Rani ki vav (Queen's

stepwell Stepwells (also known as vavs or baori) are wells or ponds with a long corridor of steps that descend to the water level. Stepwells played a significant role in defining subterranean architecture in western India from 7th to 19th century. So ...

). His minister and later governor of Chandravati, Vimala built Adinath Jain temple, one of the Dilwara Temples, on

during the last years of Bhima's reign. He had also built one more temple at Patan and Vimala Vasahi on

Shatrunjaya Shatrunjaya or Shetrunjaya ("place of victory against inner enemies") originally Pundarikgiri), are hills located by the city of Palitana, in Bhavnagar district, Gujarat, India. They are situated on the banks of the Shetrunji River at an elev ...

(renovated in 17th century). The Modhera Sun Temple (1026-27 CE) except its Rangamandapa and tank was reconstructed during Bhima's reign. ''Bhaktamarastrotra Vritti'' (1370 CE) and Ratnamandira's ''Upadeshatarangini'' (c. 15th century) mentions the construction of

Adinatha Rishabhanatha, also ( sa, ऋषभदेव), Rishabhadeva, or Ikshvaku is the first (Supreme preacher) of Jainism and establisher of Ikshvaku dynasty. He was the first of twenty-four teachers in the present half-cycle of time in Jain ...

and

Parshwanatha ''Parshvanatha'' (), also known as ''Parshva'' () and ''Parasnath'', was the 23rd of 24 ''Tirthankaras'' (supreme preacher of dharma) of Jainism. He is the only Tirthankara who gained the title of ''Kalīkālkalpataru (Kalpavriksha in this "Kal ...

temples by Shreshthi Jhinah at Dhavalakka ( Dholka) during this period. Vagheshwari/Khambhalai Mata temple at Dhinoj in Patan district was built during the same period as Modhera Sun temple. Achaleshwara Mahadev and Jagannatha temples on Mount Abu were contemporary of Adinath temple. Limboji Mata temple at Delmal in north Gujarat is also of the same period. The small shrine of Someshwara at Gorad near

Mehsana Mehsana (), also spelled Mahesana, is a city and municipality in Mehsana district, in the Indian state of Gujarat. Established in 14th century, the city was under Gaekwads of Baroda State from 18th century to the independence of India in 1947 ...

; Shiva temple and Sanderi Mata temple at Sander in Patan district belongs to 11th century. A ruined shrine in Mulamadhavpura in Saurashtra is contemporary of Shiva temple at Sander. Pankhnath Mahadev and the early surviving parts of Ambika temples at Khedbrahma are also of this period. The large marble temple of Mahavira (1062 CE), of five Jain temples at Kumbhariya, is the last major temple of this period. The vase-and-foliage pillars and lintels of a temple of this period at Patan is reused in the inlet sluice chamber of Khan Sarovar. The Tanka Mosque in Dholka has four decorated ''bhadraka'' pillars reused from a small shrine of this age. The badly renovated Sun temple and another temple dedicated to Daityasudana Vishnu at

Prabhas Patan Prabhas Patan, also known as Somnath Patan or Prabhas Kshetra, historically named Dev Patan, is an area situated in Veraval, Gir Somnath district in Saurashtra region of Gujarat, India. Somnath temple, a place of pilgrimage due to its importance ...

also belongs to this period. Ankol Mata stepwell at Davad and

in Ahmedabad belonged to the third quarter of the 11th century.

References

Bibliography

* * * * * * {{Chaulukya dynasty 11th-century Indian monarchs 12th-century Indian monarchs Chaulukya dynasty Hindu monarchs