Battle of Valparaíso

The Battle of Valparaíso, also called the Capture of USS ''Essex'', was a naval action fought during the War of 1812. It took place off Valparaíso, Chile on March 28, 1814 between the frigate and the sloop of the United States Navy and the frigate and sloop of the Royal Navy. The United Kingdom, British ships won the battle, and the American vessels were captured.

Prelude

David Porter's cruise into the Pacific

Captain David Porter (naval officer), David Porter of USS ''Essex'' had proposed a Pacific voyage to the Secretary of the Navy for exploration and colonization before the War of 1812 had begun. Once the war was declared, Porter flew his iconic white ensign with the words "Free Trade and Sailors rights" from ''Essex'' which was copied on by James Lawrence. Porter was assigned to Commodore William Bainbridge's squadron in , but he found no sign of Bainbridge at the rendezvous location at Porto Praya on the Cape Verde island or on the Brazil coast.

Porter captured the Royal Mail, Post Office Packet boat, packet ''Nocton'' on 12 December 1812 laden with £15,000 of specie. ''Nocton'' was sent home as a prize but recaptured by on 5 January. He took another prize off Rio de Janeiro. He then rounded Cape Horn, following his command to act "for the good of the service". He was aware that the Spanish colonies were in revolt and that they might welcome a warship from the United States, and he was also aware that the British had a lucrative whaling industry and no warships in the Pacific. He planned to masquerade ''Essex'' as the more powerful ''Constitution'' until he arrived in the Pacific.

Porter arrived in Valparaíso on 15 March 1813 where he received a warm welcome from the revolutionary government, and he took advantage of this to take on food, water, and stores for ''Essex''. He refitted ''Essex'' for eight days, then sailed north where he captured a Peruvian privateer. He recaptured an American whaler on his way to the Galapagos Islands, and he captured 12 British whalers between 29 April and 18 September. The prizes gave him access to stores and food, but water remained short. He armed two of his prizes as auxiliary support and detached them to capture others, and two more ships were returned to their captains to ferry the prisoners to Valparaíso. Porter claimed that he did $5 million (£1.13 million) worth of damage to British commercial shipping, making him the only American frigate captain to effectively raid commerce during the War of 1812. Despite that, the only prize to reach the United States was the USS Essex Junior, whale ship ''Atlantic'' which Porter armed and renamed ''Essex Junior''.

By September 1813, ''Essex'' needed a major refit and Porter picked up rumors that a British Squadron (naval), squadron was searching for him. He refitted ''Essex'' at the Marquesas Islands, far from the American coast so as not to encounter the British. He reached Nuka Hiva on 25 October 1813 and ''Essex'' underwent a major overhaul. Porter, meanwhile, fought the island's residents and annexed it for the United States. He renamed the island Madison Island in the hope that its annexation would be ratified by President James Madison, Madison's administration, but the annexation was not approved. Porter next sailed to Valparaíso in the hope of encountering a British frigate, and he left Nuka Hiva on 13 December with a small squadron of prizes. He had left officers in charge of the island, but their control did not last long; they were eventually overthrown and fled to Hawaii—only to be captured by the British.

On 12 January 1814, ''Essex'' arrived in Valparaíso with ''Essex Junior'' in company. The Carrera family had supported him nine months earlier, but they were now in jail. A civil war had broken out in Chile and a Spanish counter-attack was expected.

The British Global Intelligence Network

To get to the Pacific, Porter had to cross the waters of the British Brazil Station which was full of ships trading in specie from South America. After the outbreak of war, the trade in silver was transferred to Navy ships including and . Through these ships, the whereabouts of USS ''Constitution'', and USS ''Essex'' was relayed to the rest of the British fleet. On 3 April 1813, Captain Heywood of ''Nereus'' reported that ''Essex'' had arrived in Valparaíso on 15 March intent on a short stay to Rear Admiral Manley Dixon in the 74-gun . Dixon commanded a squadron of the 24-pounder frigate , four 18-pounder frigates, three sixth rates, and three Sloop-of-war, sloops. By late April it was clear ''Essex'' was encountered off Cape Frio in January, not ''Constitution''. Dixon was unable to detach the sloops HMS ''Cherub'' and to pursue ''Essex'' as he required all the ships he could to protect the silver trade.

Captain Heywood of ''Nereus'' forwarded a letter from Brown and Watson, British merchants at Valparaíso, to Dixon on 3 June 1813 reporting the welcoming of ''Essex'' in the harbor and that ''Essex'' had "gone to take and destroy the English whalers on the coast". Rumors had circulated that Porter would sail across the Pacific to the coast of China with orders to "destroy, but capture nothing".

''Racoon'' had gone to San Salvador and Pernambuco and upon her return had reported that it was clear of United States privateers and men-of-war. Since the trade route was secure, Dixon could direct his attention to the Pacific. On 10 June HMS ''Phoebe'' and the merchant ship joined Dixon's squadron. Phoebe was sent to destroy the trading post at Astoria, Oregon, Astoria. Dixon detached ''Cherub'' and ''Racoon'' to guard the whaling fishery, while ''Phoebe''s mission was modified, becoming to seek out and capture or destroy ''Essex''. Captain James Hillyar of ''Phoebe'' was to keep his mission a secret. The British Admiralty, Admiralty would question why ''Cherub'' and ''Racoon'' were not detached earlier. Dixon would assert that the specie trade was a priority and that only once ''Phoebe'' had arrived, would ''Cherub'' and ''Racoon'' safely get to the Pacific as if ''Essex'' had encountered the two sloops on their own, the ships being much smaller, would have surely been captured. Dixon feared that ''Essex'' had reinforcements, which it did not, hence, he intended on detaching another frigate to accompany ''Phoebe'' in the event that ''Essex'' was not alone, but none were available. Hillyar was given complete discretion as Dixon was aware that new intelligence would reach ''Phoebe'' much faster than orders from ''Montagu'' in Rio de Janeiro would, the only exception being that ''Phoebe'' must not violate the neutrality of the Spanish colonies.

''Nereus'' would arrive in Rio carrying 2,000,000 Spanish dollars and £100,000 pounds in cash. Dixon would transfer this to ''Montagu'' as ''Montagu'' was a much more powerful ship and detach ''Montagu'' to Britain and switch his command with Heywood of ''Nereus'' so as not to have to detach ''Nereus'' and an escort to Britain. This way, the maximum number of ships remained at Rio de Janeiro. Dixon would continue his command from smaller frigates.

Captain William Bowles of was stationed at the Buenos Aires station to forward information to London about the trans-Andean trade routes and the American threat, larger issues of British trade and the disposition of Chilean politics. He intercepted letters that revealed Hillyar's secret mission. He feared that the information would get to Porter in USS ''Essex'' and ''Essex'' would escape.

Bowles successfully blocked Porter's ability to sell some prizes at Valparaíso through letters from Buenos Aires. After the fall of the Carrera family in 1813, the political situation in Chile began to favor the British. Furthermore, news of 's Capture of USS Chesapeake, victory over had arrived in Valparaíso. It was seen that the United States influence was on the decline.

On 12 July 1813 Hillyar in ''Phoebe'' sealed orders for rendezvous and locations to renew stores for ''Isaac Todd'', ''Cherub'', and ''Racoon'' without contact of the South American mainland. While rounding Cape Horn, the ships became separated from ''Isaac Todd'' and in October, Hillyar received information that ''Essex'' had taken her. Hillyar then detached ''Racoon'' to the Columbia River to destroy the trading post at Astoria. ''Racoon'' arrived to discover that the fort had already been secured by the North West Company on 30 November. Hillyar found that ''Essex'' had been sighted at the Juan Fernández Islands, Valparaíso, and the Galapagos, but didn't know where exactly to find her.

Finally, in 1814, Dixon would have enough ships to detach the frigates and ''Nereus'' to reinforce Hillyar, but they would not arrive until after ''Essex'' was taken.

Bowles received information that ''Essex'' had arrived in Valparaíso, Chile had fallen into civil war and the Carrera family were no longer in power and forwarded it to Dixon in Rio de Janeiro and to the Admiralty in London. Bowles feared that ''Essex'' would leave Valparaíso and capture him in HMS ''Aquilon''. This would give the impression of British weakness and hence the British would lose their influence in South America. Hillyar in ''Phoebe'' also received ''Essex''s whereabouts and had no intention of allowing ''Essex'' to escape from Valparaíso.

The opposing forces

Despite ''Essex'' and ''Phoebe'' being nearly equal in length and tonnage, the British had the decisive advantage of carrying long guns rather than the carronades ''Essex'' was armed with. Furthermore, ''Cherub'' was far superior to ''Essex Junior''.

Comparison of combatant vessels
(English measurement methods used for both ships;)

Battle

The blockade

On 3 February the 36-gun frigate ''Phoebe'' and the 18 gun ship-rigged sloop ''Cherub'' arrived at Valparaíso. Hillyar anticipated Porter's moves. Knowing that British diplomatic support was more useful to the Chileans than American support, he knew ''Essex'' could not stay long in Valparaíso. British merchant George O'Brien in the ''Emily'' sailed out of Valparaíso with intelligence about ''Essex'' for Hillyar in ''Phoebe''. Mr. Cromptom and Andrew Bless gave Hillyar the latest on the political situation in Chile.

Porter had hoped for a duel, two ships against two ships and had knowingly sailed into Valparaíso to encounter the British. He now found himself blockaded by a squadron of a superior force consisting only of the very two ships he had hoped to engage. Hillyar sailed into the harbor at Valparaíso in ''Phoebe'' very close to ''Essex''. ''Essex'' had rigged kedge anchors at the ends of its yards to grapple ''Phoebe'' and engage. Noticing ''Essex'' was ready for battle, Hillyar hauled off.

Hillyar had attempted to cause ''Essex'' to fire first and violate the Chilean neutrality, but Porter held his fire. Despite avoiding a diplomatic conflict, Porter nevertheless missed his opportunity to escape to sea while ''Phoebe'' was in port. ''Essex'' was faster than ''Cherub'' and was known to make at least , ''Phoebe'' on the other hand could sail up to as she was built to a lengthened design of the for the very purpose of increasing speed. Therefore, it was unlikely that ''Essex'' could have successfully escaped without a fight.

The next day, Porter hoisted his ensign written "Free Trade and Sailors' Rights" to the fore topgallant masthead. To counter what Hillyar considered an "insidious effort to shake the loyalty of thoughtless British seamen", Phoebe hoisted a St George's ensign written "God and Country, British Sailors' Best Rights. Traitors Offend Both." Hillyar played God Save the King and the crew manned the rigging and gave three cheers. Porter then paraded his crew in Valparaíso with flags of American slogans. This propaganda attempt at gaining Chilean support was to little effect.

These displays of morals and philosophy were a reference to the cause of the War of 1812. The Americans had declared war on Britain because the British had been impressing American citizens from merchant ships and had cut off the American trade with France, hence, the Americans demanded "Free trade and sailors' rights". The British had asserted that the people they impressed were deserters from the Royal Navy who had been granted citizenship in the United States, hence Hillyar sent his message to the deserters that "God and Country [are a] British Sailor's Best Rights. Traitors Offend Both." Despite these bold displays of their respective national ideology, it is unlikely that the average seaman aboard either ship cared. They were more to intimidate opposing captains.

Porter agreed to exchange his British prisoners aboard ''Essex'' with Hillyar's American prisoners aboard ''Phoebe''. At this point, all ships were docked in Valparaíso. In doing so, Hillyar confirmed that ''Essex'' was only armed with short-range carronades, a vital piece of intelligence. Having renewed stores, ''Phoebe'' and ''Cherub'' returned to sea on 14 February as Hillyar feared that if ''Essex'' sortied, Porter would have ''Phoebe'' and ''Cherub'' detained for 24 hours as not to violate Chilean neutrality. Lying just outside the range of the Chilean coastal guns(which was a common marker of the end of the neutral range) ''Phoebe'' and ''Cherub'' could still send boats into the harbor to receive fresh beef and water.

On 25 February, Porter had the prize ''Hector'' towed to sea and burnt in Valparaíso harbor. This being a violation of Chilean neutrality, the Chilean governor was insulted and angry and sent dispatches to Hillyar saying he would ignore the action if ''Essex'' would be taken into the harbor. Despite his permission, Hillyar did not engage as such a violation of neutrality might be beyond the power of the governor to ignore as the United States would protest.

On 27 February ''Essex'' and ''Essex Junior'' had set sail. ''Phoebe'' was denying Porter the opportunity for a close-range engagement where his carronades would be effective. Porter fired a signal gun to ''Essex Junior'' and proceeded to fire two shots at ''Phoebe''. Hillyar did not return fire. The American ships returned to port.

Porter would make complaints about Hillyar violating neutrality to the Chileans in an attempt to allow ''Essex'' to sortie. Hillyar asserted that Porter violated neutrality three times. First by burning ''Hector'' on 25 February, by firing two shots at ''Phoebe'' on 27 February, and by attempting to board Phoebe on 12 March. Fortunately for Hillyar, dispatches had been sent to him with information about the boarding plan.

Porter would then write a challenge to Hillyar offering a single ship duel. Numerous challenges had been written during the war of 1812. First was Captain James Richard Dacres (Royal Navy officer, born 1788), James Dacres of to Commodore John Rodgers (1772–1838), John Rodgers of which Rodgers declined. The second was Master Commandant James Lawrence of USS ''Hornet'' to HMS ''Bonne Citoyenne'' which was declined as well. The final one was by Philip Broke of HMS ''Shannon'' to James Lawrence in USS ''Chesapeake''. Single ship duels such as USS Constitution vs HMS Guerriere, USS ''Constitution'' vs HMS ''Guerriere'', the USS United States vs HMS Macedonian, capture of HMS ''Macedonian'', and the capture of USS ''Chesapeake'' were a means for captains achieved glory and honor. Hillyar declined this challenge–unlike the all other frigate captains in the War of 1812, Hillyar had already proved himself in the Battle of Tamatave in 1811. There was no need for heroics on his part. Porter would later claim that he could have easily escaped as he had the faster ship but this was not the case. ''Phoebe'' was faster than ''Essex''.

Dixon detached the frigate HMS ''Briton'' to reinforce Hillyar. ''Nereus'' and ''Tagus'' were already on their way. Dixon received information that the United States 44-gun super-frigates would sortie from American ports and attempt to join up with Porter. Unfortunately for Porter, the big 44-gun ships were effectively blockaded in harbors by British squadrons which included 74-gun ships of the line.

As ''Tagus'' and ''Nereus'', 18-pounder frigates, both more powerful than ''Essex'', began to approach the Pacific, Porter received information of their arrival. It became clear that ''Essex'' must escape before reinforcements arrived.

Hillyar was warned that Porter would sortie on 23 March by British merchants desperate to resume trade once the threat of being captured by ''Essex'' no longer existed. Hillyar was already prepared.

Engagement

On 27 March, Porter attempted to mislead Hillyar into thinking he would not sortie by sending his purser onshore and made sure that Hillyar received information of this. That night, Porter sent Lieutenant Maury out to sea in one of ''Essex''s boats carrying blue lights and launching rockets. Porter hoped that Hillyar would follow this display to leeward allowing ''Essex'' to escape at daybreak. Hillyar spotted the lights, but sighting no ships he realised this was a decoy. He sent both ''Phoebe'' and ''Cherub'' to windward of where ''Essex'' was moored anticipating Porter's plans.

The next morning, 28 March 1814, Porter was disappointed to find ''Phoebe'' and ''Cherub'' close to the weather point of the bay. Hillyar wore inside and out of the point. The wind picked up from the south-southwest and Porter struck his royal Mast (sailing), masts and Yard (sailing), yards at 2:45 pm. Soon after, one of ''Essex''s cables parted. ''Essex'' then made a break for the sea. Hillyar immediately sailed to cut Porter off. A sudden squall made away with ''Essex''s main-topmast which broke off at the lower cap. Two men, Samuel Miller and Thomas Browne were lost with the topmast.

Hillyar made chase at 3:10. Both ''Phoebe'' and ''Cherub'' hoisted Saint George's Cross, St George's flag written on them were the words "God and Country, British Sailors Best Rights. Traitors Offend Both"

Porter, having lost his topmast, had no hope of escape. He wore ''Essex'' to starboard and cut away the wreckage. Porter was unable to sail back into the port and dropped anchor in a small bay out of sight of the nearest Chilean fort at 3:45 at from the shore. ''Essex'' flew three ensigns, "FREE TRADE AND SAILORS RIGHTS" from the foretop, "GOD OUR COUNTRY AND LIBERTY. TYRANTS OFFEND THEM" from the mizzen top and the United States colors from the mizzen peak.

Hillyar considered that because ''Essex'' was out of the range of Chilean cannon, she was in international waters. At 4:10 Hillyar signaled ''Cherub'' to fight at anchor roving extra cables to the anchor so the ship could be worn around and the broadside brought to bear. He sailed ''Phoebe'' intent on bringing her broadside to bear on ''Essex''s stern. The battle began at 4:20 at half-gunshot () while Phoebe was still underway. ''Phoebe'' opened on ''Essex''s stern and starboard quarter. ''Cherub'' fired on ''Essex''s bow. Heavy fire from ''Essex''s long 12-pounder chase guns caused badly wounded Commander Tucker of ''Cherub'' to move alongside ''Phoebe''. Tucker nevertheless remained on deck throughout the action.

Porter was desperate to bring his guns to bear. He attempted to have a spring rove into his anchor cable and ''Essex'' worn, but they were shot away before they could be used. ''Essex''s 32-pounders, despite Porter claiming they were of no use, were of devastating effectiveness against ''Phoebe''. ''Phoebe''s popular first lieutenant was mortally wounded by splinters. Hillyar was forced to increase the range at which he fought to take advantage of the range of his long 18-pounders over the 32-pounder carronades.

Hillyar had not seen that his firing was effective, but ''Essex'' had effectively launched dismantling projectiles from the long 12-pounders and ''Phoebe''s topsails were flying loose as their sheets had been cut, the mainsail cut up, the jibboom damaged, and the fore main and mizzen stays shot away. Once out of carronade range, Hillyar had his crew mend the rigging and furl the mainsail.

Before Hillyar engaged again, he hailed Tucker to keep ''Cherub'' underway instead of fighting at anchor. Hillyar approached again in ''Phoebe'' engaging with his 9-pounder chase guns and received steady fire from ''Essex'' at 5:35. At this point the wind died down, occasionally being completely calm. Hillyar anchored at a greater range of a that he had done the first time. ''Phoebe's'' long 18-pounders were effective against ''Essex'' while ''Essex''s carronades were not against ''Phoebe'' because of the distance.

When the wind picked up, Porter cut his cable and sailed toward ''Phoebe'' to board her. At 5:50 Hillyar set sail and avoided ''Essex''. ''Essex''s rigging had been shredded by ''Phoebe'' making ''Essex'' hard to control while underway. ''Phoebe'' continued to devastate the drifting ''Essex'' cutting down her crew. Hillyar had purposefully targeted the standing rigging and upper deck throughout the battle. Many of the guns aboard ''Essex'' had been disabled. A small pile of powder exploded near ''Essex''s main hatch. ''Essex''s crew began to lose morale.

Porter ordered ''Essex'' to be run ashore and blown up as James Lawrence had said about USS ''Chesapeake'' when HMS ''Shannon'' took her. Porter was forced to surrender when the wind died down again and there was no hope of sailing on shore. Furthermore, too many of the crew were so badly wounded that they could not abandon ship. Nevertheless, 60 or 70 Americans abandoned ship and took boats to the shore. Some swam and drowned, but most were collected by British boats. Approximately 40 escaped to the land. At 6:20 Porter struck his colors. The chaos of ''Essex''s rigging and the numerous banners, flags, and ensigns that Porter hoisted caused the British to take ten minutes to realize that ''Essex'' had struck. A boat was sent to secure the prize.

Porter had been traumatized by the casualties, humiliated by defeat and overwrought by his exertions. Due to the shell shock, he openly wept as he offered his sword to Hillyar. By the next morning, Porter had regained his composure and began debating the specifics of the battle as not to be Courts-martial, court-martialled for the loss of ''Essex''.

Throughout the whole battle ''Essex Junior'' was not engaged by the British as they considered her too weak to be a threat.

Casualties

''Phoebe'' suffered four killed and seven wounded, ''Cherub'' had one killed and three wounded. ''Essex'' had 58 dead and 65 wounded. ''Phoebe'' had holes below the waterline as well as her rigging severely cut. ''Essex'' had been hit with more than 200 shot and had her stern smashed in, a hole in her counter, her wheel and rudder damaged, all three masts damaged, the figurehead shot away, 15 guns disabled, 55 gun crew killed, 60 gun crew wounded, and the upper works and rigging severely damaged.

Aftermath

In his final report, David Porter claimed that the British had violated neutrality, conducted themselves dishonorably and inhumanely, and plundered his personal property after the engagement. He stated that the loss of ''Essex'' was simply due to a series of misfortunes and blamed Paul Hamilton (politician), Paul Hamilton for his all short range carronade armament. He wrote to Secretary Jones "I hope, Sir, that our conduct may prove satisfactory to our country." Porter finally claimed that the United States had the right to reclaim ''Essex'' from the British.

The only viable parts of Porter's report was that ''Essex'' was only armed with short-range carronades and that he had lost his top-mast. The British had not violated neutrality, conducted themselves dishonorably, nor plundered his personal belongings. There were no further misfortunes aboard ''Essex''. The entire engagement could have been averted save Porter's desire to achieve personal glory by defeating the British rather than following his orders not to engage. Porter could have very well not returned to Valparaíso where he would be blockaded, as he knew ''Phoebe'' and ''Cherub'' would arrive. The United States by no means had any right to reclaim ''Essex'' given the circumstances of the battle. In short, Porter lied in his final report.

In contrast, Hillyar praised Porter for good conduct and claimed he only surrendered when all his options were expended. Hillyar found Essex with provisions for a six-month cruise. He moved all the ships to Valparaíso and transferred the prisoners to a Spanish prison hulk, his sailors beating and prodding them with bayonets along the way. On 2 April 1814, Hillyar repaired shot holes on below ''Pheobe''s waterline. On 13 April ''Tagus'' and ''Nereus'' arrived. on 26 April the prisoners were moved to ''Essex Junior'' and ferried them away. Hillyar would help reconcile the Peruvian and Chilean governments which the British gave more attention to as the War of the Sixth Coalition had ended and Napoleon was exiled. On 21 May ''Briton'' arrived at Valparaíso. Finally on 31 May, ''Phoebe'' sailed home to Britain.

By 20 June, Dixon received news of Hillyar's victory which passed over the Andes. Dixon confirmed the Treaty of Lircay. ''Briton'', ''Tagus'', and ''Cherub'' were ordered to remain in the South Pacific to watch the whaling fleet. News of the success reached London in August.

''Essex'' served in the Royal Navy as HMS ''Essex'' until 1837. ''Essex Junior'' was brought back by the United States for $25,000 after she encountered on her return to the United States while carrying the prisoners. While ''Saturn'' inspected ''Essex Junior'', Porter escaped from the ship by boat. American Coastal artillery, coastal batteries were suspicious of the ship and opened fire. The United States believed Porter's explanation. Secretary Jones claimed that they had returned "in triumph though captives". He then decided that ''Saturn'' had violated the terms of Porter's parole and that Porter and his crew should be free to serve. Admiral Alexander Cochrane was furious, he intended on keeping Porter, a dangerous captain, as a prisoner. Because the case was never closed, Porter would be able to publish his version of his voyage to gain public support for his case. Porter was awarded the command of the new 44-gun frigate USS ''Columbia'' which would later be burnt by the British before she was completed. The war would end before Porter would get a chance to go to sea again.

Porter declared himself a hero, repeating his claims of the battle. He claimed that he inflicted $2.5 million in damage and cost the British $6 million to counter his cruise, having to redeploy ships that could counter the United States. In fact, the returns were negligible as only one prize returned to the United States and by 1814, the British had over 100 frigates available as they were no longer fighting Napoleon. Hence the four that sailed to Valparaíso was of insignificant force. Nevertheless, Porter's cruise proved to be the most successful of any American frigate captain of the war.

Herman Melville criticized Porter's refusal to strike his colors when it became clear that the situation was hopeless, instead of seeking to "crown himself with the glory of the shambles, by permitting his hopeless crew to be butchered before his eyes." "Nor, by thus continuing to fight, did this American frigate, one iota, promote the true interests of her country."

There is a memorial to the American dead in the Dissidents Cemetery in Valparaíso.

References

Citations

Sources

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{{coord missing, Chile

Naval battles of the War of 1812, Valparaíso
Military history of Chile
Conflicts in 1814, Valparaíso
1814 in the Captaincy General of Chile
Naval battles involving the United States, Valparaíso
Naval battles involving the United Kingdom, Valparaíso
March 1814 events