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A bass reflex system (also known as a ported, vented box or reflex port) is a type of
Unlike closed-box loudspeakers, which are nearly airtight, a bass reflex system has an opening called a ''port'' or ''vent'' cut into the cabinet, generally consisting of a pipe or duct (typically circular or rectangular cross section). The air mass in this opening resonates with the "springiness" of the air inside the enclosure in exactly the same fashion as the air in a bottle resonates when a current of air is directed across the opening. Another metaphor often used is to think of the air like a spring or rubber band. The frequency at which the box/port system resonates, known as the 
If this vent air mass/box air springiness resonance is so chosen as to lie lower in frequency than the natural resonance frequency of the bass driver, an interesting phenomenon happens: the backwave of the bass driver sound emission is inverted in polarity for the frequency range between the two resonances. Since the backwave is already in opposite polarity with the front wave, this inversion brings the two emissions in phase (although the vent emission is lagging by one wave period) and therefore they reinforce each other. This has the useful purpose of producing higher output (for any given driver excursion compared to a closed box) or, conversely, a similar output with a smaller excursion (which means less driver distortion). The penalty incurred for this reinforcement is time smearing: in essence the vent resonance augments main driver output by imposing a "resonant tail" on it. For frequencies above the natural resonance of the driver, the reflex alignment has no influence. For frequencies below the vent resonance, polarity inversion is not accomplished, and backwave cancellation occurs. Furthermore, the driver behaves as though suspended in free air, as box air springiness is absent.
When speakers are designed for home use or for high-volume live performance settings (e.g., with
Passive radiators are similar in operation to ported bass reflex systems, and both methods are used for the same reason: to extend the system's low frequency response. A passive radiator is the use of one or more additional cones (diaphragms) in a cabinet instead of ports. These passive diaphragms do not have a magnet or voice coil and are not connected to a
The effect of the various speaker parameters, enclosure sizes and port (and duct) dimensions on the performance of bass reflex systems was not well understood until the early 1960s. Subsequently, pioneering analyses by A.N. Thiele, J.E. Benson and Richard H. Small presented the theoretical foundations for the synthesis of bass reflex loudspeaker systems to meet specified low-frequency performance criteria were developed into a series of "alignments" ( sets of the relevant speaker parameters) that allowed designers to produce useful, predictable responses. Keele extended the design options by presenting a new set of 6th-order vented-box loudspeaker system alignments. All of these results made it possible for speaker manufacturers to design bass reflex loudspeakers to match various sizes of enclosures, and to match enclosures to given speakers with great predictability. Due to the physical electromechanical constraints, it is not possible to have a small speaker in a small enclosure producing extended bass response at high efficiencies (i.e., requiring only a low-powered amplifier). It is possible to have two of these attributes, but not all; this has been termed Hofmann's Iron Law after J. Anton Hofmann of KLH's summary (with
Novak concluded that a bass reflex enclosure can have greater acoustic output for a given amount of distortion, lower total harmonic intermodulation, and transient distortion than a completely closed-box of similar size. Such a resonant system augments the bass response of the driver and, if designed properly, can extend the frequency response of the driver/enclosure combination to below the range the driver would reproduce in a similarly sized sealed box. The enclosure resonance has a secondary benefit in that it limits cone movement in a band of frequencies centered around the tuning frequency, reducing distortion in that frequency range. Ported cabinet systems are cheaper than a
Compared to closed-box loudspeakers, bass reflex cabinets have poorer 
Whether or not the effects of these in a properly designed system are audible remains a matter of debate. A poorly designed bass reflex system, generally one whose vent is incorrectly tuned too high or too low in frequency, tends to produce excessive output at the tuning frequency relative to the rest of the pass-band of the loudspeaker system. This behaviour can add a "booming" one-note quality to the reproduction of the bass frequencies. Although some may consider that this is due to the port resonance imposing its characteristics to the note being played, it is simply the result of a non-maximally flat frequency response function. If such a peak in the bass response of a bass reflex enclosure coincides with one of the resonant modes of the room, a not unusual occurrence, the effects will be further exacerbated. In general, the lower in frequency a port is tuned, the less objectionable these problems are likely to be.
Ports often are placed on the front baffle, and may thus allow transmission of unwanted midrange frequencies reflected from within the box into the listening environment. If it is undersized, a port may also generate "wind noise" or "chuffing" sounds, due to the turbulence around the port openings at high air speeds. Enclosures with a rear-facing port mask these effects to some extent, but they cannot be placed directly against a wall without causing audible problems. They require some free space around the port so they can perform as intended. Some manufacturers incorporate a floor-facing port within the speaker stand or base, offering predictable and repeatable port performance within the design constraints.
A bass reflex system (also known as a ported, vented box or reflex port) is a type of loudspeaker enclosure
A loudspeaker enclosure or loudspeaker cabinet is an enclosure (often rectangular box-shaped) in which speaker drivers (e.g., loudspeakers and tweeters) and associated electronic hardware, such as crossover circuits and, in some cases, powe ...
that uses a port (hole) or vent cut into the cabinet and a section of tubing or pipe affixed to the port. This port enables the sound from the rear side of the diaphragm to increase the efficiency of the system at low frequencies as compared to a typical sealed- or closed-box loudspeaker or an infinite baffle mounting.
A ''reflex port'' is the distinctive feature of this popular enclosure
Enclosure or Inclosure is a term, used in English landownership, that refers to the appropriation of "waste" or " common land" enclosing it and by doing so depriving commoners of their rights of access and privilege. Agreements to enclose land ...
type. The design approach enhances the reproduction of the lowest frequencies
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time. It is also occasionally referred to as ''temporal frequency'' for clarity, and is distinct from ''angular frequency''. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz) which is e ...
generated by the woofer
A woofer or bass speaker is a technical term for a loudspeaker driver designed to produce low frequency sounds, typically from 50 Hz up to 1000 Hz. The name is from the onomatopoeic English word for a dog's bark, " woof" (in contrast to th ...
or subwoofer
A subwoofer (or sub) is a loudspeaker designed to reproduce low-pitched audio frequencies known as bass and sub-bass, lower in frequency than those which can be (optimally) generated by a woofer. The typical frequency range for a subwoofer i ...
. The port generally consists of one or more tubes or pipes mounted in the front ( baffle) or rear face of the enclosure. Depending on the exact relationship between driver parameters
A parameter (), generally, is any characteristic that can help in defining or classifying a particular system (meaning an event, project, object, situation, etc.). That is, a parameter is an element of a system that is useful, or critical, when ...
, the enclosure volume (and filling if any), and the tube cross-section and length, the efficiency can be substantially improved over the performance of a similarly-sized sealed-box enclosure.
Explanation
Unlike closed-box loudspeakers, which are nearly airtight, a bass reflex system has an opening called a ''port'' or ''vent'' cut into the cabinet, generally consisting of a pipe or duct (typically circular or rectangular cross section). The air mass in this opening resonates with the "springiness" of the air inside the enclosure in exactly the same fashion as the air in a bottle resonates when a current of air is directed across the opening. Another metaphor often used is to think of the air like a spring or rubber band. The frequency at which the box/port system resonates, known as the Helmholtz resonance
Helmholtz resonance or wind throb is the phenomenon of air resonance in a cavity, such as when one blows across the top of an empty bottle. The name comes from a device created in the 1850s by Hermann von Helmholtz, the ''Helmholtz resonator'', wh ...
, depends upon the effective length and cross sectional area of the duct, the internal volume of the enclosure, and the speed of sound in air. In the early years of ported speakers, speaker designers had to do extensive experimentation to determine the ideal diameter of the port and length of the port tube or pipe; however, more recently, there are numerous tables and computer programs that calculate, for a given size of cabinet, how large the port should be and how long the tube should be. Even with these programs, however, some experimentation with prototype
A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or process. It is a term used in a variety of contexts, including semantics, design, electronics, and software programming. A prototype is generally used to ...
s is still necessary to determine if the enclosure sounds good.
If this vent air mass/box air springiness resonance is so chosen as to lie lower in frequency than the natural resonance frequency of the bass driver, an interesting phenomenon happens: the backwave of the bass driver sound emission is inverted in polarity for the frequency range between the two resonances. Since the backwave is already in opposite polarity with the front wave, this inversion brings the two emissions in phase (although the vent emission is lagging by one wave period) and therefore they reinforce each other. This has the useful purpose of producing higher output (for any given driver excursion compared to a closed box) or, conversely, a similar output with a smaller excursion (which means less driver distortion). The penalty incurred for this reinforcement is time smearing: in essence the vent resonance augments main driver output by imposing a "resonant tail" on it. For frequencies above the natural resonance of the driver, the reflex alignment has no influence. For frequencies below the vent resonance, polarity inversion is not accomplished, and backwave cancellation occurs. Furthermore, the driver behaves as though suspended in free air, as box air springiness is absent.
When speakers are designed for home use or for high-volume live performance settings (e.g., with bass amplifier
A bass amplifier (also abbreviated to bass amp) is a musical instrument electronic device that uses electrical power to make lower-pitched instruments such as the bass guitar or double bass loud enough to be heard by the performers and audien ...
speaker cabinets and PA system
A public address system (or PA system) is an electronic system comprising microphones, amplifiers, loudspeakers, and related equipment. It increases the apparent volume (loudness) of a human voice, musical instrument, or other acoustic sound sou ...
speakers and subwoofer
A subwoofer (or sub) is a loudspeaker designed to reproduce low-pitched audio frequencies known as bass and sub-bass, lower in frequency than those which can be (optimally) generated by a woofer. The typical frequency range for a subwoofer i ...
s), manufacturers often consider the advantages of porting (increased bass response, lower bass response, improved efficiency) to outweigh the disadvantages (port noise, resonance problems). The design is popular among consumers and manufacturers (speakers cabinets can be smaller and lighter, for more or less equivalent performance) but the increase in bass output requires close matching of driver, the enclosure, and port. Poorly matched reflex designs can have unfortunate characteristics or drawbacks, sometimes making them unsuitable for settings requiring high accuracy and neutrality of sound, e.g. studio monitor
Studio monitors are loudspeakers in speaker enclosures specifically designed for professional audio production applications, such as recording studios, filmmaking, television studios, radio studios and project or home studios, where accurate ...
speakers for use by audio engineer
An audio engineer (also known as a sound engineer or recording engineer) helps to produce a recording or a live performance, balancing and adjusting sound sources using equalization, dynamics processing and audio effects, mixing, reproduction ...
s in monitoring facilities, recording studios etc. However it is possible to design a bass reflex system that mostly overcomes these drawbacks; and quality bass reflex designs are commonly found in demanding environments across the world.
Comparison with passive radiator
Passive radiators are similar in operation to ported bass reflex systems, and both methods are used for the same reason: to extend the system's low frequency response. A passive radiator is the use of one or more additional cones (diaphragms) in a cabinet instead of ports. These passive diaphragms do not have a magnet or voice coil and are not connected to a power amplifier
An audio power amplifier (or power amp) is an electronic amplifier that amplifies low-power electronic audio signals, such as the signal from a radio receiver or an electric guitar pickup, to a level that is high enough for driving louds ...
. Acoustically, they behave largely the same around their tuning frequency as they also act as a Helmholtz resonator excited by the rear side of the bass driver's diaphragm. Passive radiators can be tuned independent of their dimensions by adding or removing mass from the diaphragm of the passive radiator. This makes them useful for smaller enclosures with the same box tuning where an equivalently tuned port would be impractical. They also sidestep the midrange pipe resonances that can be an issue on ported enclosures in full range systems. https://accuton.com/en-home/produkte/lautsprecher/passiv-strahler/Passiv-Strahler-Technologie However, they require a much greater surface area on the cabinet exterior than a port to be effective, and are considerably more expensive than a port tube as they are effectively a speaker driver minus its voice coil and motor magnet.
History
The effect of the various speaker parameters, enclosure sizes and port (and duct) dimensions on the performance of bass reflex systems was not well understood until the early 1960s. Subsequently, pioneering analyses by A.N. Thiele, J.E. Benson and Richard H. Small presented the theoretical foundations for the synthesis of bass reflex loudspeaker systems to meet specified low-frequency performance criteria were developed into a series of "alignments" ( sets of the relevant speaker parameters) that allowed designers to produce useful, predictable responses. Keele extended the design options by presenting a new set of 6th-order vented-box loudspeaker system alignments. All of these results made it possible for speaker manufacturers to design bass reflex loudspeakers to match various sizes of enclosures, and to match enclosures to given speakers with great predictability. Due to the physical electromechanical constraints, it is not possible to have a small speaker in a small enclosure producing extended bass response at high efficiencies (i.e., requiring only a low-powered amplifier). It is possible to have two of these attributes, but not all; this has been termed Hofmann's Iron Law after J. Anton Hofmann of KLH's summary (with Henry Kloss
Henry Kloss (February 21, 1929 – January 31, 2002) was a prominent American audio engineer and entrepreneur who helped advance high fidelity loudspeaker and radio receiver technology beginning in the 1950s. Kloss (pronounced with a long o, l ...
) of Edgar Villchur work years earlier. The sound pressure produced depends upon the efficiency of the speaker, the mechanical or thermal power handling of the driver, the power input and the size of the driver.
Advantages
Novak concluded that a bass reflex enclosure can have greater acoustic output for a given amount of distortion, lower total harmonic intermodulation, and transient distortion than a completely closed-box of similar size. Such a resonant system augments the bass response of the driver and, if designed properly, can extend the frequency response of the driver/enclosure combination to below the range the driver would reproduce in a similarly sized sealed box. The enclosure resonance has a secondary benefit in that it limits cone movement in a band of frequencies centered around the tuning frequency, reducing distortion in that frequency range. Ported cabinet systems are cheaper than a passive radiator
In a radio antenna, a passive radiator or parasitic element is a conductive element, typically a metal rod, which is not electrically connected to anything else. Multielement antennas such as the Yagi–Uda antenna typically consist of a ...
speaker with the same performance; whereas a passive radiator system requires one or two "drone cone" speakers, a ported system requires only a hole or port and a length or tubing.
Limitations
Compared to closed-box loudspeakers, bass reflex cabinets have poorer transient
ECHELON, originally a secret government code name, is a surveillance program (signals intelligence/SIGINT collection and analysis network) operated by the five signatory states to the UKUSA Security Agreement:Given the 5 dialects that us ...
response, resulting in longer decay times associated with the bass notes. Some example step responses for various high-pass filter functions are shown in the relevant figure, where each filter has an identical −3 dB cut-off frequency of 50 Hz. In that figure, (a) represents the step response of a conventional B4 vented box alignment, while (b) represents the step response of a B2 closed-box alignment with Q = 0.7071. The transient response of a vented-box loudspeaker can be improved by choosing a QB3 alignment similar to (c), which results in a more well damped transient response than that produced by the B4 alignment. However, a C4 vented-box alignment similar to (e) results in a less well damped transient response.
In order to achieve their bass output, ported loudspeaker enclosures stagger ''two'' resonances: one from the driver and the boxed air, and another from the boxed air and the port. At the vent tuning frequency, the output from the port is the primary source of sound output, as the displacement of the woofer is at a minimum. This comprises a more complex, higher-order system than an equivalent closed-box loudspeaker enclosure. The interaction between the two resonances results in a system that possesses less damping and increased time delay (increased group delay
In signal processing, group delay and phase delay are delay times experienced by a signal's various frequency components when the signal passes through a system that is linear time-invariant (LTI), such as a microphone, coaxial cable, amplifier, ...
). Due to the latter, a flat steady-state bass response does not occur at the same time as the rest of the sonic output at higher frequencies in the operating region. Instead, it starts later (lags) and the lag increases, accumulating over time as a longish resonant "tail" arriving behind the main "body" of the acoustic signal. As a result of their electrodynamic characteristics, ported enclosures, which are well approximated as 4th-order high-pass filter systems, generally result in poorer transient response at low frequencies than do closed-box loudspeaker systems, which are 2nd-order high-pass filter systems.
Another trade-off for this augmentation is that, at frequencies below the vent tuning frequency, the port unloads the cone and allows it to move with very large displacements. This means the speaker can be driven past its safe mechanical operating limits at frequencies below the tuning frequency with much less power than in an equivalently-sized sealed enclosure. For this reason, high-powered systems using a bass reflex design are often protected by a high-pass filter that removes signals below the vent tuning frequency. Unfortunately, electrical filtering adds further frequency-dependent group delay. Even if such filtering can be adjusted not to remove musical content, it may interfere with sonic information connected with the size and ambiance of the recording location or venue, information that often exists in the low bass spectrum.
Whether or not the effects of these in a properly designed system are audible remains a matter of debate. A poorly designed bass reflex system, generally one whose vent is incorrectly tuned too high or too low in frequency, tends to produce excessive output at the tuning frequency relative to the rest of the pass-band of the loudspeaker system. This behaviour can add a "booming" one-note quality to the reproduction of the bass frequencies. Although some may consider that this is due to the port resonance imposing its characteristics to the note being played, it is simply the result of a non-maximally flat frequency response function. If such a peak in the bass response of a bass reflex enclosure coincides with one of the resonant modes of the room, a not unusual occurrence, the effects will be further exacerbated. In general, the lower in frequency a port is tuned, the less objectionable these problems are likely to be.
Ports often are placed on the front baffle, and may thus allow transmission of unwanted midrange frequencies reflected from within the box into the listening environment. If it is undersized, a port may also generate "wind noise" or "chuffing" sounds, due to the turbulence around the port openings at high air speeds. Enclosures with a rear-facing port mask these effects to some extent, but they cannot be placed directly against a wall without causing audible problems. They require some free space around the port so they can perform as intended. Some manufacturers incorporate a floor-facing port within the speaker stand or base, offering predictable and repeatable port performance within the design constraints.
Port compression
Port compression is a reduction in port effectiveness as sound pressure levels increase. As a ported system plays louder, the efficiency of the port reduces, and distortion emitted by the port increases. This can be reduced by port design, but not totally eliminated. Asymmetrical loading of the driver cone during high level usage can be reduced by placing a baffle at the inside end of the port tube. This baffle can also serve as a stiffening structural element of the enclosure.Applications
Subwoofer
A subwoofer (or sub) is a loudspeaker designed to reproduce low-pitched audio frequencies known as bass and sub-bass, lower in frequency than those which can be (optimally) generated by a woofer. The typical frequency range for a subwoofer i ...
cabinets used in home cinema
Home cinema, also called home theaters or theater rooms, are home entertainment audio-visual systems that seek to reproduce a movie theater experience and mood using consumer electronics-grade video and audio equipment that is set up in a room ...
and sound reinforcement system
A sound reinforcement system is the combination of microphones, signal processors, amplifiers, and loudspeakers in enclosures all controlled by a mixing console that makes live or pre-recorded sounds louder and may also distribute those sou ...
s are often fitted with ports or vents. Bass amp
A bass amplifier (also abbreviated to bass amp) is a musical instrument electronic device that uses electrical power to make lower-pitched instruments such as the bass guitar or double bass loud enough to be heard by the performers and audien ...
speaker cabinets and keyboard amp speaker cabinets, which have to reproduce low-frequency sounds down to 41 Hz or below, are often built with ports or vents, which are typically on the front of the cabinet (though they are also placed on the rear). Even some expensive hi-fi speakers have carefully designed ports.
See also
*Loudspeaker enclosure
A loudspeaker enclosure or loudspeaker cabinet is an enclosure (often rectangular box-shaped) in which speaker drivers (e.g., loudspeakers and tweeters) and associated electronic hardware, such as crossover circuits and, in some cases, powe ...
* Passive radiator
In a radio antenna, a passive radiator or parasitic element is a conductive element, typically a metal rod, which is not electrically connected to anything else. Multielement antennas such as the Yagi–Uda antenna typically consist of a ...
* Acoustic suspension
Acoustic suspension (air suspension, closed box, sealed box) is a method of loudspeaker cabinet design and utilisation that uses one or more loudspeaker drivers mounted in a sealed box or cabinet. Acoustic suspension systems reduce bass distortio ...
– a method of loudspeaker cabinet design and utilisation that uses one or more loudspeaker drivers mounted in a sealed box or cabinet
References
{{Reflist, refs= {{cite journal , first=E. , last=de Boer , title=Acoustic Interaction in Vented Loudspeaker Enclosures , journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America , volume=31 , pages=246–247 , year=1959 , doi=10.1121/1.1907703 {{cite journal , first=J. , last=Novak , title=Performance of enclosures for low-resonance high-compliance loudspeakers , journal=IRE Transactions on Audio , volume=AU-7 , issue=1 , pages=5–13 , year=1959 , doi=10.1109/TAU.1959.1166180 {{cite journal, first1=Andri , last1=Bezzola , first2=Allan , last2=Devantier , first3=Elisabeth , last3=McMullin , title=Loudspeaker Port Design for Optimal Performance and Listening Experience , date=October 2019 , number=Paper Number 10311, Open Access, journal=147th AES Convention , url=http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=20683 , access-date=2021-05-15 {{cite journal , last=Thiele , first=A. N. , title=Loudspeakers in Vented Boxes , journal=Proceedings of the Institution of Radio Engineers Australia , volume=22 , issue=8 , pages=487–508 , year=1961 {{cite journal , last=Thiele , first=A. N. , title=Loudspeakers in Vented Boxes: Part 1 , journal=Journal of the Audio Engineering Society , volume=19 , pages=382–392 , issue=May , year=1971 , url=http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=1967 {{cite journal , last=Thiele , first=A. N. , title=Loudspeakers in Vented Boxes: Part 2 , journal=Journal of the Audio Engineering Society , volume=19 , pages=471–483 , issue=June , year=1971 , url=http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=2163 {{Cite web, url=http://www.diysubwoofers.org/prd/, title=The Subwoofer DIY Page - Passive Radiator Systems, website=www.diysubwoofers.org, access-date=2019-11-20 {{Cite web, url=https://www.psaudio.com/pauls-posts/passively-radiating/, title=Passively radiating, last=McGowan, first=Paul, date=April 30, 2013, website=psaudio.com, language=en-US, url-status=live, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161127220244/http://www.psaudio.com/pauls-posts/passively-radiating/ , archive-date=2016-11-27 , access-date=2019-11-20 {{cite journal , last=Small , first=R. H. , title=Vented-Box Loudspeaker Systems–Part 1: Small-Signal Analysis , journal=Journal of the Audio Engineering Society , volume=21 , pages=363–372 , issue=June , year=1973 , url=http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=1967 {{cite journal , last=Small , first=R. H. , title=Vented-Box Loudspeaker Systems–Part 2: Large-Signal Analysis , journal=Journal of the Audio Engineering Society , volume=21 , pages=438–444 , issue=July/August , year=1973 , url=http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=1959 {{cite journal , last=Small , first=R. H. , title=Vented-Box Loudspeaker Systems–Part 3: Synthesis , journal=Journal of the Audio Engineering Society , volume=21 , pages=549–554 , issue=September , year=1973 , url=http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=1951 {{cite journal , last=Small , first=R. H. , title=Vented-Box Loudspeaker Systems–Part 4: Appendices , journal=Journal of the Audio Engineering Society , volume=21 , pages=635–639 , issue=October , year=1973 , url=http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=1941 {{cite journal , first=D. B., Jr. , last=Keele , title=A New Set of Sixth-Order Vented-Box Loudspeaker System Alignments , journal=Journal of the Audio Engineering Society , volume=23 , number=5 , pages=354–360 , year=1975 , url=http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=2690 {{cite journal , first=J. E. , last=Benson , title=Theory and Design of Loudspeaker Enclosures, Part 3—Introduction to Synthesis of Vented Systems , journal=A.W.A. Technical Review , volume=14 , pages=369–484 , year=1972 , issue=4 {{cite book , first=J. E. , last=Benson , title=Theory and Design of Loudspeaker Enclosures , publisher=Synergetic Audio Concepts , year=1993 , ISBN=0-9638929-0-8 {{cite book , first=T. , last=Holman , title= Sound for film and television , publisher=Focal Press , year=1997 , place=Boston, MA {{cite journal , first=Budhaditya , last=Chattopadhyay , title=Reconstructing atmospheres: Ambient sound in film and media production , journal=Communication and the Public , volume=2 , issue=4 , pages=352–364 , year=2017 , doi=10.1177/2057047317742171 , doi-access=free {{cite journal , last=Thuras , first=A. L. , title=Sound Translating Device , journal=U.S. Patent No. 1,869,178, application Aug. 15 1930, patented July 26, 1932 , year=1932 , url=https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/f5/b7/13/74309571b5f641/US1869178.pdf , access-date=2022-07-02 Loudspeaker technology Audio engineering Bass (sound)