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The Commissioner of Baseball is the chief executive officer of
Major League Baseball Major League Baseball (MLB) is a professional baseball organization and the oldest major professional sports league in the world. MLB is composed of 30 total teams, divided equally between the National League (NL) and the American League (AL), ...
(MLB) and the associated Minor League Baseball (MiLB) – a constellation of leagues and clubs known as "organized baseball". Under the direction of the Commissioner, the Office of the Commissioner of Baseball hires and maintains the sport's umpiring crews, and negotiates
marketing Marketing is the process of exploring, creating, and delivering value to meet the needs of a target market in terms of goods and services; potentially including selection of a target audience; selection of certain attributes or themes to emph ...
, labor, and television contracts. The commissioner is chosen by a vote of the owners of the teams. The incumbent MLB commissioner is Rob Manfred, who assumed office on January 25, 2015.


Origin of the office

The title "commissioner", which is a title that is now applied to the heads of several other major sports leagues as well as baseball, derives from its predecessor office, the
National Baseball Commission The National Baseball Commission was the governing body of Major League Baseball and Minor League Baseball from 1903 to 1920. It consisted of a chairman, the presidents of the National League (NL) and American League (AL), and a secretary. The ...
, the ruling body of professional baseball starting with the National Agreement of 1903, which created unity between both the
National League The National League of Professional Baseball Clubs, known simply as the National League (NL), is the older of two leagues constituting Major League Baseball (MLB) in the United States and Canada, and the world's oldest extant professional team ...
and the
American League The American League of Professional Baseball Clubs, known simply as the American League (AL), is one of two leagues that make up Major League Baseball (MLB) in the United States and Canada. It developed from the Western League, a minor league ...
. The agreement consisted of three members: the two League presidents and a Commission chairman, whose primary responsibilities were to preside at meetings and to mediate disputes. Although the Commission chairman August Herrmann was the nominal head of major league baseball, it was the American League President
Ban Johnson Byron Bancroft Johnson (January 5, 1864 – March 28, 1931) was an American executive in professional baseball who served as the founder and first president of the American League (AL). Johnson developed the AL—a descendant of the mino ...
who dominated the commission. The event that would eventually lead to the appointment of a single Commissioner of Baseball was the
Black Sox Scandal The Black Sox Scandal was a Major League Baseball game-fixing scandal in which eight members of the Chicago White Sox were accused of throwing the 1919 World Series against the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for money from a gambling syndicate l ...
— perhaps the worst of a series of incidents in the late 1910s that jeopardized the integrity of the game of baseball. However, the desire to rebuild public relations was not the only motivation behind the creation of the Commissioner's office. The scandal had not only tarnished the image of baseball, but it had brought relations between team owners and American League President Johnson to a boiling point. In particular,
Chicago White Sox The Chicago White Sox are an American professional baseball team based in Chicago. The White Sox compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) Central division. The team is owned by Jerry Reinsdorf, and p ...
owner
Charles Comiskey Charles Albert Comiskey (August 15, 1859 – October 26, 1931), nicknamed "Commy" or "The Old Roman", was an American Major League Baseball player, manager and team owner. He was a key person in the formation of the American League, and was also ...
was piqued and incensed at what he perceived to be Johnson's indifference to his suspicions that the 1919 World Series had been thrown. As a result, the National League, whose owners had never been on good terms with Johnson, agreed to invite the White Sox along with the
Boston Red Sox The Boston Red Sox are an American professional baseball team based in Boston. The Red Sox compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) East division. Founded in as one of the American League's eight ...
and
New York Yankees The New York Yankees are an American professional baseball team based in the Boroughs of New York City, New York City borough of the Bronx. The Yankees compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) Amer ...
to join their league. The National League also unveiled plans to put a twelfth team in Detroit. With the American League's status as a major league (and possibly its very existence) suddenly in jeopardy, the five American League owners loyal to Johnson sued for peace. Eventually, at the urging of
Detroit Tigers The Detroit Tigers are an American professional baseball team based in Detroit. The Tigers compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member of the American League (AL) Central division. One of the AL's eight charter franchises, the club was f ...
owner and Johnson loyalist
Frank Navin Francis Joseph Navin (April 18, 1871 – November 13, 1935) was the president of the Detroit Tigers in Major League Baseball for 27 years, from 1908 to 1935. He was part-owner from 1908 to 1919, and principal owner from 1919 to 1935. He also ser ...
, a compromise was reached in late 1920 to reform the National Commission with a membership of non-baseball men.


Overview of commissioners


Kenesaw Mountain Landis (1920–1944)

Having agreed to appoint only non-baseball men to the National Commission, the owners tapped federal judge
Kenesaw Mountain Landis Kenesaw Mountain Landis (; November 20, 1866 – November 25, 1944) was an American jurist who served as a United States federal judge from 1905 to 1922 and the first Commissioner of Baseball from 1920 until his death. He is remembered for his ...
, an ardent baseball fan, to serve as the reformed commission's chairman. Landis responded by declaring that he would only accept an appointment as sole commissioner, with nearly unlimited authority to act in the "best interests of baseball" — in essence, serving as an arbitrator whose decisions could not be appealed. Finally, Landis insisted on a lifetime contract. The owners, still reeling from the perception that the sport was crooked, readily agreed.


Gambling

Landis's first significant act was to deal with the
Black Sox scandal The Black Sox Scandal was a Major League Baseball game-fixing scandal in which eight members of the Chicago White Sox were accused of throwing the 1919 World Series against the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for money from a gambling syndicate l ...
. Following a trial, the eight players suspected of involvement in the fix were acquitted. Nevertheless, immediately following the players' acquittal, Landis banned them all from baseball for life. He famously declared, "Regardless of the verdict of juries, no player who throws a ballgame, no player that undertakes or promises to throw a ballgame, no player that sits in conference with a bunch of crooked players and gamblers where the ways and means of throwing a game are discussed and does not promptly tell his club about it, will ever play professional baseball." Landis explained that even though the players had all been acquitted in court, there was no dispute that they had broken the rules of baseball. Therefore, he maintained that none of them could be allowed back in the game if its image was to be restored with the public. Among those banned were
Buck Weaver George Daniel "Buck" Weaver (August 18, 1890 – January 31, 1956) was an American shortstop and third baseman. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Chicago White Sox. Weaver played for the 1917 World Series champion White Sox, then ...
and superstar
Shoeless Joe Jackson Joseph Jefferson Jackson (July 16, 1887 – December 5, 1951), nicknamed "Shoeless Joe", was an American outfielder who played Major League Baseball (MLB) in the early 1900s. Although his .356 career batting average is the fourth highest ...
, who have generally been viewed to be far less culpable compared to the other six accused. Landis' position was that he had no doubt that Weaver and Jackson at the very least knew about the fix, and failed to report it, and that this alone was grounds for permanent banishment. Over the years, he dealt harshly with others proven to have thrown individual games, consorted with gamblers, or engaged in actions that he felt tarnished the image of the game. Among the others he banned were New York Giants players Phil Douglas and Jimmy O'Connell,
Philadelphia Phillies The Philadelphia Phillies are an American professional baseball team based in Philadelphia. They compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member of the National League (NL) National League East, East division. Since 2004, the team's home sta ...
pitcher
Gene Paulette Eugene Edward Paulette (May 26, 1891 – February 8, 1966) was a Major League Baseball infielder from 1911 to 1920. Paulette broke in briefly with the New York Giants in 1911; but from 1912 to 1916, he played in the Southern Association. He ...
, Giants coach
Cozy Dolan Patrick Henry "Cozy" Dolan (December 3, 1872 – March 29, 1907) was an American professional baseball right fielder. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Boston Beaneaters, Chicago Orphans, Brooklyn Superbas, Chicago White Sox and ...
, and (in 1943) Phillies owner
William D. Cox William Drought Cox (1909–1989) was an American businessman and sports executive. Early life Cox was born in 1909, growing up on Riverside Drive on Manhattan's Upper West Side. He graduated from high school at the age of 15, then attended New ...
. He also formalized the unofficial banishments of Hal Chase and
Heinie Zimmerman Henry Zimmerman (February 9, 1887 – March 14, 1969), known as "Heinie" or "The Great Zim", was an American professional baseball third baseman. Zimmerman played in Major League Baseball for the Chicago Cubs and New York Giants from 1907 to 191 ...
. In 1921, he banned Giants center fielder
Benny Kauff Bennie Michael "Benny" Kauff (January 5, 1890 – November 17, 1961)Benny Kauff Play ...
even though he had been acquitted of involvement in a car theft ring. Nonetheless, Landis was convinced Kauff was guilty and argued that players of "undesirable reputation and character" had no place in baseball.


An independent Commissioner's Office

The owners had initially assumed that Landis would deal with the Black Sox Scandal and then settle into a comfortable retirement as the titular head of baseball. Instead, Landis ruled baseball with an iron hand for the next 25 years. He established a fiercely independent Commissioner's Office that would go on to often make both players and owners miserable with decisions that he argued were in the best interests of the game. He worked to clean up the
hooliganism Hooliganism is disruptive or unlawful behavior such as rioting, bullying and vandalism, usually in connection with crowds at sporting events. Etymology There are several theories regarding the origin of the word ''hooliganism,'' which is a d ...
that was tarnishing the reputation of players in the 1920s. Without a union to represent them, the players had no meaningful recourse to challenge Landis' virtually unchecked authority. On the other hand, Landis inserted his office into negotiations with players, where he deemed appropriate, to put an end to a few of the more egregious labor practices that had contributed to the players' discontent. He also personally approved broadcasters for the World Series. Landis's only significant rival in the early years was longtime American League founder and president
Ban Johnson Byron Bancroft Johnson (January 5, 1864 – March 28, 1931) was an American executive in professional baseball who served as the founder and first president of the American League (AL). Johnson developed the AL—a descendant of the mino ...
, who had been reckoned as the most powerful man in the game before Landis's arrival. Johnson was as strong-willed as Landis, and a clash between the two was inevitable. It happened in the 1924 World Series. When several Giants were implicated in a plan to bribe players on the moribund Phillies late in the season, Johnson demanded that the Series be canceled, and loudly criticized Landis's handling of the affair, to which Landis responded by threatening to resign. The American League owners promised to throw Johnson out of office if he stepped out of line again. Two years later, when Johnson criticized Landis's decision to give
Ty Cobb Tyrus Raymond Cobb (December 18, 1886 – July 17, 1961), nicknamed "the Georgia Peach", was an American Major League Baseball (MLB) center fielder. He was born in rural Narrows, Georgia. Cobb spent 22 seasons with the Detroit Tigers, the ...
and
Tris Speaker Tristram Edgar Speaker (April 4, 1888 – December 8, 1958), nicknamed "the Gray Eagle", was an American professional baseball player. Considered one of the greatest players in the history of Major League Baseball (MLB), he compiled a career ba ...
an amnesty after it surfaced they had bet on a fixed game in 1919, Landis told the American League owners to choose between him and Johnson. The owners promptly sent Johnson on a sabbatical from which he never really returned.


The baseball color line

Landis perpetuated the color line and prolonged the segregation of organized baseball. His successor, Happy Chandler, said, "For twenty-four years Judge Landis wouldn't let a black man play. I had his records, and I read them, and for twenty-four years Landis consistently blocked any attempts to put blacks and whites together on a big league field." Bill Veeck claimed Landis prevented him from purchasing the Phillies when Landis learned of Veeck's plan to integrate the team. The signing of the first black ballplayer in the modern era, Jackie Robinson, came less than a year after Landis's death on Chandler's watch and was engineered by one of Landis's old nemeses, Branch Rickey. Eleven weeks after Robinson's debut with the Brooklyn Dodgers, Veeck became the first American League owner to break the color line.


Curbing the growth of minor league farm systems

Landis tried to curb the growth of minor league farm systems by innovators such as Rickey, in the name of protecting the lower levels of professional ball. Landis argued that because a parent club could unilaterally call up players from teams that were involved in pennant races, the organization was unfairly interfering with the minor competitions. His position was that the championship of each minor league was of no less importance than the championships of the major leagues and that minor league fans and supporters had the right to see their teams competing as best they could. On the other hand, Landis prevented the formation of a powerful third major league when he stopped
Pants Rowland Clarence Henry "Pants" Rowland (February 12, 1878 – May 17, 1969) was a Major League Baseball manager for the Chicago White Sox from 1915 through 1918 who went on to become a major figure in minor league baseball. He was born in Platteville, ...
from upgrading the
Pacific Coast League The Pacific Coast League (PCL) is a Minor League Baseball league that operates in the Western United States. Along with the International League, it is one of two leagues playing at the Triple-A (baseball), Triple-A level, which is one grade bel ...
in the 1940s. Furthermore, (and despite the fact that, insofar as he was accountable at all, it was strictly to major league owners) Landis did not hesitate to aggressively use the powers of his office to force the minor leagues and their clubs to submit to his authority in a number of ways. Most notably, he uncompromisingly held to a policy that dictated any minor league player who knowingly played with or against a player banned by Major League Baseball would himself be banned from MLB for life. This threat effectively compelled every minor league to rigidly honor and enforce suspensions handed down by Landis in their competitions as well. Nevertheless, some players banned by Landis are believed to have continued playing under assumed identities at the minor league or semi-professional level. One of the schemes Landis vigorously fought was the effort by major-league teams to "cover up" players they were hiding in their farm systems. The term, not used in formal communications by the league or team officials, referred to players clandestinely signed by a major-league team to a minor-league contract. Occasionally one team would serendipitously find such a player in the off-season draft, as in this occasion recorded in the book ''Dodger Daze and Knights'':
All the clubowners and managers, and Commissioner Landis, were assembled to conduct the draft. One team representative said he "claim Player aulRichards of Brooklyn". "You can't do that!" barked a surprised
Wilbert Robinson Wilbert Robinson (June 29, 1864 – August 8, 1934), nicknamed "Uncle Robbie", was an American catcher, coach and manager in Major League Baseball (MLB). He played in MLB for the Philadelphia Athletics, Baltimore Orioles, and St. Louis Cardinal ...
, manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers. "Why not?" asked Landis. "Because Brooklyn has him covered up", sputtered Robbie. Most of the others broke down laughing. Even Landis smirked.


Legacy and honors

Whether his decisions were praised or criticized, he was satisfied with being respected and feared. Dubbed "the baseball tyrant" by journalists of the day, his rule was absolute. In the context of ensuring the integrity of the game itself, baseball historians generally regard him as the right man at the right time when appointed, but also as a man who perhaps held office too long. He was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1944, in a special election held one month after his death, and the
Most Valuable Player Award In team sports, a most valuable player award, abbreviated 'MVP award', is an honor typically bestowed upon an individual (or individuals, in the instance of a tie) whose individual performance is the greatest in an entire league, for a particu ...
in each league was officially known as the Kenesaw Mountain Landis Award in his honor until 2020, following complaints from past MVP winners about Landis's role in stonewalling racial integration.


Happy Chandler (1945–1951)

When Judge Landis died in 1944, an official in the
War Department War Department may refer to: * War Department (United Kingdom) * United States Department of War (1789–1947) See also * War Office, a former department of the British Government * Ministry of defence * Ministry of War * Ministry of Defence * D ...
began campaigning for
Senator A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
Happy Chandler's election to the post. Despite being the last candidate put forth in the April
1945 1945 marked the end of World War II and the fall of Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan. It is also the only year in which nuclear weapons have been used in combat. Events Below, the events of World War II have the "WWII" prefix. Januar ...
meetings, he was elected by a unanimous vote of the team owners, and resigned his Senate seat in October of that year. Chandler clashed with Brooklyn Dodgers manager Leo "the Lip" Durocher over Durocher's association with gambling figures and his marriage to actress
Laraine Day Laraine Day (born La Raine Johnson, October 13, 1920 – November 10, 2007) was an American actress, radio and television commentator, and former Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) contract star. As a leading lady, she was paired opposite major film sta ...
, which came amid allegations from Day's ex-husband that Durocher had stolen her away from him. Before the start of the 1947 season, Chandler suspended Durocher for the entire season, citing "conduct detrimental to baseball". The Dodgers went on to win the pennant that season under replacement manager
Burt Shotton Burton Edwin Shotton (October 18, 1884 – July 29, 1962) was an American player, manager, coach and scout in Major League Baseball. As manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers (1947; 1948–50), he won two National League pennants and served as Jackie Rob ...
. Chandler became known as "the players' commissioner" for his work on their behalf. During his service, he presided over the establishment of a pension fund for players and oversaw the initial steps toward
integration Integration may refer to: Biology *Multisensory integration *Path integration * Pre-integration complex, viral genetic material used to insert a viral genome into a host genome *DNA integration, by means of site-specific recombinase technology, ...
of the major leagues, beginning with the debut of Jackie Robinson with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947. This move was controversial with team owners, who voted 15–1 against integrating the sport in a secret January 1947 meeting. The Dodgers' Branch Rickey met with Chandler, who agreed to back the team's move. Chandler's stance was credited by many in the sports community with Chandler's failure to be selected for another term as Commissioner after the expiration of his first one in
1951 Events January * January 4 – Korean War: Third Battle of Seoul – Chinese and North Korean forces capture Seoul for the second time (having lost the Second Battle of Seoul in September 1950). * January 9 – The Government of the United ...
. Chandler was fully aware that he was jeopardizing his own commissionership by stewarding the integration process. Chandler's attitude was a simple one, which he conveyed to Branch Rickey, and later recounted in his autobiography: :"I've already done a lot of thinking about this whole racial situation in our country. As a member of the Senate Military Affairs Committee, I got to know a lot about our casualties during the war. Plenty of Negro boys were willing to go out and fight and die for this country. Is it right when they came back to tell them they can't play the national pastime? You know, Branch, I'm going to have to meet my Maker some day. And if He asks me why I didn't let this boy play, and I say it's because he's black, that might not be a satisfactory answer. :If the Lord made some people black, and some white, and some red or yellow, he must have had a pretty good reason. It isn't my job to decide which colors can play big league baseball. It is my job to see that the game is fairly played and that everybody has an equal chance. I think if I do that, I can face my Maker with a clear conscience."


Ford Frick (1951–1965)

In , National League President
Ford Frick Ford Christopher Frick (December 19, 1894 – April 8, 1978) was an American sportswriter and baseball executive. After working as a teacher and as a sportswriter for the ''New York American'', he served as public relations director of the Natio ...
succeeded Happy Chandler as commissioner of baseball. Frick's critics accused him of favoring the National League in his rulings, such as how the 1960s expansion teams would be stocked. Frick's most highly criticized statement as commissioner was made in 1961 when several players were on a pace to break
Babe Ruth George Herman "Babe" Ruth Jr. (February 6, 1895 – August 16, 1948) was an American professional baseball player whose career in Major League Baseball (MLB) spanned 22 seasons, from 1914 through 1935. Nicknamed "the Bambino" and "the Su ...
's single-season home run record. In a press conference, Frick stated that the single-season home run record should be separated into multiple lists, based on the length of a season. However, as MLB did not publish an official record book at the time, Frick had no control over how publishers presented MLB records, and within a few years after
Roger Maris Roger Eugene Maris (September 10, 1934 – December 14, 1985) was an American professional baseball right fielder who played 12 seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB). He is best known for setting a new MLB single-season home run record with 61 ...
broke Ruth's record, all record books gave Maris sole credit as the single-season home run record holder. Later, it was revealed that Frick had served as a
ghostwriter A ghostwriter is hired to write literary or journalistic works, speeches, or other texts that are officially credited to another person as the author. Celebrities, executives, participants in timely news stories, and political leaders often h ...
for Ruth earlier in his career. Frick successfully prevented the
Continental League The Continental League of Professional Baseball Clubs (known as the Continental League or CL) was a proposed third major league for baseball in the United States and Canada. The league was announced in 1959 and scheduled to begin play in the 19 ...
, a proposed third major league, from ever playing, and introduced major league baseball to several markets in which the proposed league planned to play through expansion and relocation.


William Eckert (1965–1968)

More than 150 names appeared on the original list of nominees for the commissionership following
Ford Frick Ford Christopher Frick (December 19, 1894 – April 8, 1978) was an American sportswriter and baseball executive. After working as a teacher and as a sportswriter for the ''New York American'', he served as public relations director of the Natio ...
's retirement. The club owners initially were unable to decide if the next commissioner should come from within the ranks of the game as Frick had, or from elsewhere like Frick's two predecessors had. They finally decided that the new commissioner should have a strong business background to deal with the problems that were confronting the game at the time. Retired
US Army The United States Army (USA) is the land service branch of the United States Armed Forces. It is one of the eight U.S. uniformed services, and is designated as the Army of the United States in the U.S. Constitution.Article II, section 2, cla ...
LTG
William Eckert William Dole Eckert (January 20, 1909 – April 16, 1971) was a lieutenant general in the United States Air Force, and later the fourth Commissioner of Major League Baseball from to . Personal life, career, and death William Eckert was born o ...
became a serious candidate for the commissionership only after fellow
general officer A general officer is an officer of high rank in the armies, and in some nations' air forces, space forces, and marines or naval infantry. In some usages the term "general officer" refers to a rank above colonel."general, adj. and n.". OED O ...
Curtis LeMay Curtis Emerson LeMay (November 15, 1906 – October 1, 1990) was an American Air Force general who implemented a controversial strategic bombing campaign in the Pacific theater of World War II. He later served as Chief of Staff of the U.S. Air ...
gave Major League Baseball a recommendation for him. On November 17,
1965 Events January–February * January 14 – The Prime Minister of Northern Ireland and the Taoiseach of the Republic of Ireland meet for the first time in 43 years. * January 20 ** Lyndon B. Johnson is Second inauguration of Lyndo ...
, by a unanimous vote of the then, 20 major league club owners, William Eckert became the fourth Commissioner of Major League Baseball. When he became commissioner, Eckert had not seen a game in person in over 10 years. He was a compromise choice for the job, previously being so obscure that sportswriters nicknamed him "the Unknown Soldier". During the
1968 The year was highlighted by protests and other unrests that occurred worldwide. Events January–February * January 5 – "Prague Spring": Alexander Dubček is chosen as leader of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. * Januar ...
season, Eckert incurred the public's ire by refusing to cancel exhibition games after the April
assassination of Martin Luther King Martin Luther King Jr., an African-American clergyman and civil rights leader, was fatally shot at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee, on April 4, 1968, at 6:01 p.m. CST. He was rushed to St. Joseph's Hospital, where he died at ...
nor regular-season games after the June
assassination of Robert F. Kennedy On June 5, 1968, Robert F. Kennedy was shot by Sirhan Sirhan shortly after midnight at the Ambassador Hotel, Los Angeles. He was pronounced dead at 1:44 a.m. PDT the following day. Kennedy was a senator from New York and a candidate ...
, while also incurring team owners' disdain because he refused to deal forcefully with substantive business issues. Anticipating a players' strike and having no ownership confidence in his ability to handle the situation, Eckert was forced to resign at the end of the 1968 season, although he still had three years on his contract. In spite of his much-publicized failures and shortcomings, William Eckert also developed more effective committee actions, streamlined business methods, and helped stabilize franchises with bigger stadiums and long-term leases. In addition, Eckert worked hard toward promoting the game internationally, including a
1966 Events January * January 1 – In a coup, Colonel Jean-Bédel Bokassa takes over as military ruler of the Central African Republic, ousting President David Dacko. * January 3 – 1966 Upper Voltan coup d'état: President Maurice Yaméogo i ...
post-World Series tour of Japan by the National League champion
Los Angeles Dodgers The Los Angeles Dodgers are an American professional baseball team based in Los Angeles. The Dodgers compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) West division. Established in 1883 in the city of Brooklyn ...
.


Bowie Kuhn (1969–1984)

Bowie Kuhn Bowie Kent Kuhn (; October 28, 1926 – March 15, 2007) was an American lawyer and sports administrator who served as the fifth Commissioner of Major League Baseball from February 4, 1969, to September 30, 1984. He served as legal counsel for Ma ...
's tenure was marked by labor strikes (most notably in
1981 Events January * January 1 ** Greece enters the European Economic Community, predecessor of the European Union. ** Palau becomes a self-governing territory. * January 10 – Salvadoran Civil War: The FMLN launches its first major offensiv ...
), owner disenchantment, and the end of baseball's
reserve clause The reserve clause, in North American professional sports, was part of a player contract which stated that the rights to players were retained by the team upon the contract's expiration. Players under these contracts were not free to enter into ano ...
, yet baseball enjoyed unprecedented attendance gains (from 23 million in to 45.5 million in ) and television contracts during the same time frame. Kuhn suspended numerous players for involvement with drugs and gambling, and took a strong stance against any activity that he perceived to be "not in the best interests of baseball". In , he suspended star
Detroit Tigers The Detroit Tigers are an American professional baseball team based in Detroit. The Tigers compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member of the American League (AL) Central division. One of the AL's eight charter franchises, the club was f ...
pitcher
Denny McLain Dennis Dale McLain (born March 29, 1944) is an American former professional baseball player. He played for ten seasons in Major League Baseball as a right-handed pitcher, most prominently as a member of the Detroit Tigers. In 1968, McLain became ...
indefinitely (the suspension was later set at 3 months) due to McLain's involvement in a
bookmaking A bookmaker, bookie, or turf accountant is an organization or a person that accepts and pays off bets on sporting and other events at agreed-upon odds. History The first bookmaker, Ogden, stood at Newmarket in 1795. Range of events Bookm ...
operation, and later suspended McLain for the rest of the season for carrying a gun. He barred both
Willie Mays Willie Howard Mays Jr. (born May 6, 1931), nicknamed "the Say Hey Kid" and "Buck", is a former center fielder in Major League Baseball (MLB). Regarded as one of the greatest players ever, Mays ranks second behind only Babe Ruth on most all-tim ...
(in ) and
Mickey Mantle Mickey Charles Mantle (October 20, 1931 – August 13, 1995), nicknamed "the Commerce Comet" and "the Mick", was an American professional baseball player. Mantle played his entire Major League Baseball (MLB) career (1951–1968) with the New York ...
(in ) from the sport due to their involvement in
casino A casino is a facility for certain types of gambling. Casinos are often built near or combined with hotels, resorts, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships, and other tourist attractions. Some casinos are also known for hosting live entertai ...
promotion; neither was directly involved in gambling, and both were reinstated by Kuhn's successor
Peter Ueberroth Peter Victor Ueberroth (; born September 2, 1937) is an American sports and business executive known for his involvement in the Olympics and in Major League Baseball. A Los Angeles-based businessman, he was the chairman of the Los Angeles Olymp ...
in . Also in 1970, Kuhn described
Jim Bouton James Alan Bouton (; March 8, 1939 – July 10, 2019) was an American professional baseball player. Bouton played in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a pitcher for the New York Yankees, Seattle Pilots, Houston Astros, and Atlanta Braves between 1 ...
's ''
Ball Four ''Ball Four'' is a book written by former Major League Baseball pitcher Jim Bouton (1939-2019) in 1970. The book is a diary of Bouton's 1969 season, spent with the Seattle Pilots and then the Houston Astros following a late-season trade. In ...
'' as "detrimental to baseball" and demanded that Bouton retract it. The book has been republished several times and is now considered a classic. On October 13, , the
World Series The World Series is the annual championship series of Major League Baseball (MLB) in the United States and Canada, contested since 1903 between the champion teams of the American League (AL) and the National League (NL). The winner of the World ...
held a night game for the first time. Kuhn, who thought that baseball could attract a larger audience by featuring a
prime time Prime time or the peak time is the block of broadcast programming taking place during the middle of the evening for a television show. It is mostly targeted towards adults (and sometimes families). It is used by the major television networks to ...
telecast (as opposed to a mid-afternoon broadcast, when most fans either worked or attended school), pitched the idea to
NBC The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) is an Television in the United States, American English-language Commercial broadcasting, commercial television network, broadcast television and radio network. The flagship property of the NBC Enterta ...
. An estimated 61 million people watched Game 4 on NBC; TV ratings for a World Series game during the daytime hours would not have approached such a record number. Kuhn's vision in this instance has been fulfilled, as all the World Series games are now shown in prime time.


Curt Flood

On October 7, , the
St. Louis Cardinals The St. Louis Cardinals are an American professional baseball team based in St. Louis. The Cardinals compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) Central division. Since the 2006 season, the Cardinals hav ...
traded
Curt Flood Curtis Charles Flood (January 18, 1938 – January 20, 1997) was an American professional baseball player and activist. He was a center fielder who played 15 seasons in Major League Baseball for the Cincinnati Redlegs, St. Louis Cardinals, ...
, catcher
Tim McCarver James Timothy McCarver (born October 16, 1941) is an American former professional baseball player and television sports commentator. He played in Major League Baseball as a catcher from to , most prominently as a member of the St. Louis Cardinal ...
, outfielder Byron Browne, and left-handed pitcher
Joe Hoerner Joseph Walter Hoerner (November 12, 1936 – October 4, 1996) was an American professional baseball relief pitcher, who played 14 years in Major League Baseball (MLB), for seven different teams. A native of Dubuque, Iowa he grew up in nearby Key ...
to the
Philadelphia Phillies The Philadelphia Phillies are an American professional baseball team based in Philadelphia. They compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member of the National League (NL) National League East, East division. Since 2004, the team's home sta ...
for first baseman
Dick Allen Richard Anthony Allen (March 8, 1942 – December 7, 2020) was an American professional baseball player. During his fifteen-year-long Major League Baseball (MLB) career, he played as a first baseman, third baseman, and outfielder, most notably ...
, second baseman
Cookie Rojas Octavio Víctor "Cookie" Rojas Rivas (born March 6, 1939), is a Cuban former professional baseball second baseman / outfielder, coach, and manager, who played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Cincinnati Reds, Philadelphia Phillies, St. Lo ...
, and right-handed ace relief pitcher Jerry Johnson. However, Flood refused to report to the moribund Phillies, citing the team's poor record and the fact that they played in dilapidated
Connie Mack Stadium Shibe Park, known later as Connie Mack Stadium, was a ballpark located in Philadelphia. It was the home of the Philadelphia Athletics of the American League (AL) and the Philadelphia Phillies of the National League (NL). When it opened April 12, ...
before belligerent and, Flood believed,
racist Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another. It may also mean prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism ...
fans. Flood forfeited a relatively lucrative US$100,000 (equivalent to $ in ) contract by his refusal to be traded to the Phillies. In a letter to Kuhn, Flood demanded that the commissioner declare him a
free agent In professional sports, a free agent is a player who is eligible to sign with other clubs or franchises; i.e., not under contract to any specific team. The term is also used in reference to a player who is under contract at present but who is a ...
. Kuhn denied Flood's request to enter free agency, citing the propriety of the
reserve clause The reserve clause, in North American professional sports, was part of a player contract which stated that the rights to players were retained by the team upon the contract's expiration. Players under these contracts were not free to enter into ano ...
, which was language in contracts that essentially prevented a player from playing with another team even after his contract expired. In response, Flood filed a lawsuit against Kuhn and Major League Baseball on January 16, , alleging that Major League Baseball had violated federal
antitrust Competition law is the field of law that promotes or seeks to maintain market competition by regulating anti-competitive conduct by companies. Competition law is implemented through public and private enforcement. It is also known as antitrust l ...
laws. Even though Flood was making $90,000 (equivalent to $ in ) at the time, he likened the reserve clause to
slavery Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
. It was certainly a controversial analogy, even among those who opposed the reserve clause. The case, ''
Flood v. Kuhn ''Flood v. Kuhn'', 407 U.S. 258 (1972), was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States that preserved the reserve clause in Major League Baseball (MLB) players' contracts. By a 5–3 margin, the Court reaffirmed the antitrust exempti ...
'' (407 U.S. 258) eventually went to the
Supreme Court A supreme court is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts in most legal jurisdictions. Other descriptions for such courts include court of last resort, apex court, and high (or final) court of appeal. Broadly speaking, the decisions of ...
. Flood's attorney, former Supreme Court Justice
Arthur Goldberg Arthur Joseph Goldberg (August 8, 1908January 19, 1990) was an American statesman and jurist who served as the 9th U.S. Secretary of Labor, an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, and the 6th United States Ambassador to ...
, asserted that the reserve clause was depressing wages, and it limited players to one team for life. Major League Baseball's counsel countered that Commissioner Kuhn acted under the way he did "for the good of the game". Ultimately, the Supreme Court, acting on ''
stare decisis A precedent is a principle or rule established in a previous legal case that is either binding on or persuasive for a court or other tribunal when deciding subsequent cases with similar issues or facts. Common-law legal systems place great valu ...
'' "to stand by things decided", ruled 5–3 in favor of Major League Baseball, upholding a ruling in the case of ''
Federal Baseball Club v. National League ''Federal Baseball Club v. National League'', 259 U.S. 200 (1922), is a case in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Sherman Antitrust Act did not apply to Major League Baseball. Background After the Federal League folded in 1915, most of ...
'', (259 U.S. 200.)


Charles O. Finley

Though he had a reputation as an owners' commissioner, Kuhn did not avoid confronting owners when he deemed it necessary. For example, he was a major adversary of
Oakland Athletics The Oakland Athletics (often referred to as the A's) are an American professional baseball team based in Oakland, California. The Athletics compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) West division. The te ...
owner Charles O. Finley. A major embarrassment for baseball resulted from Finley's actions during the
1973 World Series The 1973 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball's (MLB) 1973 season. The 70th edition of the World Series, it was a best-of-seven playoff played between the American League (AL) champion (and defending World Series ch ...
. Finley forced player
Mike Andrews Michael Jay Andrews (born July 9, 1943) is an American former professional baseball player. He played in Major League Baseball as an infielder for the Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox and Oakland Athletics. After his playing career, he served fo ...
to sign a false
affidavit An ( ; Medieval Latin for "he has declared under oath") is a written statement voluntarily made by an ''affiant'' or '' deponent'' under an oath or affirmation which is administered by a person who is authorized to do so by law. Such a statemen ...
saying he was injured after the reserve infielder committed two consecutive errors in the 12th inning of Oakland's Game 2 loss to the
New York Mets The New York Mets are an American professional baseball team based in the New York City borough of Queens. The Mets compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member of the National League (NL) East division. They are one of two major league ...
. Andrews' teammates as well as manager
Dick Williams Richard Hirschfeld Williams (May 7, 1929 – July 7, 2011) was an American left fielder, third baseman, manager, coach and front-office consultant in Major League Baseball. Known especially as a hard-driving, sharp-tongued manager from 1967 to 1 ...
rallied to his defense. Kuhn in return forced Finley to reinstate Andrews. In , when Finley attempted to sell several players to the Boston Red Sox and
New York Yankees The New York Yankees are an American professional baseball team based in the Boroughs of New York City, New York City borough of the Bronx. The Yankees compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) Amer ...
for $3.5 million, Kuhn blocked the deals on the grounds that they would be bad for the game. Some believe that Kuhn's actions were simply a revenge tactic, aimed at Finley, after Finley attempted to force an owners vote to remove Kuhn as commissioner in .


Kuhn's war on drugs

After being in office for over ten years, Kuhn had grown a strong reputation for being particularly hard on players who drug abuse, abused drugs. Kuhn was quick to punish players who used drugs with heavy fines and big suspensions. Kansas City Royals catcher Darrell Porter told the Associated Press that during the winter of – he became paranoia, paranoid, convinced that Kuhn knew about his drug abuse, was trying to sneak into his house, and planned to ban him from baseball for life. Porter found himself sitting up at night in the dark watching out the front window, waiting for Kuhn to approach, clutching billiard balls, and a shotgun. Ironically, when Porter was named the most valuable player of the 1982 World Series while playing for the Cardinals, Kuhn was on hand to congratulate him. In , four players from the Kansas City Royals – Willie Wilson (baseball), Willie Wilson, Jerry Martin (baseball), Jerry Martin, Willie Aikens, Willie Mays Aikens, and Vida Blue – were found guilty of cocaine use. In addition, such established stars as Ferguson Jenkins, Keith Hernandez, Dave Parker, and Dale Berra admitted to having problems with drugs.


Willie Mays and Mickey Mantle

Hall of Famers
Willie Mays Willie Howard Mays Jr. (born May 6, 1931), nicknamed "the Say Hey Kid" and "Buck", is a former center fielder in Major League Baseball (MLB). Regarded as one of the greatest players ever, Mays ranks second behind only Babe Ruth on most all-tim ...
and
Mickey Mantle Mickey Charles Mantle (October 20, 1931 – August 13, 1995), nicknamed "the Commerce Comet" and "the Mick", was an American professional baseball player. Mantle played his entire Major League Baseball (MLB) career (1951–1968) with the New York ...
were banned in 1980 and 1983 respectively after they were hired by casinos in Atlantic City, New Jersey, as greeters and autograph signers. These bans were highly controversial at the time since both players were retired and both in no way involved in baseball at the time, and because neither player's duties were related in any way to sports betting let alone betting on baseball. Nevertheless, Kuhn stood firm and opined that a casino was "no place for a baseball hero and Hall of Famer." The bans took place prior to the Hall formalizing its policy against inducting banned persons, and the Hall took no action as a result of Kuhn's decision. Both players were re-instated by Kuhn's successor in 1985.


Lifetime baseball passes

In , during the Iranian hostage crisis, Kuhn sat at a baseball game with Jeremiah Denton, a Navy admiral and former prisoner of war, POW in Vietnam War, Vietnam who would be elected U.S. Senator later that year from the state of Alabama. Recalling the event to ''The Washington Post'', Kuhn believed that "that afternoon ... the idea of a lifetime baseball pass was discussed", and upon their return from Iran, each of the 52 hostages was given one of these unique passes.


Leaving office

Kuhn was both praised and attacked for the firm stand that he levied against offenders. In , some of the owners organized a move to push him out of office. In , Kuhn and his supporters made a last-ditch effort to renew his contract, but they ultimately failed. Kuhn, though, was allowed to stay for the regular season before being replaced by Peter Ueberroth.


Peter Ueberroth (1984–1989)

Peter Ueberroth Peter Victor Ueberroth (; born September 2, 1937) is an American sports and business executive known for his involvement in the Olympics and in Major League Baseball. A Los Angeles-based businessman, he was the chairman of the Los Angeles Olymp ...
was elected to succeed Bowie Kuhn on March 3, 1984, and took office on October 1 of that year. As a condition of his hiring, Ueberroth increased the commissioner's fining ability from US$5,000 to $250,000. His salary was raised to a reported $450,000, nearly twice what Kuhn was paid. Just as Ueberroth was taking office the Major League Umpires Union was threatening to Strike action, strike the postseason. Ueberroth managed to arbitrate the disagreement and had the umpires back to work before the League Championship Series were over. The next summer, Ueberroth worked behind the scenes to limit a players' strike to one day before a new labor agreement was worked out with the Major League Baseball Players Association, Players Association (MLBPA). During the course of his stint as commissioner, Ueberroth reinstated Baseball Hall of Fame, Hall of Famers
Willie Mays Willie Howard Mays Jr. (born May 6, 1931), nicknamed "the Say Hey Kid" and "Buck", is a former center fielder in Major League Baseball (MLB). Regarded as one of the greatest players ever, Mays ranks second behind only Babe Ruth on most all-tim ...
and
Mickey Mantle Mickey Charles Mantle (October 20, 1931 – August 13, 1995), nicknamed "the Commerce Comet" and "the Mick", was an American professional baseball player. Mantle played his entire Major League Baseball (MLB) career (1951–1968) with the New York ...
, who had been banned from working for Major League Baseball by Kuhn because of their associations with gambling casinos. Also, Ueberroth Pittsburgh drug trials#Ramifications, suspended numerous players because of cocaine use, negotiated a $1.1 billion Major League Baseball on CBS#1990–1993 version, television contract with CBS, and initiated the investigation against Pete Rose's Dowd Report, betting habits. In 1985 in baseball, 1985, Ueberroth's first full year in office, the League Championship Series expanded from a best-of-five series to a best-of-seven series. At his urging, the Chicago Cubs chose to install lights at Wrigley Field rather than reimburse the leagues for lost night-game revenues. Ueberroth then found a new source of income in the form of persuading large corporations to pay for the privilege of having their products endorsed by Major League Baseball. However, Ueberroth, with the assistance of the owners, also facilitated Baseball collusion#1985–1987, collusion, an illegal violation of the league's collective bargaining agreement with the players, during the 1985, 1986 and 1987 off-seasons. Players entering free-agency were prevented from both signing equitable contracts and joining the teams of their choice during this period, a strategy that union leader Marvin Miller later held was "tantamount to fixing, not just games, but entire pennant races, including all post-season series". The MLBPA filed Baseball collusion, collusion charges, arguing that Ueberroth and team owners had violated the collective bargaining agreement in the 1985 in baseball, 1985, 1986 in baseball, 1986, and 1987 in baseball, 1987 seasons. The MLBPA won each case, resulting in "second look" free agents, and over $280 million in owner fines. Peter Ueberroth and Collusion Fay Vincent, who followed Ueberroth's successor in the commissioner's office, laid the crippling labor problems of the early 1990s directly at the feet of Ueberroth and the owners' collusion, holding that the collusion years constituted theft from the players. Under Ueberroth, Major League Baseball enjoyed increased attendance (record attendance four straight seasons), greater awareness of crowd control and alcohol management within ballparks, a successful and vigilant anti-drug campaign, significant industry-wide improvement in the area of fair employment, and a significantly improved financial picture for the industry through greater advertisement. When Ueberroth took office, 21 of the 26 clubs were losing money; in Ueberroth's last full season--1988 in baseball, 1988—all clubs either broke even or finished in the black. In 1987 in baseball, 1987, for example, baseball as an industry showed a net profit of $21.3  million, its first profitable year since 1973 in baseball, 1973. Nonetheless, following the announcement of the first of three large awards to the players following the collusion findings, Ueberroth stepped down as commissioner before the start of the 1989 in baseball, 1989 regular season; his contract was to have run through the end of the season. He was succeeded by National League president A. Bartlett Giamatti.


A. Bartlett Giamatti (1989)

A Yale University, Yale professor of English literature who became president of the university, A. Bartlett Giamatti had a lifelong interest in baseball (he was a die-hard Boston Red Sox fan). He became President of the National League in . During his stint as National League president, Giamatti placed an emphasis on the need to improve the environment for the fans and players in the ballparks. He also decided to make umpires strictly enforce the balk rule that was previously loosely enforced, and supported "social justice" as the only remedy for the lack of presence of minority managers, coaches, or executives at any level in Major League Baseball. While still serving as National League president, Giamatti suspended Cincinnati Reds manager Pete Rose for 30 games after Rose shoved umpire Dave Pallone on April 30, 1988. Later that year, Giamatti also suspended 1988 Los Angeles Dodgers season, Los Angeles Dodgers pitcher Jay Howell, who was caught using pine tar during the 1988 National League Championship Series, National League Championship Series. Giamatti, whose tough dealing with Yale's union favorably impressed Major League Baseball owners, was unanimously elected to succeed Peter Ueberroth as commissioner on September 8, 1988, and assumed office on April 1, 1989. Giamatti was commissioner on August 24, when Pete Rose voluntarily agreed to permanent ineligibility from baseball. As reflected in the agreement with Pete Rose, Giamatti was determined to maintain the integrity of the game during his brief commissionership. On September 1, 1989, at his vacation home on Martha's Vineyard, Giamatti, a heavy tobacco smoking, smoker for many years, died suddenly of a massive myocardial infarction, heart attack at the young age of 51. Giamatti died just eight days after banishing Rose and 154 days into his tenure as MLB commissioner. He became the second baseball commissioner to die in office, the first being Kenesaw Mountain Landis.


Fay Vincent (1989–1992)

Fay Vincent, who had assumed the position of deputy commissioner underneath and at the behest of his longtime friend Giamatti, became acting commissioner following Giamatti's death on September 1, 1989, and was quickly confirmed as the 8th Commissioner of Baseball. He presided over the 1989 World Series, which was interrupted by the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, Loma Prieta earthquake; the owners' 1990 Major League Baseball lockout, lockout during Spring training of the 1990 in baseball, 1990 season; and the expulsion of George Steinbrenner in his first year. Before accepting the job as Commissioner of Baseball, Vincent consulted with Bart Giamatti's widow, Toni, to make sure she thought it was appropriate for him to do so. In 1990, National League president Bill White (first baseman), Bill White was prepared to suspend umpire Joe West (umpire), Joe West for slamming 1990 Philadelphia Phillies season, Philadelphia pitcher Dennis Cook to the field, but Vincent intervened and no discipline was imposed upon West. During his commissionership, Vincent made it known and very clear (e.g. while being interviewed by Pat O'Brien (television), Pat O'Brien during Major League Baseball on CBS#1990–1993 version, CBS' coverage of Game 4 of the 1991 World Series) that if he had the chance, he would get rid of the designated hitter rule. As deputy commissioner, Vincent was closely associated with Pete Rose's lifetime banishment from baseball for gambling; although the investigation that led to Rose's banishment began during Ueberroth's tenure and the banishment was levied by Giamatti, Vincent led the investigation and was directly involved in the negotiations. Vincent has consistently stated that he does not support Rose's reinstatement.


1989 World Series

On October 17, 1989, Vincent sat in a field box behind the left dugout (baseball), dugout at San Francisco's Candlestick Park. At 5:04 p.m., just prior to Game 3 of the World Series between the 1989 San Francisco Giants season, San Francisco Giants and 1989 Oakland Athletics season, Oakland Athletics, the 6.9 moment magnitude scale, Mw 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, Loma Prieta earthquake hit with a maximum Mercalli intensity scale, Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). At approximately 5:35 p.m., after coming to the conclusion that the power could not be restored before sunset, Vincent ordered the World Series game 3 to be postponed. According to Vincent, he had already made the decision to postpone Game 3 without telling anybody first. As a result, the umpires filed a formal protest against Vincent's decision. However, the game had to be postponed due to trouble with gas lines as well as the power issue resulting from the earthquake. The World Series ultimately resumed after a ten-day postponement (and some initial conflict between Vincent and San Francisco mayor Arthur Christ Agnos, Art Agnos, who felt that the World Series ought to have been delayed much longer) on October 27, 1989. While presenting the Commissioner's Trophy (MLB), Commissioner's Trophy to the Athletics, who wound up winning the World Series in a four-game sweep, Vincent controversially summed up the 1989 World Series as a "remarkable World Series in many respects".


1990 lockout

In February 1990, owners announced that spring training would not be starting as scheduled. This occurred after MLBPA Executive Director Donald Fehr became afraid that the owners would institute a salary cap. Fehr believed that a salary cap could possibly restrict the number of choices that free agents could make and a pay-for-performance scale would eliminate multi-year contracts. The lockout, which was the seventh work stoppage in baseball since 1972 in baseball, 1972, lasted 32 games and wiped out all of spring training. Vincent worked with both the owners and the MLBPA and on March 19, 1990, Vincent was able to announce a new Basic Agreement (which raised the minimum major league salary from US$68,000 to $100,000 and established a six-man study committee on revenue sharing). As a consequence of the lockout, Opening Day for the 1990 season was moved back a week to April 9, and the season was extended by three days to accommodate for the normal 162-game schedule.


George Steinbrenner

On July 30, 1990, Vincent banned
New York Yankees The New York Yankees are an American professional baseball team based in the Boroughs of New York City, New York City borough of the Bronx. The Yankees compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) Amer ...
owner George Steinbrenner from baseball for life after Steinbrenner paid Howard Spira, a small-time gambler, $40,000 to dig up "dirt" on his outfielder Dave Winfield after Winfield had sued Steinbrenner for failing to pay his foundation the $300,000 guaranteed in his contract. Steinbrenner was eventually reinstated in 1993 in baseball, 1993 (one year after Vincent left office).


Steve Howe

On June 24, 1992 in baseball, 1992, Vincent permanently suspended pitcher Steve Howe (baseball), Steve Howe for repeated drug offenses. Vincent was incensed when upper Yankee management (Buck Showalter, Gene Michael, and Jack Lawn) agreed to testify on Howe's behalf, and threatened them with expulsion from the game: Ironically, the three men were unaffected by Vincent's hyperbole, testified for Howe as promised, and remained active in baseball. Three months later, Vincent was removed from his job as commissioner. Later, an arbitrator overturned Vincent's suspension of Howe on November 11, 1992.


1993 expansion

In June 1991 in baseball, 1991, Vincent declared that the American League would receive US$42 million of the National League's $190 million in expansion revenue and that the American League would provide players in the National League expansion draft (involving the Colorado Rockies and Florida Marlins, the latter now known as the Miami Marlins). In an attempt to win support in the American League and balance the vote, Vincent decreed that the American League owners were entitled to only 22 percent of the $190 million take. This decision marked the first time in the MLB's expansion history that leagues were required to share expansion revenue or provide players for another league's expansion draft. Vincent said the owners expanded to raise money to pay their Baseball collusion, collusion debt.


Realignment

Just prior to leaving office, Vincent had plans to realign the National League. Vincent wanted the Chicago Cubs and
St. Louis Cardinals The St. Louis Cardinals are an American professional baseball team based in St. Louis. The Cardinals compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) Central division. Since the 2006 season, the Cardinals hav ...
to move from the National League East, Eastern Division to the National League West, Western Division. Part of the impetus for realignment was the geographically anomalous placement of the Cincinnati Reds and Atlanta Braves in the West and the Cubs and the Cardinals in the east since 1969 in baseball, 1969. National League president Bill White (first baseman), Bill White warned Vincent that realigning without league approval would be a gross violation of the National League Constitution enacted in 1876. Many thought this plan would be beneficial to the league as a whole, especially by building a regional rivalry between the new franchise in Florida Marlins, Miami and the Atlanta Braves. The Cubs, however, opposed the move, suggesting that fans in the Central Time Zone would be forced to watch more games originating on the West Coast with later broadcast times (had the realignment included the use of a balanced schedule, the Cubs would have actually played more games against teams outside their division). On July 17, 1992, the Chicago Cubs sued Vincent and asked the United States district court, U.S. District Court in Chicago for a preliminary injunction to prevent implementation, which was granted two weeks later. After Vincent's attorneys appealed, oral arguments were scheduled for August 30 that year. Ultimately, Vincent resigned before the litigation was scheduled to resume, so as a result, the Cubs dropped their suit against him. Although Vincent's vision never really came into fruition, Major League Baseball did in fact realign in 1994 in baseball, 1994, albeit in the form of three divisions in each league (east, central and west) and the addition of an expanded playoff format.


Vincent's relationship with the owners

His relationship with baseball's owners was always tenuous at best; he resigned in 1992 in baseball, 1992 after the owners gave him an 18–9 no-confidence vote. The owners were still angry at Vincent over his intervention during the 1990 Spring Training lockout, which subsequently cancelled Spring Training that year and pushed the regular season back three days. The owners were also disappointed by dwindling television ratings in light of a US$1.1 billion, Major League Baseball on CBS#1990–1993 version, four-year deal with CBS (which ultimately cost the network $500 million) beginning in 1990 (Vincent's first full season as commissioner) and upwardly spiraling salaries. (It is also important to note that CBS itself contributed to decreasing ratings thanks to the haphazard scheduling of ''Major League Baseball Game of the Week, Game of the Week'' broadcasts during the regular season to the point that fans grew tired of tuning into no baseball on summer Saturdays.) They also accused him of acting in a high-handed manner, especially in the Howe affair. The leaders in the movement to oust Vincent were members of what ''The Sporting News'' later dubbed "The Great Lakes Gang": *Bud Selig, president of the Milwaukee Brewers; *Jerry Reinsdorf, chairman of the
Chicago White Sox The Chicago White Sox are an American professional baseball team based in Chicago. The White Sox compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) Central division. The team is owned by Jerry Reinsdorf, and p ...
; *Stanton Cook, head of the Tribune Company, Tribune Co., which owned the Chicago Cubs; *Carl Pohlad, owner of the Minnesota Twins; *Peter O'Malley, the longtime majority owner of the Los Angeles Dodgers In his farewell, Vincent said He was replaced by Milwaukee Brewers owner Bud Selig, whose family continued to maintain ownership over the Brewers. Fay Vincent was never able to complete the five-year term that he had inherited from Bart Giamatti. Vincent would later contend that Major League Baseball made a huge mistake by not appointing his deputy commissioner Steve Greenberg — the son of the Baseball Hall of Fame, Hall of Famer Hank Greenberg — as the commissioner.


Bud Selig (1992–2015)

Bud Selig served as the Executive Council Chairman from 1992 to 1998, acting as the commissioner, and then was appointed as the official commissioner in 1998. Selig oversaw baseball through the 1994–95 Major League Baseball strike, 1994 strike, the introduction of the wild card, interleague play, and the merging of the National and American leagues under the Office of the Commissioner. He was instrumental in organizing the World Baseball Classic in 2006. Selig also introduced revenue sharing. He is credited for the financial turnaround of baseball during his tenure with a 400 percent increase in the revenue of MLB and annual record breaking attendance. During Selig's term of service, Doping in baseball, the use of steroids and other performance-enhancing drugs became a public issue. The Mitchell Report, commissioned by Selig, concluded that the MLB commissioners, club officials, the Players Association, and the players all share "to some extent in the responsibility for the steroid era". Following the release of the Mitchell Report, Congressman Cliff Stearns called publicly for Selig to step down as commissioner, citing his "glacial response" to the "growing stain on baseball". Selig pledged on numerous occasions to rid baseball of performance-enhancing drugs, and oversaw and instituted many rule changes and penalties to that end. Bud Selig helped introduce the following changes to Major League Baseball: * Realignment of teams into three divisions per league, and the introduction of playoff MLB Wild Card, wild card teams: one per league starting in 1994, and two per league starting in 2012 * Regular season interleague play (1997) and interleague games during the entire season (2013) * Four additional franchises: the Colorado Rockies and Florida Marlins (now Miami Marlins) in 1993, followed by the Arizona Diamondbacks and Tampa Bay Devil Rays (now Tampa Bay Rays) in 1998. * An Major League Baseball schedule, unbalanced schedule formula that heavily favors intradivisional play (2001) * Consolidation of the National League, National and
American League The American League of Professional Baseball Clubs, known simply as the American League (AL), is one of two leagues that make up Major League Baseball (MLB) in the United States and Canada. It developed from the Western League, a minor league ...
offices and presidencies under the direct auspices of Major League Baseball and inclusion of all umpire (baseball), umpiring crews into a common pool for American and National League games, instead of having separate pools per league * Home field advantage in the World Series granted to the winner of the Major League Baseball All-Star Game, All Star Game in the same season (2003, changed in 2017 to not have an influence on home-field advantage in the World Series) * Relocation of Montreal Expos franchise to Washington, D.C., becoming the Washington Nationals (2005) * Stricter Major League Baseball drug policy, Major League Baseball performance-enhancing drug testing policy (2005) * World Baseball Classic (2006) * Instant replay used by umpiring crew to review disputed home run calls (2008). Expanded to all calls (except balls and strikes) starting in 2014. During Selig's years of service, new stadiums opened in Turner Field, Atlanta, Great American Ball Park, Cincinnati, Progressive Field, Cleveland, Coors Field, Colorado, Comerica Park, Detroit, Minute Maid Park, Houston, Marlins Park, Miami, Miller Park (Milwaukee), Milwaukee, Citizens Bank Park, Philadelphia, Chase Field, Phoenix, PNC Park, Pittsburgh, Petco Park, San Diego, Oracle Park, San Francisco, T-Mobile Park, Seattle, Globe Life Park in Arlington, Arlington, Busch Stadium, St. Louis, Nationals Park, Washington, D.C., Citi Field, Queens, Yankee Stadium, The Bronx, and Target Field, Minneapolis. In addition, the venue now known as Angel Stadium in Anaheim, California, Anaheim, Fenway Park in Boston, and Kauffman Stadium in Kansas City, Missouri, Kansas City underwent major renovations, and Wrigley Field renovations, similar work began on Wrigley Field in Chicago. Selig retired from the position after the season, officially yielding to his successor on January 25, 2015, at which time Selig became the Commissioner Emeritus of Baseball.


Rob Manfred (2015–present)

Rob Manfred was elected as the 10th commissioner of baseball on August 14, 2014. Manfred, who has worked full-time for Major League Baseball since 1998, was elected on the third ballot after falling one vote short of the 23 vote (3/4 super-majority) threshold on the first two ballots. It was baseball's first contested commissioner election in 46 years as
Chicago White Sox The Chicago White Sox are an American professional baseball team based in Chicago. The White Sox compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) Central division. The team is owned by Jerry Reinsdorf, and p ...
owner Jerry Reinsdorf and Los Angeles Angels owner Arte Moreno led a group in support of Boston Red Sox chairman Tom Werner, who they felt would take a tougher stance against the players in labor negotiations. Manfred took over from Bud Selig on January 25, 2015.


Owners' "coup"

Tensions between commissioners and the baseball team owners who elected them, exacerbated by baseball's chronic labor conflicts with the Major League Baseball Players Association beginning in the 1970s, came to a head in , when baseball owners Motion of no confidence, voted no confidence in Commissioner Fay Vincent by a tally of 18–9. The owners had a number of grievances against Vincent, especially the perception that he had been too favorable to the players during the lockout of . Unlike his replacement Selig, Vincent stated that the owners Baseball collusion, colluded against the players. Vincent put it this way: "The Union basically doesn’t trust the Ownership because collusion was a $280 million theft by Selig and Chicago White Sox owner Jerry Reinsdorf of that money from the players. I mean, they rigged the signing of free agents. They got caught. They paid $280 million to the players. And I think that's polluted labor relations in baseball ever since it happened. I think it's the reason union chief Donald Fehr has no trust in Selig." Vincent resigned on September 7, 1992. Selig, the longtime owner of the Milwaukee Brewers, was appointed chairman of baseball's Executive Council, making him the ''de facto'' acting commissioner (among the potential candidates for a permanent commissioner discussed in the media were future President George W. Bush, who was the managing partner for the Texas Rangers (baseball), Texas Rangers from 1989 to 1994, and George J. Mitchell, then-Majority Leader of the United States Senate, U.S. Senate). While acting commissioner, Selig presided over Major League Baseball during the 1994–95 Major League Baseball strike, 1994 players' strike, which led to the cancellation of the 1994 World Series, World Series. Selig continued as acting commissioner until July 8, 1998, when the owners officially appointed him to the commissioner position. Having been an owner for 30 years, Selig was seen as having closer ties to the MLB team owners than previous commissioners. Selig's administration had many perceived successes, such as expansion and interleague play. In May , Bud Selig surpassed Bowie Kuhn as the second longest-serving commissioner (including his time as "acting commissioner" from to mid-), behind Kenesaw Mountain Landis, who died in office after 24 years of service. Beginning in 2006, Selig repeatedly stated his intention to retire at the end of his contract in 2009. However, on 17 January 2008, it was announced that Selig accepted a 3-year extension through the 2012 season


Current challenges

A prominent issue currently faced by Major League Baseball is the usage of performance-enhancing drugs, including anabolic steroids, by ballplayers in the late 1990s through 2009. Addressing the issue of whether Selig should have taken alternate actions, former commissioner Fay Vincent wrote in the April 24, 2006, issue of ''Sports Illustrated'' that with most of Barry Bonds' official troubles being off the field, and with the strength of the players' union, there is little Selig can do beyond appointing an investigating committee. Vincent said that Selig is largely "an observer of a forum beyond his reach". Another challenge facing the Office of the Commissioner is competitive imbalance and struggling attendance in small markets.2013 MLB Attendance – Major League Baseball
ESPN. Retrieved on 2013-07-23.
In 2010, just 2 teams (Boston Red Sox,
Philadelphia Phillies The Philadelphia Phillies are an American professional baseball team based in Philadelphia. They compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member of the National League (NL) National League East, East division. Since 2004, the team's home sta ...
) sold out every game and many teams failed to draw 2 million fans. In the Office of the Commissioner's Blue Ribbon Panel on Baseball Economics, it was found that the luxury tax was failing to correct the competitive balance of the league and several steps were needed to correct the current state of revenue-generating and sharing.


See also

*Commissioner of the NBA *History of the NFL Commissioner *NHL commissioner *Leslie O'Connor (briefly served as Acting Commissioner after Landis's death)


References


External links


Commissioners
via MLB.com
Commissioners of Major League Baseball
– Sports Encyclopedia
Ranking the MLB Commissioners
– Bleacher Report
Ranking baseball's commissioners
– Sporting News
Ranking the commissioners: Selig's No. 1
– ESPN {{DEFAULTSORT:Commissioner Of Baseball (Mlb) Major League Baseball commissioners, * Baseball occupations 1920 establishments in the United States