The Aswārān (singular aswār), also spelled Asbārān and Savaran, was a

cavalry Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry in ...

force that formed the backbone of the

army An army (from Old French ''armee'', itself derived from the Latin verb ''armāre'', meaning "to arm", and related to the Latin noun ''arma'', meaning "arms" or "weapons"), ground force or land force is a fighting force that fights primarily on ...

of the

Sasanian Empire The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th centuries AD. Named ...

. They were provided by the aristocracy, were heavily

armor Armour (British English) or armor (American English; see spelling differences) is a covering used to protect an object, individual, or vehicle from physical injury or damage, especially direct contact weapons or projectiles during combat, or f ...

ed, and ranged from archers to

cataphract A cataphract was a form of armored heavy cavalryman that originated in Persia and was fielded in ancient warfare throughout Eurasia and Northern Africa. The English word derives from the Greek ' (plural: '), literally meaning "armored" or ...

Etymology

The word comes from the

Old Persian Old Persian is one of the two directly attested Old Iranian languages (the other being Avestan) and is the ancestor of Middle Persian (the language of Sasanian Empire). Like other Old Iranian languages, it was known to its native speakers as ( ...

word ''asabāra'' (from ''asa''- and ''bar'', a frequently used

Achaemenid The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire (; peo, wikt:𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎶, 𐎧𐏁𐏂, , ), also called the First Persian Empire, was an History of Iran#Classical antiquity, ancient Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC. Bas ...

military technical term). The various other renderings of the word are following; Parthian ''asbār'',

Middle Persian Middle Persian or Pahlavi, also known by its endonym Pārsīk or Pārsīg () in its later form, is a Western Middle Iranian language which became the literary language of the Sasanian Empire. For some time after the Sasanian collapse, Middle P ...

''aspabārak'',

Classical Persian Persian (), also known by its endonym Farsi (, ', ), is a Western Iranian language belonging to the Iranian branch of the Indo-Iranian subdivision of the Indo-European languages. Persian is a pluricentric language predominantly spoken and u ...

''suwār'' (), ''uswār''/''iswār'' (),

Modern Persian New Persian ( fa, فارسی نو), also known as Modern Persian () and Dari (), is the current stage of the Persian language spoken since the 8th to 9th centuries until now in Greater Iran and surroundings. It is conventionally divided into thre ...

''savār'' (). The

Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...

word ''asāwira'' (), used to refer to a certain faction of the Sasanian cavalry after the Muslim conquest, is a broken plural form of the Middle Persian ''aswār''. However, the word ''aswār'' only means "horseman" in

literature, and it is only the late Arabic term that has a more specialized meaning. In the

Sassanian inscriptions This is a list of Sasanian inscription, which include remaining official inscriptions on rocks, as well as minor ones written on bricks, metal, wood, hide, papyri, and gems. Their significance is in the areas of linguistics, history, and study of ...

, the formula ''asp ud mard'' (literally "horse and man") was commonly used to collectively refer to the cavalry and the infantry of the military.

Organization

The aswaran were primarily composed of

Iranian Iranian may refer to: * Iran, a sovereign state * Iranian peoples, the speakers of the Iranian languages. The term Iranic peoples is also used for this term to distinguish the pan ethnic term from Iranian, used for the people of Iran * Iranian lan ...

aristocrats from the ''

wuzurgan Wuzurgan ( pal, 𐭥𐭰𐭥𐭫𐭢, meaning "grandees" or the "great ones"), also known by its Modern Persian form of Bozorgan (بزرگان), was the name of the high nobility and the third class-rank of the four of the Sasanian aristocracy. Af ...

'' and the ''

azadan The ''Azadan'' (Middle Persian: , Parthian: ; meaning 'free' and 'noble') were a class of Iranian nobles. They are probably identical to the ('the free ones') mentioned in Greek sources to refer to a group of Parthian nobles. According to the 1 ...

'', with members of the staff being from the former. After the reforms of Khosraw I, warriors from the ''

dehqan The ''dehqân'' ( fa, دهقان) or ''dehgân'' ( fa, دهگان), were a class of land-owning magnates during the Sasanian and early Islamic period, found throughout Iranian-speaking lands. The ''deqhans'' started to gradually fade away under t ...

'' class would also be enlisted. The ''asbaran'' have often been demonstrated as an example of existence of

feudalism Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was the combination of the legal, economic, military, cultural and political customs that flourished in medieval Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structu ...

in Iran by modern scholars, who simply refer them as either chevalier,

knight A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a head of state (including the Pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the Christian denomination, church or the country, especially in a military capacity. Knighthood ...

, or

ritter Ritter (German for "knight") is a designation used as a title of nobility in German-speaking areas. Traditionally it denotes the second-lowest rank within the nobility, standing above " Edler" and below "Freiherr" (Baron). As with most titles a ...

. According to historians such as Christensen and Widengren, the ''asbar'' had the same status as the knight. However, although the ''asbaran'' and knight resemble each other in many parts, the economic role and historical role of the knight is very different compared to the role of the ''asbaran'' in the Sasanian Empire, which thus makes it incorrect to refer the ''asbaran'' as knights. The highest annual salary for each cavalryman was 4,000

dirham The dirham, dirhem or dirhm ( ar, درهم) is a silver unit of currency historically and currently used by several Arab world, Arab and Arabization, Arab influenced states. The term has also been used as a related unit of mass. Unit of ...

Weaponry, armor, and tactics

The aswaran wore chainmail armor, and ranged from archers to

s. They assumed a description with the bravery, tactics, and ethics of the Sasanians. They mastered in single combat in battles ('' mard o-mard''), rode on

elephants Elephants are the largest existing land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant. They are the only surviving members of the family Elephantidae ...

and horses, and their valor was recognized with ornamental emblems. Titles such as ''hazārmard'' ("whose strength is equal to one thousand men"), ''zih asbār'' ("superior rider"), and ''pahlawān-i gēhān'' ("hero/champion of the world"), were their epithets. They wrote the name of the Sasanian emperor and their valuable family members on their arrows as a good omen. They outperformed others in archery to the extent that later writers thought that they had introduced the profession. They were superior and unmatched in the profession, which was even acknowledged by their enemies. The major effectiveness of the Sasanian cavalry was noted by contemporaneous Roman writers, including

Ammianus Marcellinus Ammianus Marcellinus (occasionally anglicised as Ammian) (born , died 400) was a Roman soldier and historian who wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from antiquity (preceding Procopius). His work, known as the ''Res Gestae ...

, and led the Romans to adopt aspects of Sasanian cavalry including their arms, armour and techniques.

Armor

The ''asbaran'' during this early period had much in common with their Parthian (Arsacid) predecessors, most of whom would have worn a

scale armor Scale armour (or scale mail) is an early form of armour consisting of many individual small armour scales (plates) of various shapes attached to each other and to a backing of cloth or leather in overlapping rows.cuirass A cuirass (; french: cuirasse, la, coriaceus) is a piece of armour that covers the torso, formed of one or more pieces of metal or other rigid material. The word probably originates from the original material, leather, from the French '' cuirac ...

with long sleeves and

chaps Chaps ( or ) are sturdy coverings for the legs consisting of leggings and a belt. They are buckled on over trousers with the chaps' integrated belt, but unlike trousers, they have no seat (the term "assless chaps" is a tautology) and are not jo ...

covered in

Sasanian The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th centuries AD. Named ...

period. Also horses would probably have had armored chests and heads, consisting of an

apron An apron is a garment that is worn over other clothing to cover the front of the body. The word comes from old French ''napron'' meaning a small piece of cloth, however over time "a napron" became "an apron", through a linguistics process cal ...

and headpiece, or total body protection consisting of five separate pieces, made from either

boiled leather Boiled leather, often referred to by its French translation, cuir bouilli (), was a historical material common in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Period and used for various purposes. It was leather that had been treated so that it became tough ...

scale armor Scale armour (or scale mail) is an early form of armour consisting of many individual small armour scales (plates) of various shapes attached to each other and to a backing of cloth or leather in overlapping rows.Spangenhelm helmets worn by members of the ''asbaran'' units in battle would have evolved through the centuries. During the 3rd-to-6th-century era of the Sassanian empire, the ''Spangenhelm '' would have probably been made of felt and hardened leather. However, by the late 6th/early 7th century they would have been decorated with flowers and purple ball with mail and small areas through which to breathe and see.

Weaponry

The ''asbaran'' cavalry was armed with a variety of weapons. The traditional heavy cavalry weapons, such as maces, lances, and swords would have been used, as well as a variety of other weapons, such as axes. ''Asbaran'' cavalry were not, however, restricted to short-range weapons, as they often carried weapons such as darts and bows. The Sasanian cavalry's weaponry has been listed by Libanius as darts, sabres (scimitars?), spears, swords and "a lance which needed both hands". The ''nawak'' arrow-guide was used to launch 10-40 cm long darts. During

Khosrow I Khosrow I (also spelled Khosrau, Khusro or Chosroes; pal, 𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩; New Persian: []), traditionally known by his epithet of Anushirvan ( [] "the Immortal Soul"), was the Sasanian Empire, Sasanian King of Kings of Iran from ...

's military reforms under Babak (Sasanian general), Babak, a "list" for equipment for the cavalry was written. According to the

and Persian language, Persian sources of the Islamic period, the pieces of equipment ( pal, zēn) for a regular Sasanian cavalryman were as follows: The Sasanian lance was based on the 12-foot long Parthian '' kontos'' that featured a sword-like iron blade. Face masks were used since at least the 4th century AD. The horse-armor covered the torso (with an oval opening for the rider's seat), as well as the head and neck. Since stirrup was not invented yet, the riders were relying on a

saddle The saddle is a supportive structure for a rider of an animal, fastened to an animal's back by a girth. The most common type is equestrian. However, specialized saddles have been created for oxen, camels and other animals. It is not kno ...

with "four horn" design for their stability. The Sasanian cavalry was relying more on maneuverability than their Parthian predecessors. The late ''aswaran'' reportedly also used a device called '' panjagan'' which was supposedly able to fire a volley of five arrows.

Banner

Each ''asbaran'' unit would have a Drafsh, or heraldric standard. These would have often included

legendary creature A legendary creature (also mythical or mythological creature) is a type of fictional entity, typically a hybrid, that has not been proven and that is described in folklore (including myths and legends), but may be featured in historical accoun ...

s and

animal Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and go through an ontogenetic stage ...

s. These animals would have included

, horses, bears,

lions The lion (''Panthera leo'') is a large cat of the genus '' Panthera'' native to Africa and India. It has a muscular, broad-chested body; short, rounded head; round ears; and a hairy tuft at the end of its tail. It is sexually dimorphic; ad ...

deer Deer or true deer are hoofed ruminant mammals forming the family Cervidae. The two main groups of deer are the Cervinae, including the muntjac, the elk (wapiti), the red deer, and the fallow deer; and the Capreolinae, including the re ...

(''ahu''); these would also include Zoroastrian mythological creatures such as Bashkuch and the army of ''asbaran'' would have the

Derafsh Kaviani Derafsh Kaviani ( fa, درفش کاویانی) was the legendary royal standard Derafsh (in Latin: vexilloid) of Iran ( Persia) used since ancient times until the fall of the Sasanian Empire. The banner was also sometimes called the "Standard o ...

as their banner. Some ''aswaran'' members with superior bravery, character, and equestrian skills were receiving honorary bracelets, recorded in Islamic sources as ''suwārī'', with the wearer being called a ''musawwar''.

Elite Aswaran

The ''aswaran sardar'' were high-ranking officers who were in charge of the ''aswaran'', their position was so high up in Sasanian society that they were only answerable to the Eran-Spahbad (Commander in Chief) and the

Shahanshah Shah (; fa, شاه, , ) is a royal title that was historically used by the leading figures of Iranian monarchies.Yarshater, EhsaPersia or Iran, Persian or Farsi, ''Iranian Studies'', vol. XXII no. 1 (1989) It was also used by a variety of ...

himself. They would be guarded heavily by

style cavalry. The post of ''aswaran sardar'' was held by a member of the Mihran-Pahlav family. Parts of the ''aswaran'' division were high-ranking including the Pushtigban Body Guards, a super heavy shock cavalry, who were the royal guards of the Shah himself. The influential ''aswaran'' cavalry were mostly made up of heavily armoured cavalry, generally composed of aristocracy or even from the imperial family themselves. There were also commanders who were elite as well. These parts of the ''aswaran'' regiments were kept as reserves.

After the fall of the Sasanians

Most of the ''asbaran'' was disbanded after suffering defeat and conquest during the

Muslim conquest of Persia The Muslim conquest of Persia, also known as the Arab conquest of Iran, was carried out by the Rashidun Caliphate from 633 to 654 AD and led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire as well as the eventual decline of the Zoroastrian religion. The ...

. However, several factions of the ''asbaran'', each faction led by a different leader, defected to the Arabs in order to preserve their status and wealth. These ''asbaran'' factions settled in various places in the newly established

Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...

territories, where they each become known by several names, the most known and prominent faction being the '' asawira'', who under their leader Siyah settled in the newly established settlement of

Basra Basra ( ar, ٱلْبَصْرَة, al-Baṣrah) is an Iraqi city located on the Shatt al-Arab. It had an estimated population of 1.4 million in 2018. Basra is also Iraq's main port, although it does not have deep water access, which is han ...

References

Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{Cite web , title=History of Iran: Sassanian Army , url=https://www.iranchamber.com/history/sassanids/sassanian_army.php , access-date=2022-09-12 , website=www.iranchamber.com

External links

History of Iran: Sassanian Army

Savārān - Google Search

Cavalry units and formations of the Sassanian Empire