Antisemitism

Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is
hostility to, prejudice, or discrimination against
Jews.[1][2][3] A person who holds such
positions is called an antisemite.
Antisemitism

Antisemitism is generally
considered to be a form of racism.[4][5] It has also
been characterized as a political ideology which serves as an
organizing principle and unites disparate groups which are opposed to
liberalism.[6]
Antisemitism

Antisemitism may be manifested in many ways, ranging from expressions
of hatred of or discrimination against individual
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews to organized
pogroms by mobs, state police, or even military attacks on entire
Jewish communities. Although the term did not come into common usage
until the 19th century, it is now also applied to historic anti-Jewish
incidents. Notable instances of persecution include the Rhineland
massacres preceding the
First Crusade

First Crusade in 1096, the
Edict of Expulsion
from England in 1290, the massacres of Spanish
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in 1391, the
persecutions of the Spanish Inquisition, the expulsion from Spain in
1492, the Cossack massacres in
Ukraine
.png/440px-Czech_Rep._-_Bohemia,_Moravia_and_Silesia_III_(en).png)
Ukraine from 1648 to 1657, various
anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire between 1821 and 1906, the
1894–1906
Dreyfus affair

Dreyfus affair in France, the
Holocaust

Holocaust in German-occupied
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe during World War II, Soviet anti-Jewish policies, and
Arab
.jpg)
Arab and
Muslim

Muslim involvement in the Jewish exodus from
Arab
.jpg)
Arab and Muslim
countries.
The root word Semite gives the false impression that antisemitism is
directed against all Semitic people, e.g., including
Arabs

Arabs and
Assyrians. The compound word Antisemitismus ("antisemitism") was first
used in print in
Germany

Germany in 1879[7] as a scientific-sounding
term for Judenhass
("Jew-hatred"),[8][9][10][11][12][13]
and this has been its common use since
then.[14][8][15]
Contents
1 Origin and usage
1.1 Etymology
1.2 Usage
1.3 Definition
1.4 Evolution of usage
2 Manifestations
2.1 Cultural antisemitism
2.2 Religious antisemitism
2.3 Economic antisemitism
2.4 Racial antisemitism
2.5 Political antisemitism
2.6 Conspiracy theories
2.7 New antisemitism
2.8 Indology
3 History
3.1 Ancient world
3.2 Persecutions during the Middle Ages
3.3 17th century
3.4 Enlightenment
3.5 Voltaire
3.6
Louis de Bonald

Louis de Bonald and the Catholic Counter-Revolution
3.7 Imperial Russia
3.8 Islamic antisemitism in the 19th century
3.9 Secular or racial antisemitism
3.10 20th century
3.11 21st-century European antisemitism
3.12 21st-century
Arab
.jpg)
Arab antisemitism
4 Causes
5 Current situation
5.1 Africa
5.1.1 Algeria
5.1.2 Egypt
5.1.3 Libya
5.1.4 Morocco
5.1.5 South Africa
5.1.6 Tunisia
5.2 Asia
5.2.1 Iran
5.2.2 Japan
5.2.3 Lebanon
5.2.4 Malaysia
5.2.5 Palestine
5.2.6 Pakistan
5.2.7 Saudi Arabia
5.2.8 Turkey
5.3 Europe
5.3.1 Austria
5.3.2 France
5.3.3 Germany
5.3.4 Greece
5.3.5 Hungary
5.3.6 Italy
5.3.7 Netherlands
5.3.8 Norway
5.3.9 Poland
5.3.10 Russia
5.3.11 Spain
5.3.12 Sweden
5.3.13 Ukraine
5.3.14 United Kingdom
5.4 North America
5.4.1 Canada
5.4.2 United States
5.5 South America
5.5.1 Venezuela
6 See also
7 References
7.1 Notes
7.2 Bibliography
8 Further reading
8.1 Books and reports
8.2 Bibliographies, calendars, etc.
9 External links
Origin and usage
Etymology
1879 statute of the
Antisemitic

Antisemitic League
The origin of "antisemitic" terminologies is found in the responses of
Moritz Steinschneider

Moritz Steinschneider to the views of Ernest Renan. As Alex Bein
writes: "The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by
Steinschneider, who challenged Renan on account of his 'anti-Semitic
prejudices' [i.e., his derogation of the "Semites" as a
race]."[16]
Avner Falk similarly writes: 'The German word
antisemitisch was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar
Moritz Steinschneider

Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907) in the phrase antisemitische
Vorurteile (antisemitic prejudices). Steinschneider used this phrase
to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renan's false ideas
about how "Semitic races" were inferior to "
Aryan

Aryan races"'.[17]
Pseudoscientific theories concerning race, civilization, and
"progress" had become quite widespread in
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe in the second half of
the 19th century, especially as Prussian nationalistic historian
Heinrich von Treitschke
_b_557.jpg/440px-Die_Gartenlaube_(1866)_b_557.jpg)
Heinrich von Treitschke did much to promote this form of racism. He
coined the phrase "the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are our misfortune" which would later be
widely used by Nazis.[18] According to Avner Falk, Treitschke
uses the term "Semitic" almost synonymously with "Jewish", in contrast
to Renan's use of it to refer to a whole range of peoples,[19]
based generally on linguistic criteria.[20]
According to Jonathan M. Hess, the term was originally used by its
authors to "stress the radical difference between their own
'antisemitism' and earlier forms of antagonism toward
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and
Judaism."[21]
Cover page of Marr's The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism,
1880 edition
In 1879 German journalist
Wilhelm Marr

Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, Der Sieg
des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen
Standpunkt aus betrachtet (The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the
Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective) in which
he used the word Semitismus interchangeably with the word Judentum to
denote both "Jewry" (the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews as a collective) and "jewishness" (the
quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish
spirit).[22][23][24]
This use of Semitismus was followed by a coining of "Antisemitismus"
which was used to indicate opposition to the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews as a
people[citation needed] and opposition to the Jewish spirit,
which Marr interpreted as infiltrating German culture. His next
pamphlet, Der Weg zum Siege des Germanenthums über das Judenthum (The
Way to Victory of the Germanic Spirit over the Jewish Spirit, 1880),
presents a development of Marr's ideas further and may present the
first published use of the German word Antisemitismus,
"antisemitism".
The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year he founded the
Antisemiten-Liga (League of Antisemites),[25] apparently named
to follow the "Anti-Kanzler-Liga" (Anti-Chancellor
League).[26] The league was the first German organization
committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to
Germany

Germany and
German culture posed by the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and their influence, and advocating
their forced removal from the country.
So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in
1881, when Marr published Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte, and Wilhelm
Scherer used the term Antisemiten in the January issue of Neue Freie
Presse.
The
Jewish Encyclopedia

Jewish Encyclopedia reports, "In February 1881, a correspondent of
the
Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums

Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums speaks of 'Anti-Semitism' as a
designation which recently came into use ("Allg. Zeit. d. Jud." 1881,
p. 138). On 19 July 1882, the editor says, 'This quite recent
Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old.'"[27]
The related term "philosemitism" was used as early as
1881.[28]
Usage
From the outset the term "anti-Semitism" bore special racial
connotations and meant specifically prejudice against
Jews.[2][8][15] The term is confusing, for in
modern usage 'Semitic' designates a language group, not a race. In
this sense, the term is a misnomer, since there are many speakers of
Semitic languages

Semitic languages (e.g. Arabs, Ethiopians, and Assyrians) who are not
the objects of antisemitic prejudices, while there are many
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews who
do not speak Hebrew, a Semitic language. Though 'antisemitism' could
be construed as prejudice against people who speak other Semitic
languages, this is not how the term is commonly
used.[29][30][31][32]
The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen (antisemitism or
anti-Semitism). Many scholars and institutions favor the unhyphenated
form.[33][34][35][36] Shmuel Almog
argued, "If you use the hyphenated form, you consider the words
'Semitism', 'Semite', 'Semitic' as meaningful ... [I]n
antisemitic parlance, 'Semites' really stands for Jews, just
that."[37]
Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated
spelling, in order to "[dispel] the notion that there is an entity
'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes."[38] Others
endorsing an unhyphenated term for the same reason include the
International
Holocaust

Holocaust Remembrance Alliance,[33] historian
Deborah Lipstadt,[8] Padraic O'Hare, professor of Religious
and Theological Studies and Director of the Center for the Study of
Jewish-Christian-
Muslim

Muslim Relations at Merrimack College; and historians
Yehuda Bauer

Yehuda Bauer and James Carroll. According to Carroll, who first cites
O'Hare and Bauer on "the existence of something called 'Semitism'",
"the hyphenated word thus reflects the bipolarity that is at the heart
of the problem of antisemitism".[39]
Objections to the usage of the term, such as the obsolete nature of
the term Semitic as a racial term, have been raised since at least the
1930s.[26][40]
Definition
Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or
prejudice against Jews, and, according to Olaf Blaschke, has become an
"umbrella term for negative stereotypes about Jews",[41]:18 a
number of authorities have developed more formal definitions.
Holocaust

Holocaust scholar and
City University of New York
.png/300px-Seal_of_the_City_University_of_New_York_(CUNY).png)
City University of New York professor Helen Fein
defines it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs
towards
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes,
and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in
actions—social or legal discrimination, political mobilization
against the Jews, and collective or state violence—which results in
and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews as Jews."
Elaborating on Fein's definition, Dietz Bering of the University of
Cologne writes that, to antisemites, "
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are not only partially but
totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible.
Because of this bad nature: (1)
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews have to be seen not as
individuals but as a collective. (2)
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews remain essentially alien in
the surrounding societies. (3)
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews bring disaster on their 'host
societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly,
therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial,
bad Jewish character."[42]
For Sonja Weinberg, as distinct from economic and religious
anti-Judaism, antisemitism in its modern form shows conceptual
innovation, a resort to 'science' to defend itself, new functional
forms and organisational differences. It was anti-liberal, racialist
and nationalist. It promoted the myth that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews conspired to 'judaise'
the world; it served to consolidate social identity; it channeled
dissatisfactions among victims of the capitalist system; and it was
used as a conservative cultural code to fight emancipation and
liberalism.[41]:18–19
Caricature by C.Léandre (France, 1898) showing Rothschild with the
world in his hands
Bernard Lewis
.JPG/480px-Bernard_Lewis_in_2012_(2).JPG)
Bernard Lewis defines antisemitism as a special case of prejudice,
hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way
different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by
two distinct features:
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are judged according to a standard
different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic
evil." Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or
persecution displays one of the two features specific to
antisemitism.[43]
There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental
bodies to define antisemitism formally. The United States Department
of State states that "while there is no universally accepted
definition, there is a generally clear understanding of what the term
encompasses." For the purposes of its 2005 Report on Global
Anti-Semitism, the term was considered to mean "hatred toward
Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the
Jewish religion and/or ethnicity."[44]
In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on
Racism

Racism and
Xenophobia

Xenophobia (now
Fundamental Rights Agency), then an agency of the European Union,
developed a more detailed working definition, which states:
"
Antisemitism

Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed
as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of
antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals
and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and
religious facilities." It also adds that "such manifestations could
also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity,"
but that "criticism of
Israel

Israel similar to that leveled against any
other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic." It provides
contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest
itself, including: promoting the harming of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in the name of an
ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual Jewish
person or group; denying the
Holocaust

Holocaust or accusing
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews or
Israel

Israel of
exaggerating it; and accusing
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews of dual loyalty or a greater
allegiance to
Israel

Israel than their own country. It also lists ways in
which attacking
Israel

Israel could be antisemitic, and states that denying
the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming
that the existence of a state of
Israel

Israel is a racist endeavor, can be a
manifestation of antisemitism—as can applying double standards by
requiring of
Israel

Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other
democratic nation, or holding
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews collectively responsible for the
actions of the State of Israel.[45] Late in 2013, the
definition was removed from the website of the Fundamental Rights
Agency. A spokesperson said that it had never been regarded as
official and that the agency did not intend to develop its own
definition.[46] However, despite its disappearance from the
website of the Fundamental Rights Agency, the definition has gained
widespread international use. The definition has been adopted by the
European Parliament

European Parliament Working Group on Antisemitism,[47] in 2010
it was adopted by the United States Department of State,[48]
in 2014 it was adopted in the Operational Hate Crime Guidance of the
UK College of Policing[49] and was also adopted by the
Campaign Against Antisemitism,.[50]
In 2016, the definition was adopted by the International Holocaust
Remembrance Alliance. The definition is accompanied by illustrative
examples; for instance, "Accusing Jewish citizens of being more loyal
to Israel, or to the alleged priorities of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews worldwide, than to the
interests of their own nations."[51][52]
1889 Paris,
France

France elections poster for self-described "candidat
antisémite" Adolphe Willette: "The
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are a different race, hostile
to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!" (see file for complete
translation)
Evolution of usage
In 1879,
Wilhelm Marr

Wilhelm Marr founded the Antisemiten-Liga (Anti-Semitic
League).[53] Identification with antisemitism and as an
antisemite was politically advantageous in
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe during the late 19th
century. For example, Karl Lueger, the popular mayor of fin de siècle
Vienna, skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling
public discontent to his political advantage.[54] In its 1910
obituary of Lueger,
The New York Times

The New York Times notes that Lueger was "Chairman
of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the
Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria.[55] In 1895
A. C. Cuza

A. C. Cuza organized the Alliance Anti-semitique Universelle in
Bucharest. In the period before World War II, when animosity towards
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, an
organization, or a political party to self-identify as an antisemite
or antisemitic.
The early Zionist pioneer Leon Pinsker, a professional physician,
preferred the clinical-sounding term Judeophobia to antisemitism,
which he regarded as a misnomer. The word Judeophobia first appeared
in his pamphlet "Auto-Emancipation", published anonymously in German
in September 1882, where it was described as an irrational fear or
hatred of Jews. According to Pinsker, this irrational fear was an
inherited predisposition.[56] .mw-parser-output .templatequote
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Judeophobia is a form of demonopathy, with the distinction that the
Jewish ghost has become known to the whole race of mankind, not merely
to certain races.... Judeophobia is a psychic disorder. As a psychic
disorder it is hereditary, and as a disease transmitted for two
thousand years it is incurable.... Thus have
Judaism

Judaism and Jew-hatred
passed through history for centuries as inseparable companions....
Having analyzed Judeophobia as an hereditary form of demonopathy,
peculiar to the human race, and represented Jew-hatred as based upon
an inherited aberration of the human mind, we must draw the important
conclusion, that we must give up contending against these hostile
impulses, just as we give up contending against every other inherited
predisposition.[57]
In the aftermath of the
Kristallnacht

Kristallnacht pogrom in 1938, German
propaganda minister Goebbels announced: "The German people is
anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be
provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race."[58]
After the 1945 victory of the Allies over
Nazi

Nazi Germany, and
particularly after the full extent of the
Nazi

Nazi genocide against the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews became known, the term "anti-Semitism" acquired pejorative
connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era
just decades earlier when "Jew" was used as a pejorative
term.[59][60]
Yehuda Bauer

Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There are
no anti-Semites in the world ... Nobody says, 'I am
anti-Semitic.' You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of
fashion."[61]
Manifestations
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews (identified by the mandatory
Jewish badge

Jewish badge and Jewish hat) being
burned.
Antisemitism

Antisemitism manifests itself in a variety of ways. René König
mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious
antisemitism, and political antisemitism as examples. König points
out that these different forms demonstrate that the "origins of
anti-Semitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods."
König asserts that differences in the chronology of different
antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such
prejudices over different segments of the population create "serious
difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of
anti-Semitism."[62] These difficulties may contribute to the
existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to
categorize the forms of antisemitism. The forms identified are
substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their
definitions that differ.
Bernard Lazare

Bernard Lazare identifies three forms of
antisemitism: Christian antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and
ethnologic antisemitism.[63]
William Brustein names four categories: religious, racial, economic
and political.[64] The
Roman Catholic

Roman Catholic historian Edward
Flannery distinguished four varieties of antisemitism:[65]
political and economic antisemitism, giving as examples
Cicero[66] and Charles Lindbergh;[67]
theological or religious antisemitism, sometimes known as
anti-Judaism;[68]
nationalistic antisemitism, citing
Voltaire
_-001.jpg/440px-Nicolas_de_Largillière,_François-Marie_Arouet_dit_Voltaire_(vers_1724-1725)_-001.jpg)
Voltaire and other Enlightenment
thinkers, who attacked
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews for supposedly having certain
characteristics, such as greed and arrogance, and for observing
customs such as kashrut and Shabbat;[69]
and racial antisemitism, with its extreme form resulting in the
Holocaust

Holocaust by the Nazis.[70]
Louis Harap separates "economic antisemitism" and merges "political"
and "nationalistic" antisemitism into "ideological antisemitism".
Harap also adds a category of "social antisemitism".[71]
religious (
Jew

Jew as Christ-killer),
economic (
Jew

Jew as banker, usurer, money-obsessed),
social (
Jew

Jew as social inferior, "pushy," vulgar, therefore excluded
from personal contact),
racist (
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews as an inferior "race"),
ideological (
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews regarded as subversive or revolutionary),
cultural (
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews regarded as undermining the moral and structural fiber
of civilization).
Gustavo Perednik has argued that what he terms "Judeophobia" has a
number of unique traits which set it apart from other forms of racism,
including permanence, depth, obsessiveness, irrationality, endurance,
ubiquity, and danger.[72] He also wrote in his book The
Judeophobia that "The
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were accused by the nationalists of being
the creators of Communism; by the Communists of ruling Capitalism. If
they live in non-Jewish countries, they are accused of
double-loyalties; if they live in the Jewish country, of being
racists. When they spend their money, they are reproached for being
ostentatious; when they don't spend their money, of being avaricious.
They are called rootless cosmopolitans or hardened chauvinists. If
they assimilate, they are accused of being fifth-columnists, if they
don't, of shutting themselves away."[73][74]
Harvard professor
Ruth Wisse has argued that antisemitism is a
political ideology that authoritarians use to consolidate power by
unifying disparate groups. One example she gives is the alleged
antisemitism within the United Nations, which, in this view,
functioned during the
Cold War

Cold War as a coalition-building technique
between Soviet and
Arab
.jpg)
Arab states, but now serves the same purpose among
states opposed to the type of human-rights ideology for which the UN
was created. She also cites as an example the formation of the Arab
League.[6]
Cultural antisemitism
Louis Harap defines cultural antisemitism as "that species of
anti-Semitism that charges the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews with corrupting a given culture
and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred
culture with a uniform, crude, "Jewish" culture.[75]
Similarly,
Eric Kandel

Eric Kandel characterizes cultural antisemitism as being
based on the idea of "Jewishness" as a "religious or cultural
tradition that is acquired through learning, through distinctive
traditions and education." According to Kandel, this form of
antisemitism views
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews as possessing "unattractive psychological and
social characteristics that are acquired through
acculturation."[76] Niewyk and Nicosia characterize cultural
antisemitism as focusing on and condemning "the Jews' aloofness from
the societies in which they live."[77]
An important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the
negative attributes of
Judaism

Judaism to be redeemable by education or by
religious conversion.[78]
Religious antisemitism
See also: Anti-Judaism, Christianity and antisemitism, and
Islam

Islam and
antisemitism
Execution of Mariana de Carabajal (converted Jew), accused of a
relapse into Judaism, Mexico City, 1601
Religious antisemitism, also known as anti-Judaism, is antipathy
towards
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews because of their perceived religious beliefs. In theory,
antisemitism and attacks against individual
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews would stop if Jews
stopped practicing
Judaism

Judaism or changed their public faith, especially
by conversion to the official or right religion. However, in some
cases discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case of
Christianized
Marranos

Marranos or Iberian
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in the late 15th century and
16th century who were suspected of secretly practising
Judaism

Judaism or
Jewish customs.[65]
Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian
conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times.
Frederick Schweitzer asserts that, "most scholars ignore the Christian
foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke
political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial
antisemitism, economic antisemitism and the like."[79] William
Nichols draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern
antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds: "The dividing line was
the possibility of effective conversion [...] a
Jew

Jew ceased to be a Jew
upon baptism." From the perspective of racial antisemitism, however,
"the assimilated
Jew

Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism.[...] From
the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines
of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards
Jews[...] Once
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes
its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility
towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable,
even before explicitly racist doctrines appear."
Some Christians such as the Catholic priest Ernest Jouin, who
published the first French translation of the Protocols, combined
religious and racial antisemitism, as in his statement that "From the
triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the
Jew

Jew has
become the enemy of humanity."[80] The virulent antisemitism
of Édouard Drumont, one of the most widely read Catholic writers in
France

France during the Dreyfus Affair, likewise combined religious and
racial antisemitism.[81][82][83]
Economic antisemitism
The underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews perform
harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful
when they are performed by Jews.[84]
Linking
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and money underpins the most damaging and lasting
Antisemitic

Antisemitic canards.[85] Antisemites claim that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews control
the world finances, a theory promoted in the fraudulent Protocols of
the Elders of Zion, and later repeated by
Henry Ford

Henry Ford and his Dearborn
Independent. In the modern era, such myths continue to be spread in
books such as The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews
published by the Nation of Islam, and on the internet.
Derek Penslar writes that there are two components to the financial
canards:[86]
a)
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are savages that "are temperamentally incapable of performing
honest labor"
b)
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are "leaders of a financial cabal seeking world domination"
Abraham Foxman

Abraham Foxman describes six facets of the financial canards:
All
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are wealthy[87]
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are stingy and greedy[88]
Powerful
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews control the business world[89]
Jewish religion emphasizes profit and materialism[90]
It is okay for
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews to cheat non-Jews[91]
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews use their power to benefit "their own kind"[92]
Gerald Krefetz summarizes the myth as "[Jews] control the banks, the
money supply, the economy, and businesses—of the community, of the
country, of the world".[93] Krefetz gives, as illustrations,
many slurs and proverbs (in several different languages) which suggest
that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are stingy, or greedy, or miserly, or aggressive
bargainers.[94] During the nineteenth century,
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were
described as "scurrilous, stupid, and tight-fisted", but after the
Jewish Emancipation

Jewish Emancipation and the rise of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews to the middle- or upper-class
in
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe were portrayed as "clever, devious, and manipulative
financiers out to dominate [world finances]".[95]
Léon Poliakov

Léon Poliakov asserts that economic antisemitism is not a distinct
form of antisemitism, but merely a manifestation of theologic
antisemitism (because, without the theological causes of the economic
antisemitism, there would be no economic antisemitism). In opposition
to this view,
Derek Penslar contends that in the modern era, the
economic antisemitism is "distinct and nearly constant" but
theological antisemitism is "often subdued".[96]
An academic study by Francesco D'Acunto, Marcel Prokopczuk, and
Michael Weber showed that people who live in areas of
Germany

Germany that
contain the most brutal history of antisemitic persecution are more
likely to be distrustful of finance in general. Therefore, they tended
to invest less money in the stock market and make poor financial
decisions. The study concluded "that the persecution of minorities
reduces not only the long-term wealth of the persecuted, but of the
persecutors as well."[97]
Racial antisemitism
Main article: Racial antisemitism
Jewish Soviet soldier taken prisoner by the German Army, August
1941. At least 50,000 Jewish soldiers were shot after
selection.[clarification needed]
Racial antisemitism

Racial antisemitism is prejudice against
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews as a racial/ethnic
group, rather than
Judaism

Judaism as a religion.[98]
Racial antisemitism

Racial antisemitism is the idea that the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are a distinct and
inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th century
and early 20th century, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the
eugenics movement, which categorized non-Europeans as inferior. It
more specifically claimed that Northern Europeans, or "Aryans", were
superior. Racial antisemites saw the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews as part of a Semitic race
and emphasized their non-European origins and culture. They saw Jews
as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority
religion.[citation needed]
Racial antisemitism

Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of
Judaism

Judaism with the hatred of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews as a group. In the context of the Industrial Revolution,
following the Jewish Emancipation,
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews rapidly urbanized and
experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing
role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a
combination of growing nationalism, the rise of eugenics, and
resentment at the socio-economic success of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews led to the newer,
and more virulent, racist antisemitism.[citation needed]
According to William Nichols, religious antisemitism may be
distinguished from modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic
grounds. "The dividing line was the possibility of effective
conversion... a
Jew

Jew ceased to be a
Jew

Jew upon baptism." However, with
racial antisemitism, "Now the assimilated
Jew

Jew was still a Jew, even
after baptism.... From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer
possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and
racial forms of hostility towards Jews... Once
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews have been
emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving
behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term
antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist
doctrines appear."[99]
In the early 19th century, a number of laws enabling emancipation of
the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were enacted in Western European
countries.[100][101] The old laws restricting them to
ghettos, as well as the many laws that limited their property rights,
rights of worship and occupation, were rescinded. Despite this,
traditional discrimination and hostility to
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews on religious grounds
persisted and was supplemented by racial antisemitism, encouraged by
the work of racial theorists such as
Joseph Arthur de Gobineau

Joseph Arthur de Gobineau and
particularly his Essay on the Inequality of the Human Race of
1853–5.
Nationalist

Nationalist agendas based on ethnicity, known as
ethnonationalism, usually excluded the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews from the national
community as an alien race.[102] Allied to this were theories
of Social Darwinism, which stressed a putative conflict between higher
and lower races of human beings. Such theories, usually posited by
northern Europeans, advocated the superiority of white Aryans to
Semitic Jews.[103]
Political antisemitism
"The whole problem of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews exists only in nation states, for here
their energy and higher intelligence, their accumulated capital of
spirit and will, gathered from generation to generation through a long
schooling in suffering, must become so preponderant as to arouse mass
envy and hatred. In almost all contemporary nations, therefore – in
direct proportion to the degree to which they act up nationalistially
– the literary obscenity of leading the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews to slaughter as
scapegoats of every conceivable public and internal misfortune is
spreading."
— Friedrich Nietzsche, 1886, [MA 1 475][104]
William Brustein defines political antisemitism as hostility toward
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews based on the belief that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews seek national and/or world power."
Yisrael Gutman characterizes political antisemitism as tending to "lay
responsibility on the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews for defeats and political economic crises"
while seeking to "exploit opposition and resistance to Jewish
influence as elements in political party platforms."[105]
According to Viktor Karády, political antisemitism became widespread
after the legal emancipation of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and sought to reverse some of
the consequences of that emancipation.
[106]
Conspiracy theories
See also: List of conspiracy theories §
Antisemitic

Antisemitic conspiracy
theories
Holocaust denial

Holocaust denial and
Jewish conspiracy

Jewish conspiracy theories are also considered
forms of
antisemitism.[107][108][109][110][111][111][112][113]
Zoological conspiracy theories

Zoological conspiracy theories have been propagated by
Arab
.jpg)
Arab media and
Arabic language websites, alleging a "Zionist plot" behind the use of
animals to attack civilians or to conduct espionage.[114]
New antisemitism
A sign held at a protest in
Edinburgh, Scotland

Edinburgh, Scotland on January 10, 2009
Main article: New antisemitism
Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of new
antisemitism, coming simultaneously from the left, the right, and
radical Islam, which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a
Jewish homeland in the State of Israel,[115] and they argue
that the language of anti-
Zionism

Zionism and criticism of
Israel

Israel are used to
attack
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new
concept believe that criticisms of
Israel

Israel and
Zionism

Zionism are often
disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and they attribute this
to antisemitism. Jewish scholar
Gustavo Perednik posited in 2004 that
anti-
Zionism

Zionism in itself represents a form of discrimination against
Jews, in that it singles out Jewish national aspirations as an
illegitimate and racist endeavor, and "proposes actions that would
result in the death of millions of Jews".[116] It is asserted
that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs,
including older motifs such as the blood libel.[115]
Critics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of
antisemitism, and as exploiting antisemitism in order to silence
debate and to deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State
of Israel, and, by associating anti-
Zionism

Zionism with antisemitism, misused
to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.[117]
Indology
Main article: Indology
German indologists arbitrarily identified "layers" in the Mahabharata
and
Bhagavad Gita

Bhagavad Gita with the objective of fueling European antisemitism
via the Indo-
Aryan

Aryan migration theory.[118] This identification
required equating
Brahmins

Brahmins with Jews, resulting in
anti-Brahmanism.[118]
History
Main article: History of antisemitism
The massacre of the Banu Qurayza, a Jewish tribe in Medina, 627
Many authors see the roots of modern antisemitism in both pagan
antiquity and early Christianity. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages
in the historical development of antisemitism:[119]
Pre-Christian anti-
Judaism

Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome which was
primarily ethnic in nature
Christian antisemitism

Christian antisemitism in antiquity and the
Middle Ages

Middle Ages which was
religious in nature and has extended into modern times
Traditional
Muslim

Muslim antisemitism which was—at least, in its classical
form—nuanced in that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were a protected class
Political, social and economic antisemitism of Enlightenment and
post-Enlightenment
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe which laid the groundwork for racial
antisemitism
Racial antisemitism

Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in
Nazism
.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_NSDAP_(1920–1945).svg.png)
Nazism in the 20th century
Contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as the New
Antisemitism
Chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three
categories: "ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in
nature; Christian antisemitism, which was religious; and the racial
antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."[120]
Ancient world
The first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the
3rd century BCE to Alexandria,[65] the home to the largest
Jewish diaspora

Jewish diaspora community in the world at the time and where the
Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, was produced.
Manetho, an Egyptian priest and historian of that era, wrote
scathingly of the Jews. His themes are repeated in the works of
Chaeremon, Lysimachus, Poseidonius, Apollonius Molon, and in
Apion and
Tacitus.[121]
Agatharchides of Cnidus ridiculed the practices
of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and the "absurdity of their Law", making a mocking
reference to how
Ptolemy Lagus

Ptolemy Lagus was able to invade
Jerusalem

Jerusalem in 320 BCE
because its inhabitants were observing the Shabbat.[121] One
of the earliest anti-Jewish edicts, promulgated by Antiochus IV
Epiphanes in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the
Maccabees

Maccabees in
Judea.[122]:238
In view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have
originated in
Egypt

Egypt and been spread by "the Greek retelling of Ancient
Egyptian prejudices".[123] The ancient Jewish philosopher
Philo of
Alexandria

Alexandria describes an attack on
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in
Alexandria

Alexandria in 38 CE
in which thousands of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews died.[124][125] The
violence in
Alexandria

Alexandria may have been caused by the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews being
portrayed as misanthropes.[126] Tcherikover argues that the
reason for hatred of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in the
Hellenistic

Hellenistic period was their
separateness in the Greek cities, the poleis.[127] Bohak has
argued, however, that early animosity against the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews cannot be
regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from
attitudes that were held against the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews alone, and that many Greeks
showed animosity toward any group they regarded as
barbarians.[128]
Statements exhibiting prejudice against
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and their religion can be
found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers.[129]
Edward Flannery

Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek
religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of
Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that
Moses

Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them
a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life." Manetho, an Egyptian
historian, wrote that the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were expelled Egyptian lepers who had
been taught by
Moses

Moses "not to adore the gods." Edward Flannery
describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially "cultural,
taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political
settings."[65]
There are examples of
Hellenistic

Hellenistic rulers desecrating the Temple and
banning Jewish religious practices, such as circumcision, Shabbat
observance, study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be
found in anti-Jewish riots in
Alexandria

Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE.
The
Jewish diaspora

Jewish diaspora on the Nile island Elephantine, which was founded
by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410
BCE.[130]
Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying Roman Empire
were at times antagonistic and resulted in several rebellions.
According to Suetonius, the emperor
Tiberius
.jpg/440px-Tiberius,_Romisch-Germanisches_Museum,_Cologne_(8115606671).jpg)
Tiberius expelled from Rome Jews
who had gone to live there. The 18th-century English historian Edward
Gibbon identified a more tolerant period in Roman-Jewish relations
beginning in about 160 CE.[65] However, when Christianity
became the state religion of the Roman Empire, the state's attitude
towards the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews gradually worsened.
James Carroll asserted: "
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews accounted for 10% of the total
population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors such
as pogroms and conversions had not intervened, there would be 200
million
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13
million."[131][132]
Persecutions during the Middle Ages
Main article:
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in the Middle Ages
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Portalvte
In the late 6th century CE, the newly Catholicised Visigothic kingdom
in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts which forbad Jews
from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing
Jewish holy days.[133] Continuing throughout the 7th century,
both Visigothic kings and the Church were active in creating social
aggression and towards
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews with "civic and ecclesiastic
punishments",[134] ranging between forced conversion, slavery,
exile and death.[135]
From the 9th century, the medieval Islamic world classified
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and
Christians as dhimmis, and allowed
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews to practice their religion
more freely than they could do in medieval Christian Europe. Under
Islamic rule, there was a Golden age of
Jewish culture

Jewish culture in Spain that
lasted until at least the 11th century.[136] It ended when
several
Muslim

Muslim pogroms against
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews took place on the Iberian
Peninsula, including those that occurred in Córdoba in 1011 and in
Granada in 1066.[137][138][139] Several
decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were also enacted in
Egypt, Syria,
Iraq

Iraq and
Yemen

Yemen from the 11th century. In addition, Jews
were forced to convert to
Islam

Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen,
Morocco

Morocco and
Baghdad

Baghdad several times between the 12th and 18th
centuries.[140] The Almohads, who had taken control of the
Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusian territories by 1147,[141]
were far more fundamentalist in outlook compared to their
predecessors, and they treated the dhimmis harshly. Faced with the
choice of either death or conversion, many
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and Christians
emigrated.[142][143][144] Some, such as the
family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim
lands,[142] while some others went northward to settle in the
growing Christian kingdoms.[145]
During the
Middle Ages

Middle Ages in
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe there was persecution against
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in
many places, with blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and
massacres. A main justification of prejudice against
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in Europe
was religious.
The persecution hit its first peak during the Crusades. In the First
Crusade (1096) hundreds or even thousands of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were killed as the
crusaders arrived.[146] This was the first major outbreak of
anti-Jewish violence in Christian
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe outside Spain and was cited
by Zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of
Israel.[147]
Expulsions of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe from 1100 to 1600
In the
Second Crusade

Second Crusade (1147) the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in
Germany

Germany were subject to
several massacres. The
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were also subjected to attacks by the
Shepherds'
Crusades

Crusades of 1251 and 1320, as well as Rintfleisch knights
in 1298. The
Crusades

Crusades were followed by expulsions, including, in 1290,
the banishing of all English Jews; in 1394, the expulsion of 100,000
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in France;[148] and in 1421, the expulsion of thousands
from Austria. Many of the expelled
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews fled to Poland.[149]
In medieval and Renaissance Europe, a major contributor to the
deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the
Christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform
religious orders, the Franciscans (especially Bernardino of Feltre)
and Dominicans (especially Vincent Ferrer), who combed
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe and
promoted antisemitism through their often fiery, emotional
appeals.[150]
As the
Black Death

Black Death epidemics devastated
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe in the mid-14th
century, causing the death of a large part of the population, Jews
were used as scapegoats. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by
deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were
destroyed in numerous persecutions. Although
Pope Clement VI

Pope Clement VI tried to
protect them by issuing two papal bulls in 1348, the first on 6 July
and an additional one several months later, 900
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were burned alive
in Strasbourg, where the plague had not yet affected the
city.[151]
17th century
Etching of the expulsion of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews from Frankfurt in 1614
During the mid-to-late 17th century the Polish–Lithuanian
Commonwealth was devastated by several conflicts, in which the
Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3 million
people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands.
The first of these conflicts was the Khmelnytsky Uprising, when Bohdan
Khmelnytsky's supporters massacred tens of thousands of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in the
eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's Ukraine). The
precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the
Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to
200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases and
captivity in the Ottoman Empire, called
jasyr.[152][153]
European immigrants to the United States brought antisemitism to the
country as early as the 17th century. Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch
governor of New Amsterdam, implemented plans to prevent
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews from
settling in the city. During the Colonial Era, the American government
limited the political and economic rights of Jews. It was not until
the
American Revolutionary War

American Revolutionary War that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews gained legal rights,
including the right to vote. However, even at their peak, the
restrictions on
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in the United States were never as stringent as
they had been in Europe.[154]
In the
Zaydi

Zaydi imamate of Yemen,
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were also singled out for
discrimination in the 17th century, which culminated in the general
expulsion of all
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews from places in
Yemen

Yemen to the arid coastal plain
of
Tihamah

Tihamah and which became known as the Mawza Exile.[155]
Enlightenment
In 1744, Frederick II of
Prussia
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Prussia_(1892-1918).svg.png)
Prussia limited the number of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews allowed to
live in
Breslau

Breslau to only ten so-called "protected" Jewish families and
encouraged a similar practice in other Prussian cities. In 1750 he
issued the Revidiertes General Privilegium und Reglement vor die
Judenschaft: the "protected"
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews had an alternative to "either
abstain from marriage or leave Berlin" (quoting Simon Dubnow). In the
same year, Archduchess of Austria Maria Theresa ordered
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews out of
Bohemia

Bohemia but soon reversed her position, on the condition that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews pay
for their readmission every ten years. This extortion was known as
malke-geld (queen's money). In 1752 she introduced the law limiting
each Jewish family to one son. In 1782, Joseph II abolished most of
these persecution practices in his Toleranzpatent, on the condition
that
Yiddish

Yiddish and Hebrew were eliminated from public records and that
judicial autonomy was annulled.
Moses

Moses Mendelssohn wrote that "Such a
tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open
persecution."
Voltaire
According to Arnold Ages, Voltaire's "Lettres philosophiques,
Dictionnaire philosophique, and Candide, to name but a few of his
better known works, are saturated with comments on
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and Judaism
and the vast majority are negative".[156] Paul H. Meyer adds:
"There is no question but that Voltaire, particularly in his latter
years, nursed a violent hatred of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and it is equally certain
that his animosity...did have a considerable impact on public opinion
in France."[157] Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire's
Dictionnaire Philosophique
_-002.jpg/440px-Atelier_de_Nicolas_de_Largillière,_portrait_de_Voltaire,_détail_(musée_Carnavalet)_-002.jpg)
Dictionnaire Philosophique concerned
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and described them in
consistently negative ways.[158]
Louis de Bonald

Louis de Bonald and the Catholic Counter-Revolution
The counter-revolutionary Catholic royalist
Louis de Bonald

Louis de Bonald stands out
among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of
Jewish emancipation

Jewish emancipation in the wake of the French
Revolution.[159][160] Bonald's attacks on the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are
likely to have influenced Napoleon's decision to limit the civil
rights of Alsatian
Jews.[161][162][163][164] Bonald's
article Sur les juifs (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of
its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, a
defense of a rural society, traditional Christian antisemitism, and
the identification of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews with bankers and finance capital, which
would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such
as Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux, Charles Maurras, and Édouard
Drumont, nationalists such as
Maurice Barrès

Maurice Barrès and Paolo Orano, and
antisemitic socialists such as Alphonse
Toussenel.[159][165][166] Bonald furthermore
declared that the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were an "alien" people, a "state within a
state", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily
identify and discriminate against them.[159][167]
Under the French Second Empire, the popular counter-revolutionary
Catholic journalist
Louis Veuillot

Louis Veuillot propagated Bonald's arguments
against the Jewish "financial aristocracy" along with vicious attacks
against the
Talmud

Talmud and the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews as a "deicidal people" driven by
hatred to "enslave" Christians.[168][167] Between 1882
and 1886 alone, French priests published twenty antisemitic books
blaming France's ills on the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and urging the government to consign
them back to the ghettos, expel them, or hang them from the
gallows.[167] Gougenot des Mousseaux's Le Juif, le judaïsme
et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens (1869) has been called a
"Bible of modern antisemitism" and was translated into German by Nazi
ideologue Alfred Rosenberg.[167]
Imperial Russia
Thousands of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were slaughtered by Cossack Haidamaks in the 1768
massacre of Uman in the Kingdom of Poland. In 1772, the empress of
Russia Catherine II forced the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews into the Pale of Settlement
– which was located primarily in present-day Poland,
Ukraine
.png/440px-Czech_Rep._-_Bohemia,_Moravia_and_Silesia_III_(en).png)
Ukraine and
Belarus – and to stay in their shtetls and forbade them from
returning to the towns that they occupied before the partition of
Poland.[169] From 1804,
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were banned from their villages,
and began to stream into the towns.[170] A decree by emperor
Nicholas I of Russia

Nicholas I of Russia in 1827 conscripted
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews under 18 years of age
into the cantonist schools for a 25-year military service in order to
promote baptism.[171]
Policy towards
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews was liberalised somewhat under Czar Alexander II
(r. 1855–1881).[172] However, his assassination in 1881
served as a pretext for further repression such as the
May Laws of
1882. Konstantin Pobedonostsev, nicknamed the "black czar" and tutor
to the czarevitch, later crowned Czar Nicholas II, declared that "One
third of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews must die, one third must emigrate, and one third be
converted to Christianity".[173]
Islamic antisemitism in the 19th century
Historian
Martin Gilbert

Martin Gilbert writes that it was in the 19th century that
the position of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews worsened in
Muslim

Muslim countries.
Benny Morris

Benny Morris writes
that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of
stone-throwing at
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews by
Muslim

Muslim children. Morris quotes a
19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old,
with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them]
to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the
greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his
Jewish gaberdine. To all this the
Jew

Jew is obliged to submit; it would
be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a
Mahommedan."[174]
In the middle of the 19th century,
J. J. Benjamin wrote about the life
of Persian Jews, describing conditions and beliefs that went back to
the 16th century: "…they are obliged to live in a separate part of
town… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated
with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited
by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and
dirt…."[175]
In
Jerusalem

Jerusalem at least, conditions for some
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews improved. Moses
Montefiore, on his seventh visit in 1875, noted that fine new
buildings had sprung up and; 'surely we're approaching the time to
witness God's hallowed promise unto Zion.'
Muslim

Muslim and Christian Arabs
participated in
Purim

Purim and Passover;
Arabs

Arabs called the Sephardis 'Jews,
sons of Arabs'; the
Ulema

Ulema and the Rabbis offered joint prayers for
rain in time of drought.[176]
At the time of the Dreyfus trial in France, '
Muslim

Muslim comments usually
favoured the persecuted
Jew

Jew against his Christian
persecutors'.[177]
Secular or racial antisemitism
Title page of the second edition of Das Judenthum in der Musik,
published in 1869
Anti-Semitic agitators in
Paris

Paris burn an effigy of Mathieu Dreyfus
during the Dreyfus affair
In 1850 the German composer
Richard Wagner

Richard Wagner – who has been called
"the inventor of modern antisemitism"[178] – published Das
Judenthum in der Musik (roughly "Jewishness in Music"[178])
under a pseudonym in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik. The essay began
as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's
contemporaries, and rivals,
Felix Mendelssohn

Felix Mendelssohn and Giacomo Meyerbeer,
but expanded to accuse
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews of being a harmful and alien element in
German culture, who corrupted morals and were, in fact, parasites
incapable of creating truly "German" art. The crux was the
manipulation and control by the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews of the money
economy:[178]
According to the present constitution of this world, the
Jew

Jew in truth
is already more than emancipated: he rules, and will rule, so long as
Money remains the power before which all our doings and our dealings
lose their force.[178]
Although originally published anonymously, when the essay was
republished 19 years later, in 1869, the concept of the corrupting Jew
had become so widely held that Wagner's name was affixed to
it.[178]
Antisemitism

Antisemitism can also be found in many of the
Grimms' Fairy Tales
.cover.jpg)
Grimms' Fairy Tales by
Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, published from 1812 to 1857. It is mainly
characterized by
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews being the villain of a story, such as in "The
Good Bargain" ("Der gute Handel") and "The
Jew

Jew Among Thorns" ("Der
Jude im Dorn").
The middle 19th century saw continued official harassment of the Jews,
especially in Eastern
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe under Czarist influence. For example, in
1846, 80
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews approached the governor in Warsaw to retain the right to
wear their traditional dress, but were immediately rebuffed by having
their hair and beards forcefully cut, at their own
expense.[179]
In America, even such influential figures as Walt Whitman tolerated
bigotry toward the Jews. During his time as editor of the Brooklyn
Eagle (1846–1848), the newspaper published historical sketches
casting
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in a bad light.[180]
The
Dreyfus Affair

Dreyfus Affair was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th
century and early 20th century. Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery
captain in the French Army, was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to
the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and
sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. The actual spy,
Marie Charles Esterhazy, was acquitted. The event caused great uproar
among the French, with the public choosing sides on the issue of
whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not.
Émile Zola

Émile Zola accused the
army of corrupting the French justice system. However, general
consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: 80% of the press in France
condemned him. This attitude among the majority of the French
population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time
period.[181]
Adolf Stoecker (1835–1909), the
Lutheran

Lutheran court chaplain to Kaiser
Wilhelm I, founded in 1878 an antisemitic, anti-liberal political
party called the Christian Social Party.[182][183]
This party always remained small, and its support dwindled after
Stoecker's death, with most of its members eventually joining larger
conservative groups such as the German National People's Party.
Some scholars view Karl Marx's essay
On The Jewish Question

On The Jewish Question as
antisemitic, and argue that he often used antisemitic epithets in his
published and private writings.[184][185][186]
These scholars argue that Marx equated
Judaism

Judaism with capitalism in his
essay, helping to spread that idea. Some further argue that the essay
influenced National Socialist, as well as Soviet and Arab
antisemites.[187][188][189] Marx himself had
Jewish ancestry, and
Albert Lindemann and
Hyam Maccoby have suggested
that he was embarrassed by it.[190][191] Others argue
that Marx consistently supported Prussian Jewish communities'
struggles to achieve equal political rights. These scholars argue that
"On the Jewish Question" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's arguments that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews must convert to Christianity before being emancipated, and is
more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and
capitalism.[192][193][194][195] Iain
Hamphsher-Monk wrote that "This work [On The Jewish Question] has been
cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-semitism, but only the most
superficial reading of it could sustain such an
interpretation."[196] David McLellan and
Francis Wheen argue
that readers should interpret On the Jewish Question in the deeper
context of Marx's debates with Bruno Bauer, author of The Jewish
Question, about
Jewish emancipation

Jewish emancipation in Germany. Wheen says that "Those
critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one,
essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude
stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews.
It was a retort to Bruno Bauer, who had argued that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews should not be
granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as
Christians".[197] According to McLellan, Marx used the word
Judentum colloquially, as meaning commerce, arguing that Germans must
be emancipated from the capitalist mode of production not
Judaism

Judaism or
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in particular. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret
the essay's second half as "an extended pun at Bauer's
expense".[198]
20th century
See also:
Jewish Bolshevism

Jewish Bolshevism and Racial policy of
Nazi

Nazi Germany
The victims of a 1905 pogrom in Yekaterinoslav
Between 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75 million
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews migrated to
America, the bulk from Eastern Europe. Before 1900 American
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews had
always amounted to less than 1% of America's total population, but by
1930
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews formed about 3.5%. This increase, combined with the upward
social mobility of some Jews, contributed to a resurgence of
antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the US, Jews
were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and
resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened
quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and
universities. The lynching of
Leo Frank

Leo Frank by a mob of prominent citizens
in
Marietta, Georgia

Marietta, Georgia in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in
the United States.[199] The case was also used to build
support for the renewal of the
Ku Klux Klan

Ku Klux Klan which had been inactive
since 1870.[200]
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Beilis Trial in Russia
represented modern incidents of blood-libels in Europe. During the
Russian Civil War, close to 50,000
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were killed in
pogroms.[201]
Public reading of the antisemitic newspaper Der Stürmer, Worms,
Germany, 1935
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the interwar period.
The pioneer automobile manufacturer
Henry Ford

Henry Ford propagated antisemitic
ideas in his newspaper
The Dearborn Independent

The Dearborn Independent (published by Ford
from 1919 to 1927). The radio speeches of
Father Coughlin

Father Coughlin in the late
1930s attacked Franklin D. Roosevelt's
New Deal

New Deal and promoted the
notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Some prominent politicians
shared such views: Louis T. McFadden, Chairman of the United States
House Committee on Banking and Currency, blamed
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews for Roosevelt's
decision to abandon the gold standard, and claimed that "in the United
States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews have
the lawful money".[202]
In the early 1940s the aviator
Charles Lindbergh

Charles Lindbergh and many prominent
Americans led The
America First Committee

America First Committee in opposing any involvement
in the war against Fascism. During his July 1936 visit to Nazi
Germany, a few weeks before the 1936 Summer Olympics, Lindbergh wrote
letters saying that there was "more intelligent leadership in Germany
than is generally recognized". The
German American Bund

German American Bund held parades
in New York City during the late 1930s, where members wore Nazi
uniforms and raised flags featuring swastikas alongside American
flags.
Sometimes race riots, as in Detroit in 1943, targeted Jewish
businesses for looting and burning.[203]
A wagon piled high with corpses outside the crematorium at the
recently liberated Buchenwald concentration camp, 1945
1941 decree of
Boris III of Bulgaria

Boris III of Bulgaria for approval of the antisemitic
Law for protection of the nation
Yad Vashem
-Aerial-Jerusalem-Yad_Vashem_01.jpg/560px-Israel-2013(2)-Aerial-Jerusalem-Yad_Vashem_01.jpg)
Yad Vashem in Israel
In Germany,
Nazism
.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_NSDAP_(1920–1945).svg.png)
Nazism led
Adolf Hitler

Adolf Hitler and the
Nazi

Nazi Party, who came to
power on 30 January 1933 shortly afterwards instituted repressive
legislation which denied the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews basic civil
rights.[204][205]
In September 1935, the
Nuremberg Laws

Nuremberg Laws prohibited sexual relations and
marriages between "Aryans" and
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews as
Rassenschande

Rassenschande ("race disgrace")
and stripped all German Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, of their
citizenship, (their official title became "subjects of the
state").[206] It instituted a pogrom on the night of 9–10
November 1938, dubbed Kristallnacht, in which
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were killed, their
property destroyed and their synagogues torched.[207]
Antisemitic

Antisemitic laws, agitation and propaganda were extended to
German-occupied Europe

German-occupied Europe in the wake of conquest, often building on
local antisemitic traditions.
In the east the Third Reich forced
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews into ghettos in Warsaw, in
Kraków, in Lvov, in Lublin and in Radom.[208]
After the beginning of the war between
Nazi Germany

Nazi Germany and the Soviet
Union in 1941 a campaign of mass murder, conducted by the
Einsatzgruppen, culminated from 1942 to 1945 in systematic genocide:
the Holocaust.[209] Eleven million
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were targeted for
extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually
killed.[209][210][211]
Antisemitism

Antisemitism was commonly used as an instrument for settling personal
conflicts in the Soviet Union, starting with the conflict between
Joseph Stalin

Joseph Stalin and
Leon Trotsky

Leon Trotsky and continuing through numerous
conspiracy-theories spread by official propaganda.
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in the
USSR reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the
"rootless cosmopolitan" (euphemism for "Jew") in which numerous
Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters and sculptors were killed or
arrested.[212][213] This culminated in the so-called
Doctors' Plot

Doctors' Plot (1952–1953). Similar antisemitic propaganda in Poland
resulted in the flight of Polish Jewish survivors from the
country.[213]
After the war, the
Kielce pogrom

Kielce pogrom and the "March 1968 events" in
communist Poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in
Europe. The anti-Jewish violence in postwar Poland has a common theme
of blood libel rumours.[214][215]
21st-century European antisemitism
Further information:
Antisemitism in Europe

Antisemitism in Europe § In the 21st
century
Physical assaults against
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in those countries included beatings,
stabbings and other violence, which increased markedly, sometimes
resulting in serious injury and death.[216][217] A
2015 report by the US State Department on religious freedom declared
that "European anti-
Israel

Israel sentiment crossed the line into
anti-Semitism."[218]
This rise in antisemitic attacks is associated with both the Muslim
anti-Semitism and the rise of far-right political parties as a result
of the economic crisis of 2008.[219] This rise in the support
for far right ideas in western and eastern
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe has resulted in the
increase of antisemitic acts, mostly attacks on Jewish memorials,
synagogues and cemeteries but also a number of physical attacks
against Jews.[220]
In Eastern
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe the dissolution of the
Soviet Union
.jpg/460px-Soviet_Union-1964-stamp-Chapayev_(film).jpg)
Soviet Union and the
instability of the new states has brought the rise of nationalist
movements and the accusation against
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews for the economic crisis,
taking over the local economy and bribing the government alongside
with traditional and religious motives for antisemitism such as blood
libels. Most of the antisemitic incidents are against Jewish
cemeteries and building (community centers and synagogues).
Nevertheless, there were several violent attacks against
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in
Moscow in 2006 when a neo-
Nazi

Nazi stabbed 9 people at the Bolshaya
Bronnaya Synagogue,[221] the failed bomb attack on the same
synagogue in 1999,[222] the threats against Jewish pilgrims in
Uman, Ukraine[223] and the attack against a menorah by
extremist Christian organization in Moldova in 2009.[224]
According to Paul Johnson, antisemitic policies are a sign of a state
which is poorly governed.[225] While no European state
currently has such policies, the
Economist Intelligence Unit

Economist Intelligence Unit notes the
rise in political uncertainty, notably populism and nationalism, as
something that is particularly alarming for Jews.[226]
21st-century
Arab
.jpg)
Arab antisemitism
Main article:
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in the
Arab
.jpg)
Arab world
Displaced Iraqi
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews arrive in
Israel

Israel in 1951 during the Jewish
exodus from
Arab
.jpg)
Arab and
Muslim

Muslim countries
Robert Bernstein, founder of Human Rights Watch, says that
antisemitism is "deeply ingrained and institutionalized" in "Arab
nations in modern times."[227]
In a 2011 survey by the Pew Research Center, all of the
Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled held few positive
opinions of Jews. In the questionnaire, only 2% of Egyptians, 3% of
Lebanese Muslims, and 2% of Jordanians reported having a positive view
of Jews. Muslim-majority countries outside the Middle East similarly
had few who held positive views of Jews, with 4% of Turks and 9% of
Indonesians viewing
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews favorably.[228]
According to a 2011 exhibition at the United States
Holocaust

Holocaust Memorial
Museum in Washington, United States, some of the dialogue from Middle
East media and commentators about
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews bear a striking resemblance to
Nazi

Nazi propaganda.[229] According to Josef Joffe of Newsweek,
"anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular
Israeli policies—is as much part of
Arab
.jpg)
Arab life today as the hijab or
the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in
polite society in the West, in the
Arab
.jpg)
Arab world,
Jew

Jew hatred remains
culturally endemic."[230]
Muslim

Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews as
descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews
and Christians.[231][232][233]
According to professor Robert Wistrich, director of the Vidal Sassoon
International Center for the Study of
Antisemitism

Antisemitism (SICSA), the calls
for the destruction of
Israel

Israel by
Iran

Iran or by Hamas, Hezbollah, Islamic
Jihad, or the
Muslim

Muslim Brotherhood, represent a contemporary mode of
genocidal antisemitism.[234]
Causes
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July
2011)
Antisemitism

Antisemitism has been explained in terms of racism, xenophobia,
projected guilt, displaced aggression, and the search for a
scapegoat.[235] Some explanations assign partial blame to the
perception of Jewish people as unsociable. Such a perception may have
arisen by many
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews having strictly kept to their own communities,
with their own practices and laws.[236]
It has also been suggested that parts of antisemitism arose from a
perception of Jewish people as greedy (as often used in stereotypes of
Jews), and this perception has probably evolved in
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe during
Medieval times where a large portion of money lending was operated by
Jews.[237] Factors contributing to this situation included
that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were restricted from other professions,[237] while
the
Christian Church

Christian Church declared for their followers that money lending
constituted immoral "usury".[238]
Current situation
Main article: Geography of antisemitism
A March 2008 report by the U.S. State Department found that there was
an increase in antisemitism across the world, and that both old and
new expressions of antisemitism persist.[239] A 2012 report by
the U.S.
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor

Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor also noted a
continued global increase in antisemitism, and found that Holocaust
denial and opposition to Israeli policy at times was used to promote
or justify blatant antisemitism.[240] In 2014, the ADL
conducted a study titled "Global 100: An Index of Anti-Semitism",
which also reported high antisemitism figures around the world and,
among other findings, that as many as "27% of people who have never
met a
Jew

Jew nevertheless harbor strong prejudices against
him".[241]
Africa
See also:
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in Africa
Algeria
Further information: History of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in Algeria
Almost all
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in
Algeria

Algeria left upon independence in 1962. Algeria's
140,000
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews had French citizenship since 1870 (briefly revoked by
Vichy
France

France in 1940), and they mainly went to France, with some going
to Israel.
Egypt
In Egypt, Dar al-Fadhilah published a translation of Henry Ford's
antisemitic treatise, The International Jew, complete with distinctly
antisemitic imagery on the cover.[242]
On 5 May 2001, after
Shimon Peres

Shimon Peres visited Egypt, the Egyptian
al-Akhbar internet paper said that "lies and deceit are not foreign to
Jews[...]. For this reason, Allah changed their shape and made them
into monkeys and pigs."[243]
In July 2012, Egypt's Al Nahar channel fooled actors into thinking
they were on an Israeli television show and filmed their reactions to
being told it was an Israeli television show. In response, some of the
actors launched into antisemitic rants or dialogue, and many became
violent. Actress Mayer El Beblawi said that "Allah did not curse the
worm and moth as much as he cursed the Jews" while actor Mahmoud Abdel
Ghaffar launched into a violent rage and said, "You brought me someone
who looks like a Jew... I hate the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews to death" after finding out it
was a prank.[244][245]
Libya
Further information: History of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in Libya
Libya

Libya had once one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world,
dating back to 300 BCE. Despite the repression of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in the late
1930, as a result of the pro-
Nazi

Nazi Fascist Italian regime,
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were
third of the population of
Libya

Libya till 1941. In 1942 the
Nazi

Nazi German
troops occupied the Jewish quarter of Benghazi, plundering shops and
deporting more than 2,000
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews across the desert. Sent to work in
labor camps, more than one-fifth of this group of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews perished. A
series of pogroms started in November 1945, while more than 140 Jews
were killed in
Tripoli

Tripoli and most synagogues in the city
looted.[246]
Upon Libya's independence in 1951, most of the Jewish community
emigrated from Libya. After the
Suez Crisis

Suez Crisis in 1956, another series of
pogroms forced all but about 100
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews to flee. When Muammar al-Gaddafi
came to power in 1969, all remaining Jewish property was confiscated
and all debts to
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews cancelled.
Morocco
Further information: History of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in Morocco
Jewish communities, in Islamic times often living in ghettos known as
mellah, have existed in
Morocco

Morocco for at least 2,000 years. Intermittent
large scale massacres (such as that of 6,000
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in Fez in 1033, over
100,000
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in Fez and
Marrakesh

Marrakesh in 1146 and again in
Marrakesh

Marrakesh in
1232)[174][247] were accompanied by systematic
discrimination through the years.
In 1875, 20
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were killed by a mob in Demnat, Morocco; elsewhere in
Morocco,
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were attacked and killed in the streets in broad
daylight.[248]
While the pro-
Nazi

Nazi Vichy regime during
World War II

World War II passed
discriminatory laws against Jews, King Muhammad prevented deportation
of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews to death camps (although
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews with French, as opposed to
Moroccan, citizenship, being directly subject to Vichy law, were still
deported.)
In 1948, approximately 265,000
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews lived in Morocco. Between 5,000
and 8,000 live there now.
In June 1948, soon after
Israel

Israel was established and in the midst of
the first Arab-Israeli war, riots against
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews broke out in
Oujda

Oujda and
Djerada, killing 44 Jews. In 1948-9, 18,000
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews left the country for
Israel. After this, Jewish emigration continued (to
Israel

Israel and
elsewhere), but slowed to a few thousand a year. Through the early
fifties, Zionist organizations encouraged emigration, particularly in
the poorer south of the country, seeing Moroccan
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews as valuable
contributors to the Jewish State:
In 1955,
Morocco

Morocco attained independence and emigration to
Israel

Israel has
increased further until 1956 then it was prohibited until 1963, then
resumed.[249] By 1967, only 60,000
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews remained in Morocco.
The
Six-Day War

Six-Day War in 1967 led to increased Arab-Jewish tensions
worldwide, including Morocco. By 1971, the Jewish population was down
to 35,000; however, most of this wave of emigration went to
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe and
North America

North America rather than Israel.
South Africa
Further information: History of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in South Africa
Antisemitism

Antisemitism has been present in history of
South Africa

South Africa since
Europeans first set foot ashore on the Cape Peninsula. In the years
1652–1795
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were not allowed to settle at the Cape. An 1868 Act
would sanction religious discrimination.[250] Antisemitism
reached its apotheosis in the years leading up to World War II.
Inspired by the rise of national socialism in
Germany

Germany the
Ossewabrandwag

Ossewabrandwag (OB) – whose membership accounted for almost 25% of
the 1940
Afrikaner

Afrikaner population – and the National Party faction New
Order would champion a more programmatic solution to the 'Jewish
problem'.[251]
Tunisia
Further information: History of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in Tunisia
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews have lived in
Tunisia

Tunisia for at least 2,300 years. In the 13th
century,
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews were expelled from their homes in
Kairouan

Kairouan and were
ultimately restricted to ghettos, known as hara. Forced to wear
distinctive clothing, several
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews earned high positions in the
Tunisian government. Several prominent international traders were
Tunisian Jews. From 1855 to 1864,
Muhammad Bey

Muhammad Bey relaxed dhimmi laws,
but reinstated them in the face of anti-Jewish riots that continued at
least until 1869.
Tunisia, as the only Middle Eastern country under direct
Nazi

Nazi control
during World War II, was also the site of racist antisemitic measures
activities such as the yellow star, prison camps, deportations, and
other persecution.
In 1948, approximately 105,000
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews lived in Tunisia. Only about 1,500
remain there today. Following Tunisia's independence from
France

France in
1956, a number of anti-Jewish policies led to emigration, of which
half went to
Israel

Israel and the other half to France. After attacks in
1967, Jewish emigration both to
Israel

Israel and
France

France accelerated. There
were also attacks in 1982, 1985, and most recently in 2002 when a
suicide bombing[252] in
Djerba

Djerba took 21 lives (most of them
German tourists) near the local synagogue, in a terrorist attack
claimed by Al-Qaeda.
In modern-day Tunisia, there have been many instances of antisemitic
acts and statements. Since the government is not quick to condemn
them, antisemitism spreads throughout Tunisian society.[253]
Following the Ben Ali regime, there have been an increasing number of
public offenses against
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in Tunisia. For example, in February
2012, when Egyptian cleric Wagdi Ghanaim entered Tunisia, he was
welcomed by Islamists who chanted "Death to the Jews" as a sign of
their support. The following month, during protests in Tunis, a Salafi
sheikh told young Tunisians to gather and learn to kill
Jews.[253]
In the past, The Tunisian government has made efforts to block Jews
from entering high positions, and some moderate members have tried to
cover up the more extremist antisemitic efforts by appointing
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews to
governmental positions, however, it is known that
Muslim

Muslim clerics
believe that if the
Muslim

Muslim Brotherhood leads the regime, that will
enhance their hatred towards Jews.[253] In response to the
prevalent antisemitism, the Tunisian government has publicly protected
the dwindling population and its marks of Jewish culture, for example,
synagogues, and advised them to settle in Djerba, a French tourist
attraction.[254]
Asia
Iran
See also:
Holocaust denial

Holocaust denial § Iran
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, former president of Iran, has frequently been
accused of denying the Holocaust.
In July 2012, the winner of Iran's first annual International Wall
Street Downfall Cartoon Festival, jointly sponsored by the
semi-state-run Iranian media outlet Fars News, was an antisemitic
cartoon depicting
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews praying before the New York Stock Exchange,
which is made to look like the Western Wall. Other cartoons in the
contest were antisemitic as well. The national director of the
Anti-
Defamation

Defamation League, Abraham Foxman, condemned the cartoon, stating
that "Here's the anti-Semitic notion of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and their love for money,
the canard that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews 'control' Wall Street, and a cynical perversion
of the Western Wall, the holiest site in Judaism," and "Once again
Iran

Iran takes the prize for promoting
antisemitism."[255][256][257]
Japan
Main article:
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in Japan
The Japanese first learned about antisemitism in 1918, during the
cooperation of the
Imperial Japanese Army

Imperial Japanese Army with the
White movement

White movement in
Siberia. White Army soldiers had been issued copies of The Protocols
of the Elders of Zion, and "The Protocols continue to be used as
evidence of Jewish conspiracies even though they are widely
acknowledged to be a forgery.[258] During World War II, Nazi
Germany

Germany encouraged Japan to adopt antisemitic policies. In the
post-war period, extremist groups and ideologues have promoted
conspiracy theories.
Lebanon
In 2004, Al-Manar, a media network affiliated with Hezbollah, aired a
drama series, The Diaspora, which observers allege is based on
historical antisemitic allegations.
BBC

BBC correspondents who have
watched the program says it quotes extensively from the Protocols of
the Elders of Zion.[259]
Malaysia
See also: History of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in Malaysia
Although
Malaysia

Malaysia presently has no substantial Jewish population, the
country has reportedly become an example of a phenomenon called
"antisemitism without Jews."[260][261]
In his treatise on Malay identity, "The Malay Dilemma," which was
published in 1970, Malaysian Prime Minister
Mahathir Mohamad
.jpg)
Mahathir Mohamad wrote:
"The
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are not only hooked-nosed... but understand money
instinctively.... Jewish stinginess and financial wizardry gained them
the economic control of
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe and provoked antisemitism which waxed
and waned throughout
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe through the ages."[262]
The Malay-language Utusan
Malaysia

Malaysia daily stated in an editorial that
Malaysians "cannot allow anyone, especially the Jews, to interfere
secretly in this country's business... When the drums are pounded hard
in the name of human rights, the pro-Jewish people will have their
best opportunity to interfere in any Islamic country," the newspaper
said. "We might not realize that the enthusiasm to support actions
such as demonstrations will cause us to help foreign groups succeed in
their mission of controlling this country." Prime Minister Najib
Razak's office subsequently issued a statement late Monday saying
Utusan's claim did "not reflect the views of the
government."[263][264][265]
Palestine
See also: Tomorrow's Pioneers,
Racism

Racism in the Palestinian territories,
and Textbooks in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict
Haj Amin al-Husseini

Haj Amin al-Husseini is a central figure of Palestinian nationalism
in Mandatory Palestine. He took refuge and collaborated with Nazi
Germany

Germany during World War II. He met
Adolf Hitler

Adolf Hitler in December 1941.
Scholarly opinion is divided on the Mufti's antisemitsm, with many
scholars viewing him as a staunch antisemite[266] while some
deny the appropriateness of the term, or argue that he became
antisemitic.[267]
In March 2011, the Israeli government issued a paper claiming that
"Anti-
Israel

Israel and anti-Semitic messages are heard regularly in the
government and private media and in the mosques and are taught in
school books," to the extent that they are "an integral part of the
fabric of life inside the PA."[268] In August 2012, Israeli
Strategic Affairs Ministry director-general Yossi Kuperwasser stated
that Palestinian incitement to antisemitism is "going on all the time"
and that it is "worrying and disturbing." At an institutional level,
he said the PA has been promoting three key messages to the
Palestinian people

Palestinian people that constitute incitement: "that the Palestinians
would eventually be the sole sovereign on all the land from the Jordan
River to the Mediterranean Sea; that Jews, especially those who live
in Israel, were not really human beings but rather 'the scum of
mankind'; and that all tools were legitimate in the struggle against
Israel

Israel and the Jews."[269] In August 2014, the Hamas'
spokesman in Doha said on live television that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews use blood to make
matzos.[270]
Pakistan
See also: History of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in
Pakistan

Pakistan and
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in Pakistan
The U.S. State Department's first Report on Global Anti-Semitism
mentioned a strong feeling of antisemitism in Pakistan.[271]
In Pakistan, a country without Jewish communities, antisemitic
sentiment fanned by antisemitic articles in the press is
widespread.[272]
In Pakistan,
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are often regarded as miserly.[273] After
Israel's independence in 1948, violent incidents occurred against
Pakistan's small Jewish community of about 2,000
Bene Israel

Bene Israel Jews. The
Magain Shalome
Synagogue

Synagogue in
Karachi

Karachi was attacked, as were individual
Jews. The persecution of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews resulted in their exodus via
India

India to
Israel

Israel (see Pakistanis in Israel), the UK, Canada and other countries.
The
Peshawar

Peshawar Jewish community ceased to exist[274] although a
small community reportedly still exists in Karachi.
A substantial number of people in
Pakistan

Pakistan believe that the September
11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York were a secret Jewish
conspiracy organized by Israel's MOSSAD, as were the 7 July 2005
London bombings, allegedly perpetrated by
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in order to discredit
Muslims. Pakistani political commentator
Zaid Hamid claimed that
Indian
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews perpetrated the 2008 Mumbai
attacks.[275][276] Such allegations echo traditional
antisemitic theories.[277][278]
The Jewish religious movement of
Chabad Lubavich

Chabad Lubavich had a mission house
in Mumbai,
India

India that was attacked in the 2008
Mumbai

Mumbai attacks,
perpetrated by militants connected to
Pakistan

Pakistan led by Ajmal Kasab, a
Pakistani national.[279][280]
Antisemitic

Antisemitic intents were
evident from the testimonies of Kasab following his arrest and
trial.[281]
Saudi Arabia
Main articles:
Antisemitism in Saudi Arabia and History of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in
Saudi Arabia
Saudi textbooks vilify Jews, call
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews apes; demand that students
avoid and not befriend Jews; claim that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews worship the devil; and
encourage Muslims to engage in
Jihad

Jihad to vanquish Jews.[282]
Saudi Arabian government officials and state religious leaders often
promote the idea that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are conspiring to take over the entire
world; as proof of their claims they publish and frequently cite The
Protocols of the Elders of Zion

Protocols of the Elders of Zion as factual.[283][284]
In 2004, the official Saudi Arabia tourism website said that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and
holders of Israeli passports would not be issued visas to enter the
country. After an uproar, the restriction against
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews was removed
from the website although the ban against Israeli passport-holders
remained.[285] In late 2014, a Saudi newspaper reported that
foreign workers of most religions, including Judaism, were welcome in
the kingdom, but Israeli citizens were not.[286]
Turkey
Main articles:
Antisemitism in Turkey

Antisemitism in Turkey and History of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in
Turkey
In 2003, the Neve Shalom
Synagogue

Synagogue was targeted in a car bombing,
killing 21 Turkish Muslims and 6 Jews.[287]
In June 2011, the Economist suggested that "The best way for Turks to
promote democracy would be to vote against the ruling party". Not long
after, the Turkish Prime Minister, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, said that
"The International media, as they are supported by Israel, would not
be happy with the continuation of the AKP government".[288]
The Hurriyet Daily News quoted Erdoğan at the time as claiming "The
Economist is part of an Israeli conspiracy that aims to topple the
Turkish government".[289]
Moreover, during Erdogan's tenure, Hitler's
Mein Kampf

Mein Kampf has once again
become a best selling book in Turkey.[288] Prime Minister
Erdogan called antisemitism a "crime against humanity." He also said
that "as a minority, they're our citizens. Both their security and the
right to observe their faith are under our guarantee."[290]
Europe
Antisemitic

Antisemitic graffiti equating
Judaism

Judaism with
Nazism
.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_NSDAP_(1920–1945).svg.png)
Nazism and money, found
in Madrid.
Main articles:
Antisemitism in Europe

Antisemitism in Europe and New antisemitism
According to a 2004 report from the
Jerusalem

Jerusalem Center for Public
Affairs, antisemitism had increased significantly in
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe since
2000, with significant increases in verbal attacks against
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and
vandalism such as graffiti, fire bombings of Jewish schools,
desecration of synagogues and cemeteries. Germany, France, Britain,
and Russia are the countries with the highest rate of antisemitic
incidents in Europe.[216] The
Netherlands

Netherlands and Sweden have also
consistently had high rates of antisemitic attacks since
2000.[291]
Some claim that recent European antisemitic violence can actually be
seen as a spillover from the long running Arab-Israeli conflict since
the majority of the perpetrators are from the large
Muslim

Muslim immigrant
communities in European cities. However, compared to France, the
United Kingdom and much of the rest of Europe, in
Germany

Germany
Arab
.jpg)
Arab and
pro-Palestinian groups are involved in only a small percentage of
antisemitic incidents.[216][292] According to The
Stephen Roth Institute

Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary
Antisemitism

Antisemitism and
Racism, most of the more extreme attacks on Jewish sites and physical
attacks on
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe come from militant Islamic and Muslim
groups, and most
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews tend to be assaulted in countries where groups
of young
Muslim

Muslim immigrants reside.[293]
On 1 January 2006, Britain's chief rabbi, Lord Jonathan Sacks, warned
that what he called a "tsunami of antisemitism" was spreading
globally. In an interview with
BBC

BBC Radio 4, Sacks said: "A number of
my rabbinical colleagues throughout
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe have been assaulted and
attacked on the streets. We've had synagogues desecrated. We've had
Jewish schools burnt to the ground—not here but in France. People
are attempting to silence and even ban Jewish societies on campuses on
the grounds that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews must support the state of Israel, therefore they
should be banned, which is quite extraordinary because... British Jews
see themselves as British citizens. So it's that kind of feeling that
you don't know what's going to happen next that's making... some
European Jewish communities uncomfortable."[294]
Following an escalation in antisemitism in 2012, which included the
deadly shooting of three children at a Jewish school in France, the
European Jewish Congress demanded in July a more proactive response.
EJC President Moshe Kantor explained, "We call on authorities to take
a more proactive approach so there would be no reason for statements
of regret and denunciation. All these smaller attacks remind me of
smaller tremors before a massive earthquake. The Jewish community
cannot afford to be subject to an earthquake and the authorities
cannot say that the writing was not on the wall." He added that
European countries should take legislative efforts to ban any form of
incitement, as well as to equip the authorities with the necessary
tools to confront any attempt to expand terrorist and violent
activities against Jewish communities in Europe.[295]
Austria
Main article:
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in contemporary Austria
France
Main articles:
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in 21st-century
France

France and History of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in France
France

France is home to the continent's largest Jewish community (about
600,000). Jewish leaders decry an intensifying antisemitism in
France,[296] mainly among Muslims of
Arab
.jpg)
Arab or African heritage,
but also growing among
Caribbean
.svg/400px-Antillas_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Caribbean islanders from former French
colonies.[297] Former Interior Minister Nicolas Sarkozy
denounced the killing of
Ilan Halimi

Ilan Halimi on 13 February 2006 as an
antisemitic crime.
Jewish philanthropist Baron
Eric de Rothschild

Eric de Rothschild suggests that the
extent of antisemitism in
France

France has been exaggerated. In an interview
with The
Jerusalem

Jerusalem Post he says that "the one thing you can't say is
that
France

France is an anti-Semitic country."[298]
Mourning[299] flags of the European Union,
France

France and
Midi-Pyrénées on the
Capitole de Toulouse

Capitole de Toulouse after the antisemitic
attacks.
In March 2012, Mohammed Merah opened fire at a Jewish school in
Toulouse, killing a teacher and three children. An 8-year-old girl was
shot in the head at point blank range. President
Nicolas Sarkozy
-(cropped).jpg/440px-Flickr_-_europeanpeoplesparty_-_EPP_Summit_October_2010_(105)-(cropped).jpg)
Nicolas Sarkozy said
that it was "obvious" it was an antisemitic attack[300] and
that, "I want to say to all the leaders of the Jewish community, how
close we feel to them. All of
France

France is by their side." The Israeli
Prime Minister condemned the "despicable anti-Semitic"
murders.[301][302] After a 32-hour siege and standoff
with the police outside his house, and a French raid, Merah jumped off
a balcony and was shot in the head and killed.[303] Merah told
police during the standoff that he intended to keep on attacking, and
he loved death the way the police loved life. He also claimed
connections with al-Qaeda.[304][305][306]
4 months later, in July 2012, a French Jewish teenager wearing a
"distinctive religious symbol" was the victim of a violent antisemitic
attack on a train travelling between
Toulouse

Toulouse and Lyon. The teen was
first verbally harassed and later beaten up by two assailants. Richard
Prasquier from the French Jewish umbrella group, CRIF, called the
attack "another development in the worrying trend of anti-Semitism in
our country."[307]
Another incident in July 2012 dealt with the vandalism of the
synagogue of
Noisy-le-Grand

Noisy-le-Grand of the
Seine-Saint-Denis

Seine-Saint-Denis district in
Paris. The synagogue was vandalized three times in a ten-day period.
Prayer books and shawls were thrown on the floor, windows were
shattered, drawers were ransacked, and walls, tables, clocks, and
floors were vandalized. The authorities were alerted of the incidents
by the Bureau National de Vigilance Contre L'Antisémtisme (BNVCA), a
French antisemitism watchdog group, which called for more measures to
be taken to prevent future hate crimes. BNVCA President Sammy Ghozlan
stated that, "Despite the measures taken, things persist, and I think
that we need additional legislation, because the Jewish community is
annoyed."[308]
In August 2012, Abraham Cooper, the dean of the Simon Wiesenthal
Center, met French Interior Minister
Manuel Valls
.JPG/440px-Valls_Schaefer_Munich_Economic_Summit_2015_(cropped).JPG)
Manuel Valls and reported that
antisemitic attacks against French
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews increased by 40% since Merah's
shooting spree in Toulouse. Cooper pressed Valls to take extra
measures to secure the safety of French Jews, as well as to discuss
strategies to foil an increasing trend of lone-wolf terrorists on the
Internet.[309]
Germany
Further information: History of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in Germany
Wolfgang Schäuble, the Interior Minister of
Germany

Germany in 2006, pointed
out the official policy of Germany: "We will not tolerate any form of
extremism, xenophobia or anti-Semitism."[310] Although the
number of extreme right-wing groups and organisations grew from 141
(2001)[311] to 182 (2006),[312] especially in the
formerly communist East Germany,[310] Germany's measures
against right-wing groups and antisemitism are effective, despite
Germany

Germany having the highest rates of antisemitic acts in Europe.
According to the annual reports of the Federal Office for the
Protection of the Constitution the overall number of far-right
extremists in
Germany

Germany dropped during the last years from 49,700
(2001),[311] 45,000 (2002),[311] 41,500
(2003),[311] 40,700 (2004),[312] 39,000
(2005),[312] to 38,600 in 2006.[312]
Germany

Germany provided
several million euros to fund "nationwide programs aimed at fighting
far-right extremism, including teams of traveling consultants, and
victims' groups."[313]
In July 2012, two women were assaulted in Germany, sprayed with tear
gas, and were shown a "Hitler salute," apparently because of a Star of
David necklace that they wore.[314]
In late August 2012,
Berlin
_)_01.jpg)
Berlin police investigated an attack on a
53-year-old rabbi and his 6-year-old daughter, allegedly by four Arab
teens, after which the rabbi needed treatment for head wounds at a
hospital. The police classified the attack as a hate crime. Jüdische
Allgemeine reported that the rabbi was wearing a kippah and was
approached by one of the teens, who asked the rabbi if he was Jewish.
The teen then attacked the rabbi while yelling antisemitic comments,
and threatened to kill the rabbi's daughter. Berlin's mayor condemned
the attack, saying that "
Berlin
_)_01.jpg)
Berlin is an international city in which
intolerance, xenophobia and anti-Semitism are not being tolerated.
Police will undertake all efforts to find and arrest the
perpetrators."[315]
In October 2012, various historians, including Dr. Julius H. Schoeps,
a prominent German-Jewish historian and a member of the German
Interior Ministry's commission to combat antisemitism, charged the
majority of
Bundestag

Bundestag deputies with failing to understand antisemitism
and the imperativeness of periodic legislative reports on German
antisemitism. Schoeps cited various antisemitic statements by German
parliament members as well. The report in question determined that 15%
of Germans are antisemitic while over 20% espouse "latent
anti-Semitism," but the report has been criticized for downplaying the
sharpness of antisemitism in Germany, as well as for failing to
examine anti-
Israel

Israel media coverage in Germany.[316]
Greece
Main article:
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in Greece
Antisemitism in Greece

Antisemitism in Greece manifests itself in religious, political and
media discourse. The recent
Greek government-debt crisis

Greek government-debt crisis has
facilitated the rise of far right groups in Greece, most notably the
formerly obscure Golden Dawn.
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews have lived in Greece since antiquity, but the largest community
of around 20,000 Sephardic
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews settled in
Thessalonica

Thessalonica after an
invitation from the
Ottoman Sultan

Ottoman Sultan in the 15th century. After
Thessalonica

Thessalonica was annexed to Greece in 1913, the Greek government
recognized
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews as Greek citizens with full rights and attributed
Judaism

Judaism the status of a recognized and protected religion. Currently
in Greece, Jewish communities representing the 5,000 Greek
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are
legal entities under public law.
According to the ADL (Anti-
Defamation

Defamation League) report of 2015, the "ADL
Global 100", a report of the status of antisemitism in 100 countries
around the world, 69% of the adult population in Greece harbor
antisemitic attitudes and 85% think that "
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews have too much power in
the business world".[317]
In March 2015, a survey about the Greeks' perceptions of the holocaust
was published. Its findings showed that less than 60 percent of the
respondents think that holocaust teaching should be included in the
curriculum.[318]
Hungary
Main article:
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in contemporary Hungary
Members of the New Hungarian Guard stand at a
Jobbik

Jobbik rally against a
gathering of the
World Jewish Congress

World Jewish Congress in Budapest, 4 May 2013
In the 21st century, antisemitism in Hungary has evolved and received
an institutional framework, while verbal and physical aggression
against
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews has escalated, creating a great difference between its
earlier manifestations in the 1990s and recent developments. One of
the major representatives of this institutionalized antisemitic
ideology is the popular Hungarian party Jobbik, which received 17
percent of the vote in the April 2010 national election. The far-right
subculture, which ranges from nationalist shops to radical-nationalist
and neo-
Nazi

Nazi festivals and events, plays a major role in the
institutionalization of Hungarian antisemitism in the 21st century.
The contemporary antisemitic rhetoric has been updated and expanded,
but is still based on the old antisemitic notions. The traditional
accusations and motifs include such phrases as Jewish occupation,
international Jewish conspiracy, Jewish responsibility for the Treaty
of Trianon, Judeo-Bolshevism, as well as blood libels against Jews.
Nevertheless, the past few years have seen the reemergence of the
blood libel and an increase in
Holocaust

Holocaust relativization and denial,
while the monetary crisis has revived references to the "Jewish banker
class".[319]
Italy
Main article:
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in 21st-century Italy
The ongoing political conflict between
Israel

Israel and Palestine has played
an important role in the development and expression of antisemitism in
the 21st century, and in Italy as well. The Second Intifada, which
began in late September 2000, has set in motion unexpected mechanisms,
whereby traditional anti-Jewish prejudices were mixed with politically
based stereotypes.[320] In this belief system, Israeli Jews
were charged with full responsibility for the fate of the peace
process and with the conflict presented as embodying the struggle
between good (the Palestinians) and evil (the Israeli
Jews).[321]
Netherlands
Further information: History of the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in the Netherlands
The
Netherlands

Netherlands has the second highest incidence of antisemitic
incidents in the European Union. However, it is difficult to obtain
exact figures because the specific groups against whom attacks are
made are not specifically identified in police reports, and analyses
of police data for antisemitism therefore relies on key-word searches,
e.g. "Jew" or "Israel". According to Centre for Information and
Documentation on
Israel

Israel (CIDI), a pro-
Israel

Israel lobby group in the
Netherlands,[322] the number of antisemitic incidents reported
in the whole of the
Netherlands

Netherlands was 108 in 2008, 93 in 2009, and 124
in 2010. Some two thirds of this are acts of aggression. There are
approximately 52 000 Dutch Jews.[323] According to the NRC
Handelsblad newspaper, the number of antisemitic incidents in
Amsterdam

Amsterdam was 14 in 2008 and 30 in 2009.[324] In 2010,
Raphaël Evers, an orthodox rabbi in Amsterdam, told the Norwegian
newspaper
Aftenposten

Aftenposten that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews can no longer be safe in the city
anymore due to the risk of violent assaults. "We
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews no longer feel
at home here in the Netherlands. Many people talk about moving to
Israel," he said.[325]
According to the Anne Frank Foundation, antisemitism in the
Netherlands

Netherlands in 2011 was roughly at the same level as in
2010.[326] Actual antisemitic incidents increased from 19 in
2010 to 30 in 2011. Verbal antisemitic incidents dropped slightly from
1173 in 2010 to 1098 in 2011. This accounts for 75%–80% of all
verbal racist incidents in the Netherlands.
Antisemitism

Antisemitism is more
prevalent in the age group 23–27 years, which is a younger group
than that of racist incidents in general.
Norway
Main article:
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in Norway
In 2010, the
Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation

Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation after one year of
research, revealed that antisemitism was common among some 8th, 9th,
and 10th graders in Oslo's schools. Teachers at schools with large
numbers of Muslims revealed that
Muslim

Muslim students often "praise or
admire
Adolf Hitler

Adolf Hitler for his killing of Jews", that "Jew-hate is
legitimate within vast groups of
Muslim

Muslim students" and that "Muslims
laugh or command [teachers] to stop when trying to educate about the
Holocaust". Additionally, "while some students might protest when some
express support for terrorism, none object when students express hate
of Jews", saying that it says in "the
Quran

Quran that you shall kill Jews,
all true Muslims hate Jews". Most of these students were said to be
born and raised in Norway. One Jewish father also stated that his
child had been taken by a
Muslim

Muslim mob after school (though the child
managed to escape), reportedly "to be taken out to the forest and hung
because he was a Jew".[327][328]
Norwegian Education Minister Kristin Halvorsen referred to the
antisemitism reported in this study as being "completely
unacceptable." The head of a local Islamic council joined Jewish
leaders and Halvorsen in denouncing such antisemitism.[329]
In October 2012, the Organization for Security and Co-Operation in
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe issued a report regarding antisemitism in Norway, criticizing
Norway

Norway for an increase in antisemitism in the country and blaming
Norwegian officials for failing to address antisemitism."[330]
Poland
The sale of stereotypical figures of Jews, including
Jew

Jew with a coin
(Polish: Żyd z pieniążkiem), Kraków Cloth Hall, 2009
The University of Warsaw's study in 2016 found that 37% of surveyed
Poles expressed negative attitudes towards
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews (up from 32% in 2015);
56% said that they wouldn't accept a
Jew

Jew in their family (up from
46%); and 32% wouldn't want Jewish neighbors (up from
27%).[331]
In November 2015, following Antoni Macierewicz's (Law and Justice
party) designation as Minister of National Defence, he faced
allegations of antisemitism and protests by the Anti Defamation
League.[332][333][334]
In February 2018, the Polish Prime Minister
Mateusz Morawiecki
.JPG)
Mateusz Morawiecki stated
that "there were Jewish perpetrators" of the Holocaust, "not only
German perpetrators."[335] Ronald Lauder, the president of the
World Jewish Congress, condemned Morawiecki's words: "This is nothing
short of an attempt to falsify history, that is one of the very worst
forms of anti-Semitism and
Holocaust

Holocaust obfuscation."[336]
Israeli politician Yair Lapid, head of the centrist
Yesh Atid

Yesh Atid party,
said Morawiecki's remark is "anti-Semitism of the oldest
kind."[337]
Russia
Main article:
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in Russia
Since the early 2000s, levels of antisemitism in Russia have been low,
and steadily decreasing.[338][339] President of the
Russian Jewish Congress attributes this in part to the vanished state
sponsorship of antisemitism. At the same time experts warn that
worsening economic conditions may lead to the surge of xenophobia and
antisemitism in particular.[340]
Spain
Main article:
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in Spain
Sweden
Main article:
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in Sweden
After
Germany

Germany and Austria, Sweden has the highest rate of antisemitic
incidents in Europe, though the
Netherlands

Netherlands has reported a higher rate
of antisemitism in some years.[291] A government study in 2006
estimated that 15% of Swedes agree with the statement: "The
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews have
too much influence in the world today".[341] 5% of the total
adult population and 39% of adult Muslims "harbour systematic
antisemitic views".[341] The former prime minister Göran
Persson described these results as "surprising and terrifying".
However, the rabbi of Stockholm's Orthodox Jewish community, Meir
Horden, said that "It's not true to say that the Swedes are
anti-Semitic. Some of them are hostile to
Israel

Israel because they support
the weak side, which they perceive the Palestinians to
be."[342]
In 2009, a synagogue that served the Jewish community in
Malmö

Malmö was
set ablaze. Jewish cemeteries were repeatedly desecrated, worshippers
were abused while returning home from prayer, and masked men mockingly
chanted "Hitler" in the streets. As a result of security concerns,
Malmö's synagogue has guards and rocket-proof glass in the windows,
and the Jewish kindergarten can only be reached through thick steel
security doors.[343]
In early 2010, the Swedish publication The Local published series of
articles about the growing antisemitism in Malmö,
Sweden.[344] In 2009, the
Malmö

Malmö police received reports of 79
antisemitic incidents, which was twice the number of the previous year
(2008).[345] Fredrik Sieradzki, spokesman for the Malmö
Jewish community, estimated that the already small Jewish population
is shrinking by 5% a year. "
Malmö

Malmö is a place to move away from," he
said, citing antisemitism as the primary reason.[346] In March
2010, Fredrik Sieradzk told Die Presse, an Austrian Internet
publication, that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are being "harassed and physically attacked" by
"people from the Middle East," although he added that only a small
number of Malmö's 40,000 Muslims "exhibit hatred of
Jews."[347] In October 2010, The Forward reported on the
current state of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and the level of antisemitism in Sweden. Henrik
Bachner, a writer and professor of history at the University of Lund,
claimed that members of the Swedish Parliament have attended
anti-
Israel

Israel rallies where the Israeli flag was burned while the flags
of
Hamas

Hamas and
Hezbollah

Hezbollah were waved, and the rhetoric was often
antisemitic—not just anti-Israel.[348] Judith Popinski, an
86-year-old
Holocaust

Holocaust survivor, stated that she is no longer invited
to schools that have a large
Muslim

Muslim presence to tell her story of
surviving the Holocaust.[346] In December 2010, the Jewish
human rights organization
Simon Wiesenthal Center

Simon Wiesenthal Center issued a travel
advisory concerning Sweden, advising
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews to express "extreme caution"
when visiting the southern parts of the country due to an alleged
increase in verbal and physical harassment of Jewish citizens in the
city of Malmö.[349] Ilmar Reepalu, the mayor of
Malmö

Malmö for
over 15 years, has been accused of failing to protect the Jewish
community in Malmö, causing 30 Jewish families to leave the city in
2010, and more preparing to leave, which has left the possibility that
Malmö's Jewish community will disappear soon. Critics of Reepalu say
that his statements, such as antisemitism in
Malmö

Malmö actually being an
"understandable" consequence of Israeli policy in the Middle East,
have encouraged young Muslims to abuse and harass the Jewish
community.[343] In an interview with the Sunday Telegraph in
February 2010, Reepalu said, "There haven't been any attacks on Jewish
people, and if
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews from the city want to move to
Israel

Israel that is not a
matter for Malmö," which renewed concerns about Reepalu.[350]
Ukraine
Main article:
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in Ukraine
Antisemithic graffiti in Lviv;
Yids

Yids will not reside in Lviv, 2007
Oleh Tyahnybok, the leader of the far-right Svoboda party, whose
members hold senior positions in Ukraine's government, urged his party
to fight "the Moscow-Jewish mafia ruling Ukraine."[351] The
Algemeiner Journal

Algemeiner Journal reported: "Svoboda supporters include among their
heroes leaders of pro-
Nazi

Nazi
World War II

World War II organizations known for their
atrocities against
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and Poles, such as the Organization of
Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), the
Ukrainian Insurgent Army
.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_(1928–1980).svg.png)
Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), and
the 14th Waffen-SS Galicia Division."[352]
According to The
Simon Wiesenthal Center

Simon Wiesenthal Center (in January 2011) "Ukraine
has, to the best of our knowledge, never conducted a single
investigation of a local
Nazi

Nazi war criminal, let alone prosecuted a
Holocaust

Holocaust perpetrator."[353][354]
According to Der Spiegel, Dmytro Yarosh, leader of the far-right Right
Sector, wrote: "I wonder how it came to pass that most of the
billionaires in
Ukraine
.png/440px-Czech_Rep._-_Bohemia,_Moravia_and_Silesia_III_(en).png)
Ukraine are Jews?"[355] Late February 2014
Yarosh pledged during a meeting with Israel's ambassador in
Kiev

Kiev to
fight all forms of racism.[356] Right Sector's leader for West
Ukraine, Oleksandr Muzychko, has talked about fighting "communists,
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and Russians for as long as blood flows in my
veins."[357] Muzychko was shot dead on 24 March
2014.[358] An official inquiry concluded he had shot himself
in the heart at the end of a chase with the Ukrainian
police.[358]
In April 2014,
Donetsk

Donetsk Chief
Rabbi

Rabbi Pinchas Vishedski said that
"Anti-Semitic incidents in the Russian-speaking east were rare, unlike
in
Kiev

Kiev and western Ukraine."[359] In an April 2014 article
about anti-Jewish violence in
Ukraine
.png/440px-Czech_Rep._-_Bohemia,_Moravia_and_Silesia_III_(en).png)
Ukraine in
Haaretz

Haaretz no incidents outside
this "Russian-speaking east" were mentioned.[360]
According to the Israel's Ambassador to Ukraine, the antisemitism
occurs here much less frequently than in other European countries, and
has more a hooligan's nature rather than a system.[361]
In March 2017, Ukrainian politician
Nadiya Savchenko

Nadiya Savchenko said during a
television interview that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews held disproportionate control over
Ukraine.[362] In May 2017, the Security Service of Ukraine
(SBU) senior officer Vasily Vovk wrote that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews "aren't Ukrainians
and I will destroy you along with [Ukrainian oligarch and Jewish
lawmaker Vadim] Rabinovych. I'm telling you one more time - go to
hell, zhidi [kikes], the Ukrainian people have had it to here with
you.
Ukraine
.png/440px-Czech_Rep._-_Bohemia,_Moravia_and_Silesia_III_(en).png)
Ukraine must be governed by Ukrainians."[363]
The antisemitism report for 2017 that Israel's Ministry of Diaspora
Affairs under
Naftali Bennett

Naftali Bennett published in January 2018 stated that "A
striking exception in the trend of decrease in antisemitic incidents
in Eastern
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe was Ukraine, where the number of recorded
antisemitic attacks was doubled from last year and surpassed the tally
for all the incidents reported throughout the entire region
combined.".[364]
United Kingdom
Trends in
Antisemitic

Antisemitic Attitudes in United
Kingdom[365][366][367][368][369]
Percent responding "probably true"
10
20
30
40
50
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are more loyal to
Israel

Israel than to this country
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews have too much power in the business world
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews have too much power in international financial markets
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews still talk too much about the Holocaust
2004
2005
2007
2009
2012
Main articles:
Antisemitism in the United Kingdom

Antisemitism in the United Kingdom and British Jews
In 2017 an
Institute for Jewish Policy Research

Institute for Jewish Policy Research survey found that the
levels of antisemitism in Great Britain were among the lowest in the
world, with 2.4% expressing multiple antisemitic attitudes, and about
70% having a favourable opinion of Jews. However, only 17% had a
favourable opinion of Israel, with 33% holding an unfavourable
view.[370][371]
In 2017, a report by the
Campaign Against Antisemitism

Campaign Against Antisemitism (CAA) found
that the previous year, 2016, had been the worst on record for
antisemitic hate crime in the UK.[372] Prior to that, 2015 had
been the worst year on record, and 2014 was the worst year on record
before that. The report found that in 2016, antisemitic crime rose by
15% compared to 2015, or 45% compared to 2014. It also found that 1 in
10 antisemitic crimes was violent. Despite rising levels of
antisemitic crime, the report said there had been a decrease in the
charging of antisemitic crime. In the report's foreword, the CAA's
Chairman wrote: "Britain has the political will to fight antisemitism
and strong laws with which to do it, but those responsible for
tackling the rapidly growing racist targeting of British
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are
failing to enforce the law. There is a very real danger of Jewish
citizens emigrating, as has happened elsewhere in
Europe
.svg/400px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Europe unless there
is radical change."[372]
Every year since 2015, the CAA has commissioned polling by YouGov
concerning the attitude of the British public toward British Jews. In
2017, their polling found that 36% of British adults believed at least
one of the antisemitic statements pollsters had shown them to be true,
a reduction from 39% in 2016 and 45% in 2015. Additionally, the
polling revealed widespread fear amongst British Jews, with almost 1
in 3 saying that they had considered emigrating in the last two years
due to antisemitism, and 37% saying that they concealed their Judaism
in public. The report gave various indications as to the cause of the
fears, with British
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews identifying Islamist antisemitism, far-left
antisemitism and far-right antisemitism as their main concerns, in
that order. 78% of British
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews saying that they had witnessed
antisemitism disguised as a political comment about Israel, 76%
thoughts that political developments were contributing antisemitism,
and 52% felt that the
Crown Prosecution Service

Crown Prosecution Service was not doing
enough.[373][374]
In 2005, a group of British Members of Parliament set up an inquiry
into antisemitism, which published its findings in 2006. Its report
stated that "until recently, the prevailing opinion both within the
Jewish community and beyond [had been] that antisemitism had receded
to the point that it existed only on the margins of society." It found
a reversal of this progress since 2000. The inquiry was reconstituted
following a surge in antisemitic incidents in Britain during the
summer of 2014, and the new inquiry published its report in 2015,
making recommendations for reducing antisemitism.[375]
In 2016, the
Home Affairs Select Committee held an inquiry into the
rise of antisemitism in the UK.[376] The inquiry called David
Cameron, Tim Farron, Angus Robertson,[377] Jeremy
Corbyn,[378] Ken Livingstone[379] and others to give
evidence.
North America
Canada
Main article:
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in Canada
Although antisemitism in Canada is less prevalent than in many other
countries, there have been recent incidents. For example, a 2004 study
identified 24 incidents of antisemitism between 14 March and 14 July
2004 in Newfoundland, Montreal, Quebec City, Ottawa, the Greater
Toronto Area (GTA), and some smaller Ontario communities. The
incidents included vandalism and other attacks on four synagogues, six
cemeteries, four schools, and a number of businesses and private
residences.[380]
United States
Main article:
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in the United States
See also:
History of antisemitism

History of antisemitism in the United States
In November 2005, the
U.S. Commission on Civil Rights examined
antisemitism on college campuses. It reported that "incidents of
threatened bodily injury, physical intimidation or property damage are
now rare", but antisemitism still occurs on many campuses and is a
"serious problem." The Commission recommended that the U.S. Department
of Education's
Office for Civil Rights

Office for Civil Rights protect college students from
antisemitism through vigorous enforcement of Title VI of the Civil
Rights Act of 1964 and further recommended that Congress clarify that
Title VI applies to discrimination against Jewish
students.[381]
On 19 September 2006,
Yale University

Yale University founded the Yale Initiative for
the Interdisciplinary Study of Anti-Semitism (YIISA), the first North
American university-based center for study of the subject, as part of
its Institution for Social and Policy Studies. Director Charles Small
of the Center cited the increase in antisemitism worldwide in recent
years as generating a "need to understand the current manifestation of
this disease".[382] In June 2011, Yale voted to close this
initiative. After carrying out a routine review, the faculty review
committee said that the initiative had not met its research and
teaching standards. Donald Green, then head of Yale's Institution for
Social and Policy Studies, the body under whose aegis the antisemitism
initiative was run, said that it had not had many papers published in
the relevant leading journals or attracted many students. As with
other programs that had been in a similar situation, the initiative
had therefore been cancelled.[383][384] This decision
has been criticized by figures such as former U.S. Commission on Civil
Rights Staff Director Kenneth L. Marcus, who is now the director of
the Initiative to Combat Anti-Semitism and Anti-Israelism in America's
Educational Systems at the Institute for Jewish and Community
Research, and Deborah Lipstadt, who described the decision as "weird"
and "strange."[385]
Antony Lerman has supported Yale's
decision, describing the YIISA as a politicized initiative that was
devoted to the promotion of
Israel

Israel rather than to serious research on
antisemitism.[386]
A 2007 survey by the
Anti-Defamation League

Anti-Defamation League (ADL) concluded that 15%
of Americans hold antisemitic views, which was in-line with the
average of the previous ten years, but a decline from the 29% of the
early sixties. The survey concluded that education was a strong
predictor, "with most educated Americans being remarkably free of
prejudicial views." The belief that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews have too much power was
considered a common antisemitic view by the ADL. Other views
indicating antisemitism, according to the survey, include the view
that
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are more loyal to
Israel

Israel than America, and that they are
responsible for the death of
Jesus

Jesus of Nazareth. The survey found that
antisemitic Americans are likely to be intolerant generally, e.g.
regarding immigration and free-speech. The 2007 survey also found that
29% of foreign-born Hispanics and 32% of African-Americans hold strong
antisemitic beliefs, three times more than the 10% for
whites.[387]
A 2009 study published in
Boston Review

Boston Review found that nearly 25% of
non-Jewish Americans blamed
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews for the financial crisis of
2007–2008, with a higher percentage among Democrats than
Republicans. 32% of Democrats blamed
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews for the financial crisis,
versus 18% for Republicans.[388][389]
In August 2012, the
California state assembly

California state assembly approved a non-binding
resolution that "encourages university leaders to combat a wide array
of anti-Jewish and anti-
Israel

Israel actions," although the resolution "is
purely symbolic and does not carry policy implications."[390]
In April 2017,
Politico

Politico Magazine published an article purporting to
show links between U.S. President Donald Trump, Russian President
Vladimir Putin
.jpg/420px-Vladimir_Putin_(2017-07-08).jpg)
Vladimir Putin and the Jewish outreach organization
Chabad-Lubavitch.[391] The article was condemned, with the
head of the
Anti-Defamation League

Anti-Defamation League
Jonathan Greenblatt

Jonathan Greenblatt saying that it
"evokes age-old myths about Jews".[392][393]
In November 2017, Jonathan Greenblatt, national director and CEO of
the Anti-
Defamation

Defamation League, stated in an interview, "While
anti-Semitic attitudes have remained consistent at 14%... anti-Semitic
incidents have been on the rise. In 2016 we saw a 34% increase over
the prior year in acts of harassment, vandalism, or violence directed
at Jewish individuals and institutions. During the first three
quarters of 2017, there was a 67% increase over the same period in
2016. We've seen double the number of incidents in K-12 schools, and
almost a 60% increase on college campuses." [394]
On October 29, 2018, an antisemitic terrorist attacked the Tree of
Life
Synagogue

Synagogue in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[395]
On April 25, 2019, The New York Times's international edition
included a cartoon featuring U.S. President
Donald Trump

Donald Trump and Israeli
PM Benjamin Netanyahu. Trump was shown wearing a kippah and Netanyahu
was displayed as Trump's dog wearing a collar with the Star of
David.[396] After criticism from public and religious figures,
The Times admitted to using "anti-Semitic
tropes".[397][398] On April 29, The New York Times
came under scrutiny again for publishing another anti-Semitic cartoon
featuring PM Netanyahu.[399]
South America
Venezuela
Antisemitic

Antisemitic graffiti in Venezuela, alongside a hammer and sickle
Further information:
Antisemitism in Venezuela

Antisemitism in Venezuela and History of the Jews
in Venezuela
In a 2009 news story, Michael Rowan and Douglas E. Schoen wrote, "In
an infamous Christmas Eve speech several years ago, Chávez said the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews killed Christ and have been gobbling up wealth and causing
poverty and injustice worldwide ever since."[400] Hugo Chávez
stated that "[t]he world is for all of us, then, but it so happens
that a minority, the descendants of the same ones that crucified
Christ, the descendants of the same ones that kicked Bolívar out of
here and also crucified him in their own way over there in Santa
Marta, in Colombia. A minority has taken possession of all of the
wealth of the world."[401]
In February 2012, opposition candidate for the 2012 Venezuelan
presidential election
Henrique Capriles

Henrique Capriles was subject to what foreign
journalists characterized as vicious[402] attacks by state-run
media sources.[403][404] The
Wall Street

Wall Street Journal said
that Capriles "was vilified in a campaign in Venezuela's state-run
media, which insinuated he was, among other things, a homosexual and a
Zionist agent".[402] A 13 February 2012 opinion article in the
state-owned Radio Nacional de Venezuela, titled "The Enemy is
Zionism"[405] attacked Capriles' Jewish ancestry and linked
him with Jewish national groups because of a meeting he had held with
local Jewish leaders,[402][403][406] saying,
"This is our enemy, the
Zionism

Zionism that Capriles today represents...
Zionism, along with capitalism, are responsible for 90% of world
poverty and imperialist wars."[402]
See also
Judaism

Judaism portal
1968 Polish political crisis
Antisemitism

Antisemitism around the world
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in the anti-globalization movement
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in the
Arab
.jpg)
Arab world
Anti-Jewish violence in Eastern Europe, 1944–1946
Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946
Anti-Middle Eastern sentiment
Criticism of Judaism
Farhud
Host desecration
Jacob Barnet affair
Anti-Semite and Jew
Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory
May Laws
Orientalism
Persecution

Persecution of Jews
Secondary antisemitism
Stab-in-the-back legend
Timeline of antisemitism
References
Notes
^ "anti-Semitism". Oxford Dictionaries - English. Retrieved 27 October
2018..mw-parser-output cite.citation font-style:inherit
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^ a b "anti-Semitism". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 27
October 2018.
^ See, for example:
"Anti-Semitism". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006.
Johnson, Paul (1988). A History of the Jews. HarperPerennial.
p. 133.
Lewis, Bernard. "The New Anti-Semitism" Archived 8 September 2011 at
the Wayback Machine, The American Scholar, Volume 75 No. 1, Winter
2006, pp. 25–36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at
Brandeis University

Brandeis University on 24 March 2004.
^
United Nations General Assembly

United Nations General Assembly Session 53 Resolution
133. Measures to combat contemporary forms of racism, racial
discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance
A/RES/53/133 page 4. 1 March 1999.
^ Nathan, Julie (9 November 2014). "2014 Report on
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in
Australia" (PDF). Executive Council of Australian Jewry. Retrieved 27
October 2018.
^ a b Wisse, Ruth (17 May 2018). "Podcast:
Ruth Wisse on the Nature
and Functions of Anti-Semitism". Tikvah. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
^ Bein 1990, p. 595.
^ a b c d Lipstadt 2019, p. 22–25.
^ Chanes 2004, p. 150.
^ Rattansi 2007, p. 4–5.
^ Roth 2003, p. 30.
^ Johnston 1983, p. 27.
^ Laqueur (2006). p. 21.
^ Johnson 1987, p. 133.
^ a b Lewis, Bernard. "Semites and Antisemites". Archived from the
original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 27 October 2018.. Extract from
Islam

Islam in History: Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East, The
Library Press, 1973.
Lewis, Bernard. "The New Anti-Semitism" Archived 8 November 2017 at
the Wayback Machine, The American Scholar, Volume 75 No. 1, Winter
2006, pp. 25–36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at
Brandeis University

Brandeis University on 24 March 2004.
^ Bein, Alex (1990). The Jewish Question: Biography of a World
Problem. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 594.
ISBN 978-0-8386-3252-9. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
^ Falk (2008), p. 21
^ Poliakov, Léon (2003). The History of Anti-Semitism, Vol. 3: From
Voltaire
_-001.jpg/440px-Nicolas_de_Largillière,_François-Marie_Arouet_dit_Voltaire_(vers_1724-1725)_-001.jpg)
Voltaire to Wagner. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 404.
ISBN 978-0-8122-1865-7.
^ Falk, Avner (2008). Anti-Semitism: A History and Psychoanalysis of
Contemporary Hatred. Westport, Conn.: Praeger. p. 21.
ISBN 9780313353840. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
^ Brustein, William I. (2003). Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe
before the Holocaust. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
p. 118. ISBN 9780521774789. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
^ Hess, Jonathan M. (Winter 2000). "Johann David Michaelis and the
Colonial Imaginary:
Orientalism

Orientalism and the Emergence of Racial
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in Eighteenth-Century Germany". Jewish Social Studies. 6
(2): 56–101. doi:10.1353/jss.2000.0003. When the term "antisemitism"
was first introduced in
Germany

Germany in the late 1870s, those who used it
did so in order to stress the radical difference between their own
"antisemitism" and earlier forms of antagonism toward
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and
Judaism.
^ Jaspal, Rusi (2014). "Antisemitism: Conceptual Issues". Antisemitism
and Anti-Zionism: Representation, Cognition and Everyday Talk.
Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing. Retrieved 27 October 2018. Jaspal
erroneously gives the date of publication as 1873.
^ Marr, Wilhelm. Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom
nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet. Rudolph Costenoble.
1879, 8th edition/printing. Archive.org. Marr uses the word
"Semitismus" (Semitism) on pages 7, 11, 14, 30, 32, and 46; for
example, one finds in the conclusion the following passage: "Ja, ich
bin überzeutgt, ich habe ausgesprochen, was Millionen Juden im
Stillen denken: Dem Semitismus gehört die Weltherrschaft!" (Yes, I am
convinced that I have articulated what millions of
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews are quietly
thinking: World domination belongs to Semitism!) (p. 46).
^ Marr, Wilhem (1879). "The Victory of
Judaism

Judaism over Germanism: Viewed
from a Nonreligious Point of View" (PDF). Translated by Rohringer,
Gerhard. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
^ "Wilhelm Marr". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
^ a b Zimmermann, Moshe (1987). Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of
Anti-Semitism. Oxford University Press. p. 112.
ISBN 978-0-19-536495-8. Retrieved 27 October 2018. The term
"anti-Semitism" was unsuitable from the beginning for the real essence
of Jew-hatred, which remained anchored, more or less, in the Christian
tradition even when it moved via the natural sciences, into racism. It
is doubtful whether the term which was first publicizes in an
institutional context (the Anti-Semitic League) would have appeared at
all if the "Anti-Chancellor League," which fought Bismarck's policy,
had not been in existence since 1875. The founders of the new
Organization adopted the elements of "anti" and "league," and searched
for the proper term: Marr exchanged the term "Jew" for "Semite" which
he already favored. It is possible that the shortened form "Sem" is
used with such frequency and ease by Marr (and in his writings) due to
its literary advantage and because it reminded Marr of Sem Biedermann,
his Jewish employer from the
Vienna

Vienna period.
^ Deutsch, Gotthard. "Anti-Semitism". The Jewish Encyclopedia. Funk
& Wagnalls. p. 641 (A). Retrieved 27 October 2018.
^ "The
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews in Germany". The Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature,
Science, and Art (originally The Contemporary Review).
Vol. XXXIII. Leavitt, Trow & Company. March 1881.
p. 350. ...the position of German Liberals in this matter of
philo-Semitism.
^ Isaac, Benjamin (2004). The Invention of
Racism

Racism in Classical
Antiquity. Princeton University Press. p. 442.
ISBN 9781400849567. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
^ Matas, David (2005). Aftershock:
Anti-Zionism

Anti-Zionism and Antisemitism.
Dundurn Press. p. 34. ISBN 9781550025538. Retrieved 27
October 2018.
^ Lewis (1999), p. 117
^ "Memo on Spelling of Antisemitism" (PDF). International Holocaust
Remembrance Alliance. April 2015. ...the hyphenated spelling allows
for the possibility of something called ‘Semitism’, which not only
legitimizes a form of pseudo- scientific racial classification that
was thoroughly discredited by association with
Nazi

Nazi ideology, but also
divides the term, stripping it from its meaning of opposition and
hatred toward Jews.
^ a b "Memo on Spelling of Antisemitism" (PDF). International
Holocaust

Holocaust Remembrance Alliance. April 2015. The unhyphenated spelling
is favored by many scholars and institutions in order to dispel the
idea that there is an entity ‘Semitism’ which ‘anti-Semitism’
opposes.
^ "The Power of Myth" (PDF). Facing History. Archived from the
original (PDF) on 5 March 2009. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
^ Bauer, Yehuda. "Problems of Contemporary Antisemitism" (PDF).
Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2008. Retrieved 27 October
2018.
^ Bauer, Yehuda (1982). A History of the Holocaust. Franklin Watts.
p. 52. ISBN 978-0-531-05641-7.
^ Almog, Shmuel. "What's in a Hyphen?". Retrieved 27 October 2018.,
SICSA Report: Newsletter of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for
the Study of
Antisemitism

Antisemitism (Summer 1989).
^ Prager & Telushkin (2003), p. 199
^ Carroll, James (2002). Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews.
New York: Mariner. pp. 628–629. ISBN 978-0618219087.
Retrieved 27 October 2018.
^ Sevenster, Jan Nicolaas (1975). The Roots of
Pagan
_b_016.jpg/580px-Die_Gartenlaube_(1887)_b_016.jpg)
Pagan Anti-Semitism in
the Ancient World. Brill Archive. pp. 1–2.
ISBN 978-90-04-04193-6. Retrieved 27 October 2018. It has long
been realised that there are objections to the term anti-Semitism and
therefore an endeavour has been made to find a word which better
interprets the meaning intended. Already in 1936 Bolkestein, for
example, wrote an article on Het "antisemietisme" in de oudheid
(Anti-Semitism in the ancient world) in which the word was placed
between quotation marks and a preference was expressed for the term
hatred of the Jews… Nowadays the term anti-
Judaism

Judaism is often
preferred. It certainly expresses better than anti-Semitism the fact
that it concerns the attitude to the
Jews
.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg)
Jews and avoids any suggestion of
racial distinction, which was not or hardly, a factor of any
significance in ancient times. For this reason Leipoldt preferred to
speak of anti-
Judaism

Judaism when writing his Antisemitsmus in der alien Welt
(l933). Bonsirven also preferred this word to Anti-Semitism, "mot
moderne qui implique une théorie des races".
^ a b Weinberg, Sonja (2010). Pogroms and Riots: German Press
Responses to Anti-Jewish Violence in
Germany

Germany and Russia (1881–1882).
Peter Lang. ISBN 9783631602140. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
^ Falk (2008), p. 5
^ Lewis, Bernard. "The New Anti-Semitism" Archived 8 September 2011 at
the Wayback Machine, The American Scholar, Volume 75 No. 1, Winter
2006, pp. 25–36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at
Brandeis University

Brandeis University on 24 March 2004.
^ "Report on Global Anti-Semitism", U.S. State Department, 5 January
2005.
^ "Working Definition of Antisemitism" (PDF).
European Union

European Union Agency
for Fundamental Rights. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March
2011. Retrieved 24 July 2010.
^
Jewish Telegraphic Agency

Jewish Telegraphic Agency (5 December 2013). "What is anti-Semitism?
EU racism agency unable to define term".
Jerusalem

Jerusalem Post.
^ "EUMC
Working Definition of Antisemitism " EPWG". www.antisem.eu.
Retrieved 23 August 2016.
^ "Defining Anti-Semitism". Archived from the original on 10 February
2017. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
^ "Hate crime". www.app.college.police.uk. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
^ "Definition of antisemitism". 13 July 2015. Retrieved 23 August
2016.
^ "
Working Definition of Antisemitism IHRA" (PDF).
www.holocaustremembrance.com. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
^ "US House of Representatives votes to condemn antisemitism after
Ilhan Omar's '
Israel

Israel loyalty' remarks". theJC. Accusing Jewish
citizens of being more loyal to
Israel

Israel than to their interests of
their own nation is listed by the International
Holocaust

Holocaust Remembrance
Alliance as an example of contemporary antisemitism in public life
^ Richard S. Levy, "Marr, Wilhelm (1819–1904)" in Levy (2005), vol.
2, pp. 445–446
^ Richard S. Geehr. Karl Lueger, Mayor of Fin-de-Siècle Vienna, Wayne
State University Press, Detroit, 1989. ISBN 0-8143-2055-4
^ Dr.
Karl Lueger

Karl Lueger Dead; Anti-Semitic Leader and Mayor of
Vienna

Vienna Was 66
Years Old. The New York Times, 11 March 1910.
^ Bartlett, Steven J. (2005). The Pathology of Man: A Study of Human
Evil. Charles C Thomas Publisher. pp. 30–.
ISBN 9780398075576. Retrieved 2 June 2015.
^ Pinsker, Leon (1906). Auto-Emancipation. Translated by Blondheim,
D.S. New York: The Maccabaean Publishing Company. pp. 3, 4.,
English and Hebrew translations.
^ Daily Telegraph, 12 November 1938. Cited in Gilbert, Martin.
Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction. Harper Collins, 2006, p. 142.
^ Jacob Rader Marcus. United States Jewry, 1776–1985. Wayne State
University Press, 1989, p. 286. ISBN 0-8143-2186-0
^ Alex Bein. The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem.
Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990, p. 580.
ISBN 0-8386-3252-1
^ Yehuda Bauer: The Most Ancient Group
Prejudice in Leo Eitinger
(1984): The Anti-Semitism of Our Time. Oslo. Nansen Committee. p. 14.
citing from: Jocelyn Hellig (2003):
The Holocaust

The Holocaust and Antisemitism: A
Short History. Oneworld Publications. p. 73.
ISBN 1-85168-313-5.
^ König, René (2004). Materialien zur Kriminalsoziologie. VS Verlag.
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^ Cawthorne, Andrew (1 April 2012). "Insight: The man who would beat
Hugo Chávez". Reuters. Retrieved 10 May 2012.
^ "Anti-Semitic article appears in Venezuela". Anti-
Defamation

Defamation League.
17 February 2012. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved
7 May 2012. Includes English translation of Venezuelan National Radio
article.
^ "Chavez allies attack new opponent Capriles as Jewish, gay". MSNBC.
15 February 2012. Archived from the original on 2 May 2012. Retrieved
10 May 2012.
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Bein, Alex (1990). The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem.
Translated by Harry Zohn. Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson
University Press. ISBN 978-0-8386-3252-9.
Chanes, Jerome A. (2004). Antisemitism: a Reference Handbook.
ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-209-7.
Flannery, Edward H. (1985). The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-three
Centuries of Antisemitism. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-4324-5.
Flannery, Edward H. (2004). The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three
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Falk, Avner (2008). Anti-Semitism: a History and Psychoanalysis of
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Johnston, William (1983). The Austrian Mind: An Intellectual and
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Laqueur, Walter (2006). The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From
Ancient Times to the Present Day (1st ed.). Oxford University Press.
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Levy, Richard S., ed. (2005). Antisemitism: a Historical Encyclopedia
of
Prejudice and Persecution. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
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Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: an Inquiry into
Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co.
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Lipstadt, Deborah (2019). Antisemitism: Here and Now. Schocken Books.
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Perry, Marvin; Schweitzer, Frederick M. (2002). Antisemitism: Myth and
Hate from Antiquity to the Present. Palgrave Macmillan.
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Perry, Marvin; Schweitzer, Frederick M. (2005). Antisemitism: Myth and
Hate from Antiquity to the Present. New York: Palgrave.
ISBN 978-0-312-16561-1.
Poliakov, Léon. The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 1: From the Time
of Christ to the Court Jews, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003
Poliakov, Léon. The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 2: From Mohammad
to the Marranos, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003
Poliakov, Léon. The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 3: From Voltaire
to Wagner, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003
Poliakov, Léon. The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 4: Suicidal
Europe
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Europe 1870–1933, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003
Poliakov, Léon (1997). "Anti-Semitism".
Encyclopaedia Judaica (CD-ROM
Edition Version 1.0). Ed. Cecil Roth. Keter Publishing House.
ISBN 965-07-0665-8
Prager, Dennis; Telushkin, Joseph (2003) [1985]. Why the Jews? The
Reason for
Antisemitism

Antisemitism (reprint ed.). Touchstone.
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Rattansi, Ali (2007). Racism: A Very Short Introduction. OUP Oxford.
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Rubenstein, Richard L.; Roth, John K. (2003). Approaches to Auschwitz:
The Holocaust

The Holocaust and Its Legacy. Westminster John Knox Press.
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Tausch, Arno (2018). The Return of Religious Antisemitism? The
Evidence from World Values Survey Data (November 17, 2018). Available
at SSRN
Tausch, Arno (2015).
Islamism

Islamism and Antisemitism. Preliminary Evidence
on Their Relationship from Cross-National Opinion Data (August 14,
2015). Available at SSRN or https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2600825
Tausch, Arno (2014). The New Global Antisemitism: Implications from
the Recent ADL-100 Data (January 14, 2015). Middle East Review of
International Affairs, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Fall 2014). Available at SSRN
or https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2549654
Anti-semitism entry by Gotthard Deutsch in the Jewish Encyclopedia,
1901–1906 ed.
Further reading
Books and reports
Bodansky, Yossef. Islamic Anti-Semitism as a Political Instrument,
Freeman Center For Strategic Studies, 1999.
Carr, Steven Alan. Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up
to World War II, Cambridge University Press 2001.
Cohn, Norman. Warrant for Genocide, Eyre & Spottiswoode 1967;
Serif, 1996.
Freudmann, Lillian C.
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in the New Testament, University
Press of America, 1994.
Gerber, Jane S. (1986). "Anti-Semitism and the
Muslim

Muslim World". In
History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism, ed. David Berger.
Jewish Publications Society. ISBN 0-8276-0267-7
Hilberg, Raul. The Destruction of the European Jews. Holmes &
Meier, 1985. 3 volumes.
Isser, Natalie.
Antisemitism

Antisemitism during the French Second Empire (1991)
Kertzer, David I. (2014). The Pope and Mussolini: The Secret History
of Pius XI and the Rise of
Fascism

Fascism in Europe. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 9780198716167.
McKain, Mark. Anti-Semitism: At Issue, Greenhaven Press, 2005.
Marcus, Kenneth L. The Definition of Anti-Semitism, 2015, Oxford
University Press
Michael, Robert and Philip Rosen. Dictionary of Antisemitism, The
Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2007
Michael, Robert. Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the
Holocaust
Nirenberg, David. Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition (New York: W. W.
Norton & Company, 2013) 610 pp.
Richardson, Peter (1986). Anti-
Judaism

Judaism in Early Christianity. Wilfrid
Laurier University Press. ISBN 978-0-88920-167-5.
Roth, Philip. The Plot Against America, 2004
Selzer, Michael (ed). "Kike!" : A Documentary History of
Anti-Semitism in America, New York 1972.
Steinweis, Alan E. Studying the Jew: Scholarly
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in Nazi
Germany.
Harvard University

Harvard University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-674-02205-X.
Stillman, Norman (1979). The
Jews
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Jews of
Arab
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Arab Lands: A History and Source
Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America.
ISBN 0-8276-0198-0
Stillman, N.A. (2006). "Yahud". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Eds.: P.J.
Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P.
Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online
"Contemporary Global Anti-Semitism: A Report Provided to the United
States Congress" (PDF). (7.4 MB), United States Department
of State, 2008. Retrieved 25 November 2010. See HTML version.
Stav, Arieh (1999). Peace: The Arabian Caricature – A Study of
Anti-semitic Imagery. Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 965-229-215-X
Tausch, Arno (14 January 2015). "The New Global Antisemitism:
Implications from the Recent ADL-100 Data". Middle East Review of
International Affairs. 18 (3 (Fall 2014)). doi:10.2139/ssrn.2549654.
SSRN 2549654.
Bibliographies, calendars, etc.
Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles, "Experts explore effects of
Ahmadinejad anti-Semitism", 9 March 2007
Lazare, Bernard, Antisemitism: Its History and Causes
Anti-Defamation League

Anti-Defamation League
Arab
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Arab Antisemitism
Why the Jews? A perspective on causes of anti-Semitism
Coordination Forum for Countering
Antisemitism

Antisemitism (with up to date
calendar of antisemitism today)
Annotated bibliography of anti-Semitism hosted by the Hebrew
University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of
Antisemitism

Antisemitism (SICSA)
Council of Europe, ECRI Country-by-Country Reports
Porat, Dina. "What makes an anti-Semite?", Haaretz, 27 January 2007.
Retrieved 24 November 2010.
Yehoshua, A.B., An Attempt to Identify the Root Cause of Antisemitism,
Azure, Spring 2008.
Antisemitism

Antisemitism in modern Ukraine
Antisemitism

Antisemitism and
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Look up anti-, Semite, -ism, anti-Semitism, or antisemitism in
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