Antisemitism
Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility to, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews.[1][2][3] A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism
Antisemitism is generally considered to be a form of racism.[4][5] It has also been characterized as a political ideology which serves as an organizing principle and unites disparate groups which are opposed to liberalism.[6] Antisemitism
Antisemitism may be manifested in many ways, ranging from expressions of hatred of or discrimination against individual Jews
Jews to organized pogroms by mobs, state police, or even military attacks on entire Jewish communities. Although the term did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is now also applied to historic anti-Jewish incidents. Notable instances of persecution include the Rhineland massacres preceding the First Crusade
First Crusade in 1096, the Edict of Expulsion from England in 1290, the massacres of Spanish Jews
Jews in 1391, the persecutions of the Spanish Inquisition, the expulsion from Spain in 1492, the Cossack massacres in Ukraine
Ukraine from 1648 to 1657, various anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire between 1821 and 1906, the 1894–1906 Dreyfus affair
Dreyfus affair in France, the Holocaust
Holocaust in German-occupied Europe
Europe during World War II, Soviet anti-Jewish policies, and Arab
Arab and Muslim
Muslim involvement in the Jewish exodus from Arab
Arab and Muslim countries. The root word Semite gives the false impression that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic people, e.g., including Arabs
Arabs and Assyrians. The compound word Antisemitismus ("antisemitism") was first used in print in Germany
Germany in 1879[7] as a scientific-sounding term for Judenhass ("Jew-hatred"),[8][9][10][11][12][13] and this has been its common use since then.[14][8][15]

Contents

1 Origin and usage

1.1 Etymology 1.2 Usage 1.3 Definition 1.4 Evolution of usage

2 Manifestations

2.1 Cultural antisemitism 2.2 Religious antisemitism 2.3 Economic antisemitism 2.4 Racial antisemitism 2.5 Political antisemitism 2.6 Conspiracy theories 2.7 New antisemitism 2.8 Indology

3 History

3.1 Ancient world 3.2 Persecutions during the Middle Ages 3.3 17th century 3.4 Enlightenment 3.5 Voltaire 3.6 Louis de Bonald
Louis de Bonald and the Catholic Counter-Revolution 3.7 Imperial Russia 3.8 Islamic antisemitism in the 19th century 3.9 Secular or racial antisemitism 3.10 20th century 3.11 21st-century European antisemitism 3.12 21st-century Arab
Arab antisemitism

4 Causes 5 Current situation

5.1 Africa

5.1.1 Algeria 5.1.2 Egypt 5.1.3 Libya 5.1.4 Morocco 5.1.5 South Africa 5.1.6 Tunisia

5.2 Asia

5.2.1 Iran 5.2.2 Japan 5.2.3 Lebanon 5.2.4 Malaysia 5.2.5 Palestine 5.2.6 Pakistan 5.2.7 Saudi Arabia 5.2.8 Turkey

5.3 Europe

5.3.1 Austria 5.3.2 France 5.3.3 Germany 5.3.4 Greece 5.3.5 Hungary 5.3.6 Italy 5.3.7 Netherlands 5.3.8 Norway 5.3.9 Poland 5.3.10 Russia 5.3.11 Spain 5.3.12 Sweden 5.3.13 Ukraine 5.3.14 United Kingdom

5.4 North America

5.4.1 Canada 5.4.2 United States

5.5 South America

5.5.1 Venezuela

6 See also 7 References

7.1 Notes 7.2 Bibliography

8 Further reading

8.1 Books and reports 8.2 Bibliographies, calendars, etc.

9 External links

Origin and usage Etymology

1879 statute of the Antisemitic
Antisemitic League The origin of "antisemitic" terminologies is found in the responses of Moritz Steinschneider
Moritz Steinschneider to the views of Ernest Renan. As Alex Bein writes: "The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, who challenged Renan on account of his 'anti-Semitic prejudices' [i.e., his derogation of the "Semites" as a race]."[16] Avner Falk similarly writes: 'The German word antisemitisch was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider
Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907) in the phrase antisemitische Vorurteile (antisemitic prejudices). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renan's false ideas about how "Semitic races" were inferior to " Aryan
Aryan races"'.[17] Pseudoscientific theories concerning race, civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in Europe
Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as Prussian nationalistic historian Heinrich von Treitschke
Heinrich von Treitschke did much to promote this form of racism. He coined the phrase "the Jews
Jews are our misfortune" which would later be widely used by Nazis.[18] According to Avner Falk, Treitschke uses the term "Semitic" almost synonymously with "Jewish", in contrast to Renan's use of it to refer to a whole range of peoples,[19] based generally on linguistic criteria.[20] According to Jonathan M. Hess, the term was originally used by its authors to "stress the radical difference between their own 'antisemitism' and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews
Jews and Judaism."[21]

Cover page of Marr's The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism, 1880 edition In 1879 German journalist Wilhelm Marr
Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet (The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective) in which he used the word Semitismus interchangeably with the word Judentum to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews
Jews as a collective) and "jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit).[22][23][24] This use of Semitismus was followed by a coining of "Antisemitismus" which was used to indicate opposition to the Jews
Jews as a people[citation needed] and opposition to the Jewish spirit, which Marr interpreted as infiltrating German culture. His next pamphlet, Der Weg zum Siege des Germanenthums über das Judenthum (The Way to Victory of the Germanic Spirit over the Jewish Spirit, 1880), presents a development of Marr's ideas further and may present the first published use of the German word Antisemitismus, "antisemitism". The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year he founded the Antisemiten-Liga (League of Antisemites),[25] apparently named to follow the "Anti-Kanzler-Liga" (Anti-Chancellor League).[26] The league was the first German organization committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to Germany
Germany and German culture posed by the Jews
Jews and their influence, and advocating their forced removal from the country. So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte, and Wilhelm Scherer used the term Antisemiten in the January issue of Neue Freie Presse. The Jewish Encyclopedia
Jewish Encyclopedia reports, "In February 1881, a correspondent of the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums
Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums speaks of 'Anti-Semitism' as a designation which recently came into use ("Allg. Zeit. d. Jud." 1881, p. 138). On 19 July 1882, the editor says, 'This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old.'"[27] The related term "philosemitism" was used as early as 1881.[28]

Usage From the outset the term "anti-Semitism" bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews.[2][8][15] The term is confusing, for in modern usage 'Semitic' designates a language group, not a race. In this sense, the term is a misnomer, since there are many speakers of Semitic languages
Semitic languages (e.g. Arabs, Ethiopians, and Assyrians) who are not the objects of antisemitic prejudices, while there are many Jews
Jews who do not speak Hebrew, a Semitic language. Though 'antisemitism' could be construed as prejudice against people who speak other Semitic languages, this is not how the term is commonly used.[29][30][31][32] The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen (antisemitism or anti-Semitism). Many scholars and institutions favor the unhyphenated form.[33][34][35][36] Shmuel Almog argued, "If you use the hyphenated form, you consider the words 'Semitism', 'Semite', 'Semitic' as meaningful ... [I]n antisemitic parlance, 'Semites' really stands for Jews, just that."[37] Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to "[dispel] the notion that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes."[38] Others endorsing an unhyphenated term for the same reason include the International Holocaust
Holocaust Remembrance Alliance,[33] historian Deborah Lipstadt,[8] Padraic O'Hare, professor of Religious and Theological Studies and Director of the Center for the Study of Jewish-Christian- Muslim
Muslim Relations at Merrimack College; and historians Yehuda Bauer
Yehuda Bauer and James Carroll. According to Carroll, who first cites O'Hare and Bauer on "the existence of something called 'Semitism'", "the hyphenated word thus reflects the bipolarity that is at the heart of the problem of antisemitism".[39] Objections to the usage of the term, such as the obsolete nature of the term Semitic as a racial term, have been raised since at least the 1930s.[26][40]

Definition Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, and, according to Olaf Blaschke, has become an "umbrella term for negative stereotypes about Jews",[41]:18 a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions. Holocaust
Holocaust scholar and City University of New York
City University of New York professor Helen Fein defines it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews
Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions—social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence—which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews
Jews as Jews." Elaborating on Fein's definition, Dietz Bering of the University of Cologne writes that, to antisemites, " Jews
Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews
Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews
Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews
Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character."[42] For Sonja Weinberg, as distinct from economic and religious anti-Judaism, antisemitism in its modern form shows conceptual innovation, a resort to 'science' to defend itself, new functional forms and organisational differences. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist. It promoted the myth that Jews
Jews conspired to 'judaise' the world; it served to consolidate social identity; it channeled dissatisfactions among victims of the capitalist system; and it was used as a conservative cultural code to fight emancipation and liberalism.[41]:18–19

Caricature by C.Léandre (France, 1898) showing Rothschild with the world in his hands Bernard Lewis
Bernard Lewis defines antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews
Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil." Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews
Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism.[43] There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. The United States Department of State states that "while there is no universally accepted definition, there is a generally clear understanding of what the term encompasses." For the purposes of its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism, the term was considered to mean "hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity."[44] In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism
Racism and Xenophobia
Xenophobia (now Fundamental Rights Agency), then an agency of the European Union, developed a more detailed working definition, which states: " Antisemitism
Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities." It also adds that "such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity," but that "criticism of Israel
Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic." It provides contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest itself, including: promoting the harming of Jews
Jews in the name of an ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding Jews
Jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual Jewish person or group; denying the Holocaust
Holocaust or accusing Jews
Jews or Israel
Israel of exaggerating it; and accusing Jews
Jews of dual loyalty or a greater allegiance to Israel
Israel than their own country. It also lists ways in which attacking Israel
Israel could be antisemitic, and states that denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel
Israel is a racist endeavor, can be a manifestation of antisemitism—as can applying double standards by requiring of Israel
Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation, or holding Jews
Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel.[45] Late in 2013, the definition was removed from the website of the Fundamental Rights Agency. A spokesperson said that it had never been regarded as official and that the agency did not intend to develop its own definition.[46] However, despite its disappearance from the website of the Fundamental Rights Agency, the definition has gained widespread international use. The definition has been adopted by the European Parliament
European Parliament Working Group on Antisemitism,[47] in 2010 it was adopted by the United States Department of State,[48] in 2014 it was adopted in the Operational Hate Crime Guidance of the UK College of Policing[49] and was also adopted by the Campaign Against Antisemitism,.[50] In 2016, the definition was adopted by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance. The definition is accompanied by illustrative examples; for instance, "Accusing Jewish citizens of being more loyal to Israel, or to the alleged priorities of Jews
Jews worldwide, than to the interests of their own nations."[51][52]

1889 Paris, France
France elections poster for self-described "candidat antisémite" Adolphe Willette: "The Jews
Jews are a different race, hostile to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!" (see file for complete translation) Evolution of usage In 1879, Wilhelm Marr
Wilhelm Marr founded the Antisemiten-Liga (Anti-Semitic League).[53] Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe
Europe during the late 19th century. For example, Karl Lueger, the popular mayor of fin de siècle Vienna, skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage.[54] In its 1910 obituary of Lueger, The New York Times
The New York Times notes that Lueger was "Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria.[55] In 1895 A. C. Cuza
A. C. Cuza organized the Alliance Anti-semitique Universelle in Bucharest. In the period before World War II, when animosity towards Jews
Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, an organization, or a political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic.

The early Zionist pioneer Leon Pinsker, a professional physician, preferred the clinical-sounding term Judeophobia to antisemitism, which he regarded as a misnomer. The word Judeophobia first appeared in his pamphlet "Auto-Emancipation", published anonymously in German in September 1882, where it was described as an irrational fear or hatred of Jews. According to Pinsker, this irrational fear was an inherited predisposition.[56] .mw-parser-output .templatequote overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px .mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0 Judeophobia is a form of demonopathy, with the distinction that the Jewish ghost has become known to the whole race of mankind, not merely to certain races.... Judeophobia is a psychic disorder. As a psychic disorder it is hereditary, and as a disease transmitted for two thousand years it is incurable.... Thus have Judaism
Judaism and Jew-hatred passed through history for centuries as inseparable companions.... Having analyzed Judeophobia as an hereditary form of demonopathy, peculiar to the human race, and represented Jew-hatred as based upon an inherited aberration of the human mind, we must draw the important conclusion, that we must give up contending against these hostile impulses, just as we give up contending against every other inherited predisposition.[57]

In the aftermath of the Kristallnacht
Kristallnacht pogrom in 1938, German propaganda minister Goebbels announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race."[58] After the 1945 victory of the Allies over Nazi
Nazi Germany, and particularly after the full extent of the Nazi
Nazi genocide against the Jews
Jews became known, the term "anti-Semitism" acquired pejorative connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when "Jew" was used as a pejorative term.[59][60] Yehuda Bauer
Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There are no anti-Semites in the world ... Nobody says, 'I am anti-Semitic.' You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion."[61]

Manifestations Jews
Jews (identified by the mandatory Jewish badge
Jewish badge and Jewish hat) being burned. Antisemitism
Antisemitism manifests itself in a variety of ways. René König mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious antisemitism, and political antisemitism as examples. König points out that these different forms demonstrate that the "origins of anti-Semitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods." König asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create "serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of anti-Semitism."[62] These difficulties may contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize the forms of antisemitism. The forms identified are substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ. Bernard Lazare
Bernard Lazare identifies three forms of antisemitism: Christian antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and ethnologic antisemitism.[63] William Brustein names four categories: religious, racial, economic and political.[64] The Roman Catholic
Roman Catholic historian Edward Flannery distinguished four varieties of antisemitism:[65]

political and economic antisemitism, giving as examples Cicero[66] and Charles Lindbergh;[67] theological or religious antisemitism, sometimes known as anti-Judaism;[68] nationalistic antisemitism, citing Voltaire
Voltaire and other Enlightenment thinkers, who attacked Jews
Jews for supposedly having certain characteristics, such as greed and arrogance, and for observing customs such as kashrut and Shabbat;[69] and racial antisemitism, with its extreme form resulting in the Holocaust
Holocaust by the Nazis.[70] Louis Harap separates "economic antisemitism" and merges "political" and "nationalistic" antisemitism into "ideological antisemitism". Harap also adds a category of "social antisemitism".[71]

religious ( Jew
Jew as Christ-killer), economic ( Jew
Jew as banker, usurer, money-obsessed), social ( Jew
Jew as social inferior, "pushy," vulgar, therefore excluded from personal contact), racist ( Jews
Jews as an inferior "race"), ideological ( Jews
Jews regarded as subversive or revolutionary), cultural ( Jews
Jews regarded as undermining the moral and structural fiber of civilization). Gustavo Perednik has argued that what he terms "Judeophobia" has a number of unique traits which set it apart from other forms of racism, including permanence, depth, obsessiveness, irrationality, endurance, ubiquity, and danger.[72] He also wrote in his book The Judeophobia that "The Jews
Jews were accused by the nationalists of being the creators of Communism; by the Communists of ruling Capitalism. If they live in non-Jewish countries, they are accused of double-loyalties; if they live in the Jewish country, of being racists. When they spend their money, they are reproached for being ostentatious; when they don't spend their money, of being avaricious. They are called rootless cosmopolitans or hardened chauvinists. If they assimilate, they are accused of being fifth-columnists, if they don't, of shutting themselves away."[73][74] Harvard professor Ruth Wisse has argued that antisemitism is a political ideology that authoritarians use to consolidate power by unifying disparate groups. One example she gives is the alleged antisemitism within the United Nations, which, in this view, functioned during the Cold War
Cold War as a coalition-building technique between Soviet and Arab
Arab states, but now serves the same purpose among states opposed to the type of human-rights ideology for which the UN was created. She also cites as an example the formation of the Arab League.[6]

Cultural antisemitism Louis Harap defines cultural antisemitism as "that species of anti-Semitism that charges the Jews
Jews with corrupting a given culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred culture with a uniform, crude, "Jewish" culture.[75] Similarly, Eric Kandel
Eric Kandel characterizes cultural antisemitism as being based on the idea of "Jewishness" as a "religious or cultural tradition that is acquired through learning, through distinctive traditions and education." According to Kandel, this form of antisemitism views Jews
Jews as possessing "unattractive psychological and social characteristics that are acquired through acculturation."[76] Niewyk and Nicosia characterize cultural antisemitism as focusing on and condemning "the Jews' aloofness from the societies in which they live."[77] An important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the negative attributes of Judaism
Judaism to be redeemable by education or by religious conversion.[78]

Religious antisemitism See also: Anti-Judaism, Christianity and antisemitism, and Islam
Islam and antisemitism Execution of Mariana de Carabajal (converted Jew), accused of a relapse into Judaism, Mexico City, 1601 Religious antisemitism, also known as anti-Judaism, is antipathy towards Jews
Jews because of their perceived religious beliefs. In theory, antisemitism and attacks against individual Jews
Jews would stop if Jews stopped practicing Judaism
Judaism or changed their public faith, especially by conversion to the official or right religion. However, in some cases discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case of Christianized Marranos
Marranos or Iberian Jews
Jews in the late 15th century and 16th century who were suspected of secretly practising Judaism
Judaism or Jewish customs.[65] Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Frederick Schweitzer asserts that, "most scholars ignore the Christian foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial antisemitism, economic antisemitism and the like."[79] William Nichols draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds: "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion [...] a Jew
Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism." From the perspective of racial antisemitism, however, "the assimilated Jew
Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism.[...] From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews[...] Once Jews
Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear." Some Christians such as the Catholic priest Ernest Jouin, who published the first French translation of the Protocols, combined religious and racial antisemitism, as in his statement that "From the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew
Jew has become the enemy of humanity."[80] The virulent antisemitism of Édouard Drumont, one of the most widely read Catholic writers in France
France during the Dreyfus Affair, likewise combined religious and racial antisemitism.[81][82][83]

Economic antisemitism The underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that Jews
Jews perform harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful when they are performed by Jews.[84] Linking Jews
Jews and money underpins the most damaging and lasting Antisemitic
Antisemitic canards.[85] Antisemites claim that Jews
Jews control the world finances, a theory promoted in the fraudulent Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and later repeated by Henry Ford
Henry Ford and his Dearborn Independent. In the modern era, such myths continue to be spread in books such as The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews published by the Nation of Islam, and on the internet. Derek Penslar writes that there are two components to the financial canards:[86]

a) Jews
Jews are savages that "are temperamentally incapable of performing honest labor" b) Jews
Jews are "leaders of a financial cabal seeking world domination" Abraham Foxman
Abraham Foxman describes six facets of the financial canards:

All Jews
Jews are wealthy[87] Jews
Jews are stingy and greedy[88] Powerful Jews
Jews control the business world[89] Jewish religion emphasizes profit and materialism[90] It is okay for Jews
Jews to cheat non-Jews[91] Jews
Jews use their power to benefit "their own kind"[92] Gerald Krefetz summarizes the myth as "[Jews] control the banks, the money supply, the economy, and businesses—of the community, of the country, of the world".[93] Krefetz gives, as illustrations, many slurs and proverbs (in several different languages) which suggest that Jews
Jews are stingy, or greedy, or miserly, or aggressive bargainers.[94] During the nineteenth century, Jews
Jews were described as "scurrilous, stupid, and tight-fisted", but after the Jewish Emancipation
Jewish Emancipation and the rise of Jews
Jews to the middle- or upper-class in Europe
Europe were portrayed as "clever, devious, and manipulative financiers out to dominate [world finances]".[95] Léon Poliakov
Léon Poliakov asserts that economic antisemitism is not a distinct form of antisemitism, but merely a manifestation of theologic antisemitism (because, without the theological causes of the economic antisemitism, there would be no economic antisemitism). In opposition to this view, Derek Penslar contends that in the modern era, the economic antisemitism is "distinct and nearly constant" but theological antisemitism is "often subdued".[96] An academic study by Francesco D'Acunto, Marcel Prokopczuk, and Michael Weber showed that people who live in areas of Germany
Germany that contain the most brutal history of antisemitic persecution are more likely to be distrustful of finance in general. Therefore, they tended to invest less money in the stock market and make poor financial decisions. The study concluded "that the persecution of minorities reduces not only the long-term wealth of the persecuted, but of the persecutors as well."[97]

Racial antisemitism Main article: Racial antisemitism Jewish Soviet soldier taken prisoner by the German Army, August 1941. At least 50,000 Jewish soldiers were shot after selection.[clarification needed] Racial antisemitism
Racial antisemitism is prejudice against Jews
Jews as a racial/ethnic group, rather than Judaism
Judaism as a religion.[98] Racial antisemitism
Racial antisemitism is the idea that the Jews
Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the eugenics movement, which categorized non-Europeans as inferior. It more specifically claimed that Northern Europeans, or "Aryans", were superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews
Jews as part of a Semitic race and emphasized their non-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion.[citation needed] Racial antisemitism
Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism
Judaism with the hatred of Jews
Jews as a group. In the context of the Industrial Revolution, following the Jewish Emancipation, Jews
Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing nationalism, the rise of eugenics, and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews
Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism.[citation needed] According to William Nichols, religious antisemitism may be distinguished from modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds. "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion... a Jew
Jew ceased to be a Jew
Jew upon baptism." However, with racial antisemitism, "Now the assimilated Jew
Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism.... From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews... Once Jews
Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear."[99] In the early 19th century, a number of laws enabling emancipation of the Jews
Jews were enacted in Western European countries.[100][101] The old laws restricting them to ghettos, as well as the many laws that limited their property rights, rights of worship and occupation, were rescinded. Despite this, traditional discrimination and hostility to Jews
Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by racial antisemitism, encouraged by the work of racial theorists such as Joseph Arthur de Gobineau
Joseph Arthur de Gobineau and particularly his Essay on the Inequality of the Human Race of 1853–5. Nationalist
Nationalist agendas based on ethnicity, known as ethnonationalism, usually excluded the Jews
Jews from the national community as an alien race.[102] Allied to this were theories of Social Darwinism, which stressed a putative conflict between higher and lower races of human beings. Such theories, usually posited by northern Europeans, advocated the superiority of white Aryans to Semitic Jews.[103]

Political antisemitism

"The whole problem of the Jews
Jews exists only in nation states, for here their energy and higher intelligence, their accumulated capital of spirit and will, gathered from generation to generation through a long schooling in suffering, must become so preponderant as to arouse mass envy and hatred. In almost all contemporary nations, therefore – in direct proportion to the degree to which they act up nationalistially – the literary obscenity of leading the Jews
Jews to slaughter as scapegoats of every conceivable public and internal misfortune is spreading."

— Friedrich Nietzsche, 1886, [MA 1 475][104]

William Brustein defines political antisemitism as hostility toward Jews
Jews based on the belief that Jews
Jews seek national and/or world power." Yisrael Gutman characterizes political antisemitism as tending to "lay responsibility on the Jews
Jews for defeats and political economic crises" while seeking to "exploit opposition and resistance to Jewish influence as elements in political party platforms."[105] According to Viktor Karády, political antisemitism became widespread after the legal emancipation of the Jews
Jews and sought to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation. [106]

Conspiracy theories See also: List of conspiracy theories §  Antisemitic
Antisemitic conspiracy theories Holocaust denial
Holocaust denial and Jewish conspiracy
Jewish conspiracy theories are also considered forms of antisemitism.[107][108][109][110][111][111][112][113] Zoological conspiracy theories
Zoological conspiracy theories have been propagated by Arab
Arab media and Arabic language websites, alleging a "Zionist plot" behind the use of animals to attack civilians or to conduct espionage.[114]

New antisemitism A sign held at a protest in Edinburgh, Scotland
Edinburgh, Scotland on January 10, 2009 Main article: New antisemitism Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of new antisemitism, coming simultaneously from the left, the right, and radical Islam, which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the State of Israel,[115] and they argue that the language of anti- Zionism
Zionism and criticism of Israel
Israel are used to attack Jews
Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel
Israel and Zionism
Zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and they attribute this to antisemitism. Jewish scholar Gustavo Perednik posited in 2004 that anti- Zionism
Zionism in itself represents a form of discrimination against Jews, in that it singles out Jewish national aspirations as an illegitimate and racist endeavor, and "proposes actions that would result in the death of millions of Jews".[116] It is asserted that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs, including older motifs such as the blood libel.[115] Critics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of antisemitism, and as exploiting antisemitism in order to silence debate and to deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti- Zionism
Zionism with antisemitism, misused to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.[117]

Indology Main article: Indology German indologists arbitrarily identified "layers" in the Mahabharata and Bhagavad Gita
Bhagavad Gita with the objective of fueling European antisemitism via the Indo- Aryan
Aryan migration theory.[118] This identification required equating Brahmins
Brahmins with Jews, resulting in anti-Brahmanism.[118]

History Main article: History of antisemitism The massacre of the Banu Qurayza, a Jewish tribe in Medina, 627 Many authors see the roots of modern antisemitism in both pagan antiquity and early Christianity. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism:[119]

Pre-Christian anti- Judaism
Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome which was primarily ethnic in nature Christian antisemitism
Christian antisemitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages
Middle Ages which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times Traditional Muslim
Muslim antisemitism which was—at least, in its classical form—nuanced in that Jews
Jews were a protected class Political, social and economic antisemitism of Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe
Europe which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism Racial antisemitism
Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism
Nazism in the 20th century Contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as the New Antisemitism Chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories: "ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in nature; Christian antisemitism, which was religious; and the racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."[120]

Ancient world The first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the 3rd century BCE to Alexandria,[65] the home to the largest Jewish diaspora
Jewish diaspora community in the world at the time and where the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, was produced. Manetho, an Egyptian priest and historian of that era, wrote scathingly of the Jews. His themes are repeated in the works of Chaeremon, Lysimachus, Poseidonius, Apollonius Molon, and in Apion and Tacitus.[121] Agatharchides of Cnidus ridiculed the practices of the Jews
Jews and the "absurdity of their Law", making a mocking reference to how Ptolemy Lagus
Ptolemy Lagus was able to invade Jerusalem
Jerusalem in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the Shabbat.[121] One of the earliest anti-Jewish edicts, promulgated by Antiochus IV Epiphanes in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the Maccabees
Maccabees in Judea.[122]:238 In view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt
Egypt and been spread by "the Greek retelling of Ancient Egyptian prejudices".[123] The ancient Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria
Alexandria describes an attack on Jews
Jews in Alexandria
Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews
Jews died.[124][125] The violence in Alexandria
Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews
Jews being portrayed as misanthropes.[126] Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews
Jews in the Hellenistic
Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, the poleis.[127] Bohak has argued, however, that early animosity against the Jews
Jews cannot be regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the Jews
Jews alone, and that many Greeks showed animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.[128] Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews
Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers.[129] Edward Flannery
Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses
Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life." Manetho, an Egyptian historian, wrote that the Jews
Jews were expelled Egyptian lepers who had been taught by Moses
Moses "not to adore the gods." Edward Flannery describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially "cultural, taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political settings."[65] There are examples of Hellenistic
Hellenistic rulers desecrating the Temple and banning Jewish religious practices, such as circumcision, Shabbat observance, study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in Alexandria
Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE. The Jewish diaspora
Jewish diaspora on the Nile island Elephantine, which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BCE.[130] Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying Roman Empire were at times antagonistic and resulted in several rebellions. According to Suetonius, the emperor Tiberius
Tiberius expelled from Rome Jews who had gone to live there. The 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon identified a more tolerant period in Roman-Jewish relations beginning in about 160 CE.[65] However, when Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire, the state's attitude towards the Jews
Jews gradually worsened. James Carroll asserted: " Jews
Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors such as pogroms and conversions had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews
Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."[131][132]

Persecutions during the Middle Ages Main article: Jews
Jews in the Middle Ages Part of a series on Jews
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Category Portalvte In the late 6th century CE, the newly Catholicised Visigothic kingdom in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts which forbad Jews from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish holy days.[133] Continuing throughout the 7th century, both Visigothic kings and the Church were active in creating social aggression and towards Jews
Jews with "civic and ecclesiastic punishments",[134] ranging between forced conversion, slavery, exile and death.[135] From the 9th century, the medieval Islamic world classified Jews
Jews and Christians as dhimmis, and allowed Jews
Jews to practice their religion more freely than they could do in medieval Christian Europe. Under Islamic rule, there was a Golden age of Jewish culture
Jewish culture in Spain that lasted until at least the 11th century.[136] It ended when several Muslim
Muslim pogroms against Jews
Jews took place on the Iberian Peninsula, including those that occurred in Córdoba in 1011 and in Granada in 1066.[137][138][139] Several decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were also enacted in Egypt, Syria, Iraq
Iraq and Yemen
Yemen from the 11th century. In addition, Jews were forced to convert to Islam
Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco
Morocco and Baghdad
Baghdad several times between the 12th and 18th centuries.[140] The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusian territories by 1147,[141] were far more fundamentalist in outlook compared to their predecessors, and they treated the dhimmis harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews
Jews and Christians emigrated.[142][143][144] Some, such as the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands,[142] while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.[145] During the Middle Ages
Middle Ages in Europe
Europe there was persecution against Jews
Jews in many places, with blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and massacres. A main justification of prejudice against Jews
Jews in Europe was religious. The persecution hit its first peak during the Crusades. In the First Crusade (1096) hundreds or even thousands of Jews
Jews were killed as the crusaders arrived.[146] This was the first major outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in Christian Europe
Europe outside Spain and was cited by Zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of Israel.[147]

Expulsions of Jews
Jews in Europe
Europe from 1100 to 1600 In the Second Crusade
Second Crusade (1147) the Jews
Jews in Germany
Germany were subject to several massacres. The Jews
Jews were also subjected to attacks by the Shepherds' Crusades
Crusades of 1251 and 1320, as well as Rintfleisch knights in 1298. The Crusades
Crusades were followed by expulsions, including, in 1290, the banishing of all English Jews; in 1394, the expulsion of 100,000 Jews
Jews in France;[148] and in 1421, the expulsion of thousands from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews
Jews fled to Poland.[149] In medieval and Renaissance Europe, a major contributor to the deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the Christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform religious orders, the Franciscans (especially Bernardino of Feltre) and Dominicans (especially Vincent Ferrer), who combed Europe
Europe and promoted antisemitism through their often fiery, emotional appeals.[150] As the Black Death
Black Death epidemics devastated Europe
Europe in the mid-14th century, causing the death of a large part of the population, Jews were used as scapegoats. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed in numerous persecutions. Although Pope Clement VI
Pope Clement VI tried to protect them by issuing two papal bulls in 1348, the first on 6 July and an additional one several months later, 900 Jews
Jews were burned alive in Strasbourg, where the plague had not yet affected the city.[151]

17th century Etching of the expulsion of the Jews
Jews from Frankfurt in 1614 During the mid-to-late 17th century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3 million people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these conflicts was the Khmelnytsky Uprising, when Bohdan Khmelnytsky's supporters massacred tens of thousands of Jews
Jews in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's Ukraine). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases and captivity in the Ottoman Empire, called jasyr.[152][153] European immigrants to the United States brought antisemitism to the country as early as the 17th century. Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor of New Amsterdam, implemented plans to prevent Jews
Jews from settling in the city. During the Colonial Era, the American government limited the political and economic rights of Jews. It was not until the American Revolutionary War
American Revolutionary War that Jews
Jews gained legal rights, including the right to vote. However, even at their peak, the restrictions on Jews
Jews in the United States were never as stringent as they had been in Europe.[154] In the Zaydi
Zaydi imamate of Yemen, Jews
Jews were also singled out for discrimination in the 17th century, which culminated in the general expulsion of all Jews
Jews from places in Yemen
Yemen to the arid coastal plain of Tihamah
Tihamah and which became known as the Mawza Exile.[155]

Enlightenment In 1744, Frederick II of Prussia
Prussia limited the number of Jews
Jews allowed to live in Breslau
Breslau to only ten so-called "protected" Jewish families and encouraged a similar practice in other Prussian cities. In 1750 he issued the Revidiertes General Privilegium und Reglement vor die Judenschaft: the "protected" Jews
Jews had an alternative to "either abstain from marriage or leave Berlin" (quoting Simon Dubnow). In the same year, Archduchess of Austria Maria Theresa ordered Jews
Jews out of Bohemia
Bohemia but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews
Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This extortion was known as malke-geld (queen's money). In 1752 she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son. In 1782, Joseph II abolished most of these persecution practices in his Toleranzpatent, on the condition that Yiddish
Yiddish and Hebrew were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled. Moses
Moses Mendelssohn wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution."

Voltaire According to Arnold Ages, Voltaire's "Lettres philosophiques, Dictionnaire philosophique, and Candide, to name but a few of his better known works, are saturated with comments on Jews
Jews and Judaism and the vast majority are negative".[156] Paul H. Meyer adds: "There is no question but that Voltaire, particularly in his latter years, nursed a violent hatred of the Jews
Jews and it is equally certain that his animosity...did have a considerable impact on public opinion in France."[157] Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire's Dictionnaire Philosophique
Dictionnaire Philosophique concerned Jews
Jews and described them in consistently negative ways.[158]

Louis de Bonald
Louis de Bonald and the Catholic Counter-Revolution The counter-revolutionary Catholic royalist Louis de Bonald
Louis de Bonald stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation
Jewish emancipation in the wake of the French Revolution.[159][160] Bonald's attacks on the Jews
Jews are likely to have influenced Napoleon's decision to limit the civil rights of Alsatian Jews.[161][162][163][164] Bonald's article Sur les juifs (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, a defense of a rural society, traditional Christian antisemitism, and the identification of Jews
Jews with bankers and finance capital, which would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such as Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux, Charles Maurras, and Édouard Drumont, nationalists such as Maurice Barrès
Maurice Barrès and Paolo Orano, and antisemitic socialists such as Alphonse Toussenel.[159][165][166] Bonald furthermore declared that the Jews
Jews were an "alien" people, a "state within a state", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them.[159][167] Under the French Second Empire, the popular counter-revolutionary Catholic journalist Louis Veuillot
Louis Veuillot propagated Bonald's arguments against the Jewish "financial aristocracy" along with vicious attacks against the Talmud
Talmud and the Jews
Jews as a "deicidal people" driven by hatred to "enslave" Christians.[168][167] Between 1882 and 1886 alone, French priests published twenty antisemitic books blaming France's ills on the Jews
Jews and urging the government to consign them back to the ghettos, expel them, or hang them from the gallows.[167] Gougenot des Mousseaux's Le Juif, le judaïsme et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens (1869) has been called a "Bible of modern antisemitism" and was translated into German by Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg.[167]

Imperial Russia Thousands of Jews
Jews were slaughtered by Cossack Haidamaks in the 1768 massacre of Uman in the Kingdom of Poland. In 1772, the empress of Russia Catherine II forced the Jews
Jews into the Pale of Settlement – which was located primarily in present-day Poland, Ukraine
Ukraine and Belarus – and to stay in their shtetls and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the partition of Poland.[169] From 1804, Jews
Jews were banned from their villages, and began to stream into the towns.[170] A decree by emperor Nicholas I of Russia
Nicholas I of Russia in 1827 conscripted Jews
Jews under 18 years of age into the cantonist schools for a 25-year military service in order to promote baptism.[171] Policy towards Jews
Jews was liberalised somewhat under Czar Alexander II (r. 1855–1881).[172] However, his assassination in 1881 served as a pretext for further repression such as the May Laws of 1882. Konstantin Pobedonostsev, nicknamed the "black czar" and tutor to the czarevitch, later crowned Czar Nicholas II, declared that "One third of the Jews
Jews must die, one third must emigrate, and one third be converted to Christianity".[173]

Islamic antisemitism in the 19th century Historian Martin Gilbert
Martin Gilbert writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews
Jews worsened in Muslim
Muslim countries. Benny Morris
Benny Morris writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews
Jews by Muslim
Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish gaberdine. To all this the Jew
Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."[174] In the middle of the 19th century, J. J. Benjamin wrote about the life of Persian Jews, describing conditions and beliefs that went back to the 16th century: "…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt…."[175] In Jerusalem
Jerusalem at least, conditions for some Jews
Jews improved. Moses Montefiore, on his seventh visit in 1875, noted that fine new buildings had sprung up and; 'surely we're approaching the time to witness God's hallowed promise unto Zion.' Muslim
Muslim and Christian Arabs participated in Purim
Purim and Passover; Arabs
Arabs called the Sephardis 'Jews, sons of Arabs'; the Ulema
Ulema and the Rabbis offered joint prayers for rain in time of drought.[176] At the time of the Dreyfus trial in France, ' Muslim
Muslim comments usually favoured the persecuted Jew
Jew against his Christian persecutors'.[177]

Secular or racial antisemitism Title page of the second edition of Das Judenthum in der Musik, published in 1869 Anti-Semitic agitators in Paris
Paris burn an effigy of Mathieu Dreyfus during the Dreyfus affair In 1850 the German composer Richard Wagner
Richard Wagner – who has been called "the inventor of modern antisemitism"[178] – published Das Judenthum in der Musik (roughly "Jewishness in Music"[178]) under a pseudonym in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries, and rivals, Felix Mendelssohn
Felix Mendelssohn and Giacomo Meyerbeer, but expanded to accuse Jews
Jews of being a harmful and alien element in German culture, who corrupted morals and were, in fact, parasites incapable of creating truly "German" art. The crux was the manipulation and control by the Jews
Jews of the money economy:[178]

According to the present constitution of this world, the Jew
Jew in truth is already more than emancipated: he rules, and will rule, so long as Money remains the power before which all our doings and our dealings lose their force.[178]

Although originally published anonymously, when the essay was republished 19 years later, in 1869, the concept of the corrupting Jew had become so widely held that Wagner's name was affixed to it.[178] Antisemitism
Antisemitism can also be found in many of the Grimms' Fairy Tales
Grimms' Fairy Tales by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, published from 1812 to 1857. It is mainly characterized by Jews
Jews being the villain of a story, such as in "The Good Bargain" ("Der gute Handel") and "The Jew
Jew Among Thorns" ("Der Jude im Dorn"). The middle 19th century saw continued official harassment of the Jews, especially in Eastern Europe
Europe under Czarist influence. For example, in 1846, 80 Jews
Jews approached the governor in Warsaw to retain the right to wear their traditional dress, but were immediately rebuffed by having their hair and beards forcefully cut, at their own expense.[179] In America, even such influential figures as Walt Whitman tolerated bigotry toward the Jews. During his time as editor of the Brooklyn Eagle (1846–1848), the newspaper published historical sketches casting Jews
Jews in a bad light.[180] The Dreyfus Affair
Dreyfus Affair was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th century and early 20th century. Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery captain in the French Army, was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. The actual spy, Marie Charles Esterhazy, was acquitted. The event caused great uproar among the French, with the public choosing sides on the issue of whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not. Émile Zola
Émile Zola accused the army of corrupting the French justice system. However, general consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: 80% of the press in France condemned him. This attitude among the majority of the French population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time period.[181] Adolf Stoecker (1835–1909), the Lutheran
Lutheran court chaplain to Kaiser Wilhelm I, founded in 1878 an antisemitic, anti-liberal political party called the Christian Social Party.[182][183] This party always remained small, and its support dwindled after Stoecker's death, with most of its members eventually joining larger conservative groups such as the German National People's Party. Some scholars view Karl Marx's essay On The Jewish Question
On The Jewish Question as antisemitic, and argue that he often used antisemitic epithets in his published and private writings.[184][185][186] These scholars argue that Marx equated Judaism
Judaism with capitalism in his essay, helping to spread that idea. Some further argue that the essay influenced National Socialist, as well as Soviet and Arab antisemites.[187][188][189] Marx himself had Jewish ancestry, and Albert Lindemann and Hyam Maccoby have suggested that he was embarrassed by it.[190][191] Others argue that Marx consistently supported Prussian Jewish communities' struggles to achieve equal political rights. These scholars argue that "On the Jewish Question" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's arguments that Jews
Jews must convert to Christianity before being emancipated, and is more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and capitalism.[192][193][194][195] Iain Hamphsher-Monk wrote that "This work [On The Jewish Question] has been cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-semitism, but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation."[196] David McLellan and Francis Wheen argue that readers should interpret On the Jewish Question in the deeper context of Marx's debates with Bruno Bauer, author of The Jewish Question, about Jewish emancipation
Jewish emancipation in Germany. Wheen says that "Those critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one, essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews. It was a retort to Bruno Bauer, who had argued that Jews
Jews should not be granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as Christians".[197] According to McLellan, Marx used the word Judentum colloquially, as meaning commerce, arguing that Germans must be emancipated from the capitalist mode of production not Judaism
Judaism or Jews
Jews in particular. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret the essay's second half as "an extended pun at Bauer's expense".[198]

20th century See also: Jewish Bolshevism
Jewish Bolshevism and Racial policy of Nazi
Nazi Germany The victims of a 1905 pogrom in Yekaterinoslav Between 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75 million Jews
Jews migrated to America, the bulk from Eastern Europe. Before 1900 American Jews
Jews had always amounted to less than 1% of America's total population, but by 1930 Jews
Jews formed about 3.5%. This increase, combined with the upward social mobility of some Jews, contributed to a resurgence of antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the US, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The lynching of Leo Frank
Leo Frank by a mob of prominent citizens in Marietta, Georgia
Marietta, Georgia in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States.[199] The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the Ku Klux Klan
Ku Klux Klan which had been inactive since 1870.[200] At the beginning of the 20th century, the Beilis Trial in Russia represented modern incidents of blood-libels in Europe. During the Russian Civil War, close to 50,000 Jews
Jews were killed in pogroms.[201]

Public reading of the antisemitic newspaper Der Stürmer, Worms, Germany, 1935 Antisemitism
Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the interwar period. The pioneer automobile manufacturer Henry Ford
Henry Ford propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper The Dearborn Independent
The Dearborn Independent (published by Ford from 1919 to 1927). The radio speeches of Father Coughlin
Father Coughlin in the late 1930s attacked Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal
New Deal and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Some prominent politicians shared such views: Louis T. McFadden, Chairman of the United States House Committee on Banking and Currency, blamed Jews
Jews for Roosevelt's decision to abandon the gold standard, and claimed that "in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews
Jews have the lawful money".[202] In the early 1940s the aviator Charles Lindbergh
Charles Lindbergh and many prominent Americans led The America First Committee
America First Committee in opposing any involvement in the war against Fascism. During his July 1936 visit to Nazi Germany, a few weeks before the 1936 Summer Olympics, Lindbergh wrote letters saying that there was "more intelligent leadership in Germany than is generally recognized". The German American Bund
German American Bund held parades in New York City during the late 1930s, where members wore Nazi uniforms and raised flags featuring swastikas alongside American flags. Sometimes race riots, as in Detroit in 1943, targeted Jewish businesses for looting and burning.[203]

A wagon piled high with corpses outside the crematorium at the recently liberated Buchenwald concentration camp, 1945 1941 decree of Boris III of Bulgaria
Boris III of Bulgaria for approval of the antisemitic Law for protection of the nation Yad Vashem
Yad Vashem in Israel In Germany, Nazism
Nazism led Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler and the Nazi
Nazi Party, who came to power on 30 January 1933 shortly afterwards instituted repressive legislation which denied the Jews
Jews basic civil rights.[204][205] In September 1935, the Nuremberg Laws
Nuremberg Laws prohibited sexual relations and marriages between "Aryans" and Jews
Jews as Rassenschande
Rassenschande ("race disgrace") and stripped all German Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, of their citizenship, (their official title became "subjects of the state").[206] It instituted a pogrom on the night of 9–10 November 1938, dubbed Kristallnacht, in which Jews
Jews were killed, their property destroyed and their synagogues torched.[207] Antisemitic
Antisemitic laws, agitation and propaganda were extended to German-occupied Europe
German-occupied Europe in the wake of conquest, often building on local antisemitic traditions. In the east the Third Reich forced Jews
Jews into ghettos in Warsaw, in Kraków, in Lvov, in Lublin and in Radom.[208] After the beginning of the war between Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1941 a campaign of mass murder, conducted by the Einsatzgruppen, culminated from 1942 to 1945 in systematic genocide: the Holocaust.[209] Eleven million Jews
Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed.[209][210][211] Antisemitism
Antisemitism was commonly used as an instrument for settling personal conflicts in the Soviet Union, starting with the conflict between Joseph Stalin
Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky
Leon Trotsky and continuing through numerous conspiracy-theories spread by official propaganda. Antisemitism
Antisemitism in the USSR reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the "rootless cosmopolitan" (euphemism for "Jew") in which numerous Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters and sculptors were killed or arrested.[212][213] This culminated in the so-called Doctors' Plot
Doctors' Plot (1952–1953). Similar antisemitic propaganda in Poland resulted in the flight of Polish Jewish survivors from the country.[213] After the war, the Kielce pogrom
Kielce pogrom and the "March 1968 events" in communist Poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The anti-Jewish violence in postwar Poland has a common theme of blood libel rumours.[214][215]

21st-century European antisemitism Further information: Antisemitism in Europe
Antisemitism in Europe § In the 21st century Physical assaults against Jews
Jews in those countries included beatings, stabbings and other violence, which increased markedly, sometimes resulting in serious injury and death.[216][217] A 2015 report by the US State Department on religious freedom declared that "European anti- Israel
Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism."[218] This rise in antisemitic attacks is associated with both the Muslim anti-Semitism and the rise of far-right political parties as a result of the economic crisis of 2008.[219] This rise in the support for far right ideas in western and eastern Europe
Europe has resulted in the increase of antisemitic acts, mostly attacks on Jewish memorials, synagogues and cemeteries but also a number of physical attacks against Jews.[220] In Eastern Europe
Europe the dissolution of the Soviet Union
Soviet Union and the instability of the new states has brought the rise of nationalist movements and the accusation against Jews
Jews for the economic crisis, taking over the local economy and bribing the government alongside with traditional and religious motives for antisemitism such as blood libels. Most of the antisemitic incidents are against Jewish cemeteries and building (community centers and synagogues). Nevertheless, there were several violent attacks against Jews
Jews in Moscow in 2006 when a neo- Nazi
Nazi stabbed 9 people at the Bolshaya Bronnaya Synagogue,[221] the failed bomb attack on the same synagogue in 1999,[222] the threats against Jewish pilgrims in Uman, Ukraine[223] and the attack against a menorah by extremist Christian organization in Moldova in 2009.[224] According to Paul Johnson, antisemitic policies are a sign of a state which is poorly governed.[225] While no European state currently has such policies, the Economist Intelligence Unit
Economist Intelligence Unit notes the rise in political uncertainty, notably populism and nationalism, as something that is particularly alarming for Jews.[226]

21st-century Arab
Arab antisemitism Main article: Antisemitism
Antisemitism in the Arab
Arab world Displaced Iraqi Jews
Jews arrive in Israel
Israel in 1951 during the Jewish exodus from Arab
Arab and Muslim
Muslim countries Robert Bernstein, founder of Human Rights Watch, says that antisemitism is "deeply ingrained and institutionalized" in "Arab nations in modern times."[227] In a 2011 survey by the Pew Research Center, all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled held few positive opinions of Jews. In the questionnaire, only 2% of Egyptians, 3% of Lebanese Muslims, and 2% of Jordanians reported having a positive view of Jews. Muslim-majority countries outside the Middle East similarly had few who held positive views of Jews, with 4% of Turks and 9% of Indonesians viewing Jews
Jews favorably.[228] According to a 2011 exhibition at the United States Holocaust
Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, United States, some of the dialogue from Middle East media and commentators about Jews
Jews bear a striking resemblance to Nazi
Nazi propaganda.[229] According to Josef Joffe of Newsweek, "anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular Israeli policies—is as much part of Arab
Arab life today as the hijab or the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the West, in the Arab
Arab world, Jew
Jew hatred remains culturally endemic."[230] Muslim
Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews
Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians.[231][232][233] According to professor Robert Wistrich, director of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism
Antisemitism (SICSA), the calls for the destruction of Israel
Israel by Iran
Iran or by Hamas, Hezbollah, Islamic Jihad, or the Muslim
Muslim Brotherhood, represent a contemporary mode of genocidal antisemitism.[234]

Causes This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2011) Antisemitism
Antisemitism has been explained in terms of racism, xenophobia, projected guilt, displaced aggression, and the search for a scapegoat.[235] Some explanations assign partial blame to the perception of Jewish people as unsociable. Such a perception may have arisen by many Jews
Jews having strictly kept to their own communities, with their own practices and laws.[236] It has also been suggested that parts of antisemitism arose from a perception of Jewish people as greedy (as often used in stereotypes of Jews), and this perception has probably evolved in Europe
Europe during Medieval times where a large portion of money lending was operated by Jews.[237] Factors contributing to this situation included that Jews
Jews were restricted from other professions,[237] while the Christian Church
Christian Church declared for their followers that money lending constituted immoral "usury".[238]

Current situation Main article: Geography of antisemitism A March 2008 report by the U.S. State Department found that there was an increase in antisemitism across the world, and that both old and new expressions of antisemitism persist.[239] A 2012 report by the U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor also noted a continued global increase in antisemitism, and found that Holocaust denial and opposition to Israeli policy at times was used to promote or justify blatant antisemitism.[240] In 2014, the ADL conducted a study titled "Global 100: An Index of Anti-Semitism", which also reported high antisemitism figures around the world and, among other findings, that as many as "27% of people who have never met a Jew
Jew nevertheless harbor strong prejudices against him".[241]

Africa See also: Antisemitism
Antisemitism in Africa Algeria Further information: History of the Jews
Jews in Algeria Almost all Jews
Jews in Algeria
Algeria left upon independence in 1962. Algeria's 140,000 Jews
Jews had French citizenship since 1870 (briefly revoked by Vichy France
France in 1940), and they mainly went to France, with some going to Israel.

Egypt In Egypt, Dar al-Fadhilah published a translation of Henry Ford's antisemitic treatise, The International Jew, complete with distinctly antisemitic imagery on the cover.[242] On 5 May 2001, after Shimon Peres
Shimon Peres visited Egypt, the Egyptian al-Akhbar internet paper said that "lies and deceit are not foreign to Jews[...]. For this reason, Allah changed their shape and made them into monkeys and pigs."[243] In July 2012, Egypt's Al Nahar channel fooled actors into thinking they were on an Israeli television show and filmed their reactions to being told it was an Israeli television show. In response, some of the actors launched into antisemitic rants or dialogue, and many became violent. Actress Mayer El Beblawi said that "Allah did not curse the worm and moth as much as he cursed the Jews" while actor Mahmoud Abdel Ghaffar launched into a violent rage and said, "You brought me someone who looks like a Jew... I hate the Jews
Jews to death" after finding out it was a prank.[244][245]

Libya Further information: History of the Jews
Jews in Libya Libya
Libya had once one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world, dating back to 300 BCE. Despite the repression of Jews
Jews in the late 1930, as a result of the pro- Nazi
Nazi Fascist Italian regime, Jews
Jews were third of the population of Libya
Libya till 1941. In 1942 the Nazi
Nazi German troops occupied the Jewish quarter of Benghazi, plundering shops and deporting more than 2,000 Jews
Jews across the desert. Sent to work in labor camps, more than one-fifth of this group of Jews
Jews perished. A series of pogroms started in November 1945, while more than 140 Jews were killed in Tripoli
Tripoli and most synagogues in the city looted.[246] Upon Libya's independence in 1951, most of the Jewish community emigrated from Libya. After the Suez Crisis
Suez Crisis in 1956, another series of pogroms forced all but about 100 Jews
Jews to flee. When Muammar al-Gaddafi came to power in 1969, all remaining Jewish property was confiscated and all debts to Jews
Jews cancelled.

Morocco Further information: History of the Jews
Jews in Morocco Jewish communities, in Islamic times often living in ghettos known as mellah, have existed in Morocco
Morocco for at least 2,000 years. Intermittent large scale massacres (such as that of 6,000 Jews
Jews in Fez in 1033, over 100,000 Jews
Jews in Fez and Marrakesh
Marrakesh in 1146 and again in Marrakesh
Marrakesh in 1232)[174][247] were accompanied by systematic discrimination through the years. In 1875, 20 Jews
Jews were killed by a mob in Demnat, Morocco; elsewhere in Morocco, Jews
Jews were attacked and killed in the streets in broad daylight.[248] While the pro- Nazi
Nazi Vichy regime during World War II
World War II passed discriminatory laws against Jews, King Muhammad prevented deportation of Jews
Jews to death camps (although Jews
Jews with French, as opposed to Moroccan, citizenship, being directly subject to Vichy law, were still deported.) In 1948, approximately 265,000 Jews
Jews lived in Morocco. Between 5,000 and 8,000 live there now. In June 1948, soon after Israel
Israel was established and in the midst of the first Arab-Israeli war, riots against Jews
Jews broke out in Oujda
Oujda and Djerada, killing 44 Jews. In 1948-9, 18,000 Jews
Jews left the country for Israel. After this, Jewish emigration continued (to Israel
Israel and elsewhere), but slowed to a few thousand a year. Through the early fifties, Zionist organizations encouraged emigration, particularly in the poorer south of the country, seeing Moroccan Jews
Jews as valuable contributors to the Jewish State: In 1955, Morocco
Morocco attained independence and emigration to Israel
Israel has increased further until 1956 then it was prohibited until 1963, then resumed.[249] By 1967, only 60,000 Jews
Jews remained in Morocco. The Six-Day War
Six-Day War in 1967 led to increased Arab-Jewish tensions worldwide, including Morocco. By 1971, the Jewish population was down to 35,000; however, most of this wave of emigration went to Europe
Europe and North America
North America rather than Israel.

South Africa Further information: History of the Jews
Jews in South Africa Antisemitism
Antisemitism has been present in history of South Africa
South Africa since Europeans first set foot ashore on the Cape Peninsula. In the years 1652–1795 Jews
Jews were not allowed to settle at the Cape. An 1868 Act would sanction religious discrimination.[250] Antisemitism reached its apotheosis in the years leading up to World War II. Inspired by the rise of national socialism in Germany
Germany the Ossewabrandwag
Ossewabrandwag (OB) – whose membership accounted for almost 25% of the 1940 Afrikaner
Afrikaner population – and the National Party faction New Order would champion a more programmatic solution to the 'Jewish problem'.[251]

Tunisia Further information: History of the Jews
Jews in Tunisia Jews
Jews have lived in Tunisia
Tunisia for at least 2,300 years. In the 13th century, Jews
Jews were expelled from their homes in Kairouan
Kairouan and were ultimately restricted to ghettos, known as hara. Forced to wear distinctive clothing, several Jews
Jews earned high positions in the Tunisian government. Several prominent international traders were Tunisian Jews. From 1855 to 1864, Muhammad Bey
Muhammad Bey relaxed dhimmi laws, but reinstated them in the face of anti-Jewish riots that continued at least until 1869. Tunisia, as the only Middle Eastern country under direct Nazi
Nazi control during World War II, was also the site of racist antisemitic measures activities such as the yellow star, prison camps, deportations, and other persecution. In 1948, approximately 105,000 Jews
Jews lived in Tunisia. Only about 1,500 remain there today. Following Tunisia's independence from France
France in 1956, a number of anti-Jewish policies led to emigration, of which half went to Israel
Israel and the other half to France. After attacks in 1967, Jewish emigration both to Israel
Israel and France
France accelerated. There were also attacks in 1982, 1985, and most recently in 2002 when a suicide bombing[252] in Djerba
Djerba took 21 lives (most of them German tourists) near the local synagogue, in a terrorist attack claimed by Al-Qaeda. In modern-day Tunisia, there have been many instances of antisemitic acts and statements. Since the government is not quick to condemn them, antisemitism spreads throughout Tunisian society.[253] Following the Ben Ali regime, there have been an increasing number of public offenses against Jews
Jews in Tunisia. For example, in February 2012, when Egyptian cleric Wagdi Ghanaim entered Tunisia, he was welcomed by Islamists who chanted "Death to the Jews" as a sign of their support. The following month, during protests in Tunis, a Salafi sheikh told young Tunisians to gather and learn to kill Jews.[253] In the past, The Tunisian government has made efforts to block Jews from entering high positions, and some moderate members have tried to cover up the more extremist antisemitic efforts by appointing Jews
Jews to governmental positions, however, it is known that Muslim
Muslim clerics believe that if the Muslim
Muslim Brotherhood leads the regime, that will enhance their hatred towards Jews.[253] In response to the prevalent antisemitism, the Tunisian government has publicly protected the dwindling population and its marks of Jewish culture, for example, synagogues, and advised them to settle in Djerba, a French tourist attraction.[254]

Asia Iran See also: Holocaust denial
Holocaust denial § Iran Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, former president of Iran, has frequently been accused of denying the Holocaust. In July 2012, the winner of Iran's first annual International Wall Street Downfall Cartoon Festival, jointly sponsored by the semi-state-run Iranian media outlet Fars News, was an antisemitic cartoon depicting Jews
Jews praying before the New York Stock Exchange, which is made to look like the Western Wall. Other cartoons in the contest were antisemitic as well. The national director of the Anti- Defamation
Defamation League, Abraham Foxman, condemned the cartoon, stating that "Here's the anti-Semitic notion of Jews
Jews and their love for money, the canard that Jews
Jews 'control' Wall Street, and a cynical perversion of the Western Wall, the holiest site in Judaism," and "Once again Iran
Iran takes the prize for promoting antisemitism."[255][256][257]

Japan Main article: Antisemitism
Antisemitism in Japan The Japanese first learned about antisemitism in 1918, during the cooperation of the Imperial Japanese Army
Imperial Japanese Army with the White movement
White movement in Siberia. White Army soldiers had been issued copies of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and "The Protocols continue to be used as evidence of Jewish conspiracies even though they are widely acknowledged to be a forgery.[258] During World War II, Nazi Germany
Germany encouraged Japan to adopt antisemitic policies. In the post-war period, extremist groups and ideologues have promoted conspiracy theories.

Lebanon In 2004, Al-Manar, a media network affiliated with Hezbollah, aired a drama series, The Diaspora, which observers allege is based on historical antisemitic allegations. BBC
BBC correspondents who have watched the program says it quotes extensively from the Protocols of the Elders of Zion.[259]

Malaysia See also: History of the Jews
Jews in Malaysia Although Malaysia
Malaysia presently has no substantial Jewish population, the country has reportedly become an example of a phenomenon called "antisemitism without Jews."[260][261] In his treatise on Malay identity, "The Malay Dilemma," which was published in 1970, Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad
Mahathir Mohamad wrote: "The Jews
Jews are not only hooked-nosed... but understand money instinctively.... Jewish stinginess and financial wizardry gained them the economic control of Europe
Europe and provoked antisemitism which waxed and waned throughout Europe
Europe through the ages."[262] The Malay-language Utusan Malaysia
Malaysia daily stated in an editorial that Malaysians "cannot allow anyone, especially the Jews, to interfere secretly in this country's business... When the drums are pounded hard in the name of human rights, the pro-Jewish people will have their best opportunity to interfere in any Islamic country," the newspaper said. "We might not realize that the enthusiasm to support actions such as demonstrations will cause us to help foreign groups succeed in their mission of controlling this country." Prime Minister Najib Razak's office subsequently issued a statement late Monday saying Utusan's claim did "not reflect the views of the government."[263][264][265]

Palestine See also: Tomorrow's Pioneers, Racism
Racism in the Palestinian territories, and Textbooks in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict

Haj Amin al-Husseini
Haj Amin al-Husseini is a central figure of Palestinian nationalism in Mandatory Palestine. He took refuge and collaborated with Nazi Germany
Germany during World War II. He met Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler in December 1941. Scholarly opinion is divided on the Mufti's antisemitsm, with many scholars viewing him as a staunch antisemite[266] while some deny the appropriateness of the term, or argue that he became antisemitic.[267] In March 2011, the Israeli government issued a paper claiming that "Anti- Israel
Israel and anti-Semitic messages are heard regularly in the government and private media and in the mosques and are taught in school books," to the extent that they are "an integral part of the fabric of life inside the PA."[268] In August 2012, Israeli Strategic Affairs Ministry director-general Yossi Kuperwasser stated that Palestinian incitement to antisemitism is "going on all the time" and that it is "worrying and disturbing." At an institutional level, he said the PA has been promoting three key messages to the Palestinian people
Palestinian people that constitute incitement: "that the Palestinians would eventually be the sole sovereign on all the land from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean Sea; that Jews, especially those who live in Israel, were not really human beings but rather 'the scum of mankind'; and that all tools were legitimate in the struggle against Israel
Israel and the Jews."[269] In August 2014, the Hamas' spokesman in Doha said on live television that Jews
Jews use blood to make matzos.[270]

Pakistan See also: History of the Jews
Jews in Pakistan
Pakistan and Antisemitism
Antisemitism in Pakistan The U.S. State Department's first Report on Global Anti-Semitism mentioned a strong feeling of antisemitism in Pakistan.[271] In Pakistan, a country without Jewish communities, antisemitic sentiment fanned by antisemitic articles in the press is widespread.[272] In Pakistan, Jews
Jews are often regarded as miserly.[273] After Israel's independence in 1948, violent incidents occurred against Pakistan's small Jewish community of about 2,000 Bene Israel
Bene Israel Jews. The Magain Shalome Synagogue
Synagogue in Karachi
Karachi was attacked, as were individual Jews. The persecution of Jews
Jews resulted in their exodus via India
India to Israel
Israel (see Pakistanis in Israel), the UK, Canada and other countries. The Peshawar
Peshawar Jewish community ceased to exist[274] although a small community reportedly still exists in Karachi. A substantial number of people in Pakistan
Pakistan believe that the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York were a secret Jewish conspiracy organized by Israel's MOSSAD, as were the 7 July 2005 London bombings, allegedly perpetrated by Jews
Jews in order to discredit Muslims. Pakistani political commentator Zaid Hamid claimed that Indian Jews
Jews perpetrated the 2008 Mumbai attacks.[275][276] Such allegations echo traditional antisemitic theories.[277][278] The Jewish religious movement of Chabad Lubavich
Chabad Lubavich had a mission house in Mumbai, India
India that was attacked in the 2008 Mumbai
Mumbai attacks, perpetrated by militants connected to Pakistan
Pakistan led by Ajmal Kasab, a Pakistani national.[279][280] Antisemitic
Antisemitic intents were evident from the testimonies of Kasab following his arrest and trial.[281]

Saudi Arabia Main articles: Antisemitism in Saudi Arabia and History of the Jews
Jews in Saudi Arabia Saudi textbooks vilify Jews, call Jews
Jews apes; demand that students avoid and not befriend Jews; claim that Jews
Jews worship the devil; and encourage Muslims to engage in Jihad
Jihad to vanquish Jews.[282] Saudi Arabian government officials and state religious leaders often promote the idea that Jews
Jews are conspiring to take over the entire world; as proof of their claims they publish and frequently cite The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
Protocols of the Elders of Zion as factual.[283][284] In 2004, the official Saudi Arabia tourism website said that Jews
Jews and holders of Israeli passports would not be issued visas to enter the country. After an uproar, the restriction against Jews
Jews was removed from the website although the ban against Israeli passport-holders remained.[285] In late 2014, a Saudi newspaper reported that foreign workers of most religions, including Judaism, were welcome in the kingdom, but Israeli citizens were not.[286]

Turkey Main articles: Antisemitism in Turkey
Antisemitism in Turkey and History of the Jews
Jews in Turkey In 2003, the Neve Shalom Synagogue
Synagogue was targeted in a car bombing, killing 21 Turkish Muslims and 6 Jews.[287] In June 2011, the Economist suggested that "The best way for Turks to promote democracy would be to vote against the ruling party". Not long after, the Turkish Prime Minister, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, said that "The International media, as they are supported by Israel, would not be happy with the continuation of the AKP government".[288] The Hurriyet Daily News quoted Erdoğan at the time as claiming "The Economist is part of an Israeli conspiracy that aims to topple the Turkish government".[289] Moreover, during Erdogan's tenure, Hitler's Mein Kampf
Mein Kampf has once again become a best selling book in Turkey.[288] Prime Minister Erdogan called antisemitism a "crime against humanity." He also said that "as a minority, they're our citizens. Both their security and the right to observe their faith are under our guarantee."[290]

Europe Antisemitic
Antisemitic graffiti equating Judaism
Judaism with Nazism
Nazism and money, found in Madrid. Main articles: Antisemitism in Europe
Antisemitism in Europe and New antisemitism According to a 2004 report from the Jerusalem
Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, antisemitism had increased significantly in Europe
Europe since 2000, with significant increases in verbal attacks against Jews
Jews and vandalism such as graffiti, fire bombings of Jewish schools, desecration of synagogues and cemeteries. Germany, France, Britain, and Russia are the countries with the highest rate of antisemitic incidents in Europe.[216] The Netherlands
Netherlands and Sweden have also consistently had high rates of antisemitic attacks since 2000.[291] Some claim that recent European antisemitic violence can actually be seen as a spillover from the long running Arab-Israeli conflict since the majority of the perpetrators are from the large Muslim
Muslim immigrant communities in European cities. However, compared to France, the United Kingdom and much of the rest of Europe, in Germany
Germany Arab
Arab and pro-Palestinian groups are involved in only a small percentage of antisemitic incidents.[216][292] According to The Stephen Roth Institute
Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism
Antisemitism and Racism, most of the more extreme attacks on Jewish sites and physical attacks on Jews
Jews in Europe
Europe come from militant Islamic and Muslim groups, and most Jews
Jews tend to be assaulted in countries where groups of young Muslim
Muslim immigrants reside.[293] On 1 January 2006, Britain's chief rabbi, Lord Jonathan Sacks, warned that what he called a "tsunami of antisemitism" was spreading globally. In an interview with BBC
BBC Radio 4, Sacks said: "A number of my rabbinical colleagues throughout Europe
Europe have been assaulted and attacked on the streets. We've had synagogues desecrated. We've had Jewish schools burnt to the ground—not here but in France. People are attempting to silence and even ban Jewish societies on campuses on the grounds that Jews
Jews must support the state of Israel, therefore they should be banned, which is quite extraordinary because... British Jews see themselves as British citizens. So it's that kind of feeling that you don't know what's going to happen next that's making... some European Jewish communities uncomfortable."[294] Following an escalation in antisemitism in 2012, which included the deadly shooting of three children at a Jewish school in France, the European Jewish Congress demanded in July a more proactive response. EJC President Moshe Kantor explained, "We call on authorities to take a more proactive approach so there would be no reason for statements of regret and denunciation. All these smaller attacks remind me of smaller tremors before a massive earthquake. The Jewish community cannot afford to be subject to an earthquake and the authorities cannot say that the writing was not on the wall." He added that European countries should take legislative efforts to ban any form of incitement, as well as to equip the authorities with the necessary tools to confront any attempt to expand terrorist and violent activities against Jewish communities in Europe.[295]

Austria Main article: Antisemitism
Antisemitism in contemporary Austria France Main articles: Antisemitism
Antisemitism in 21st-century France
France and History of the Jews
Jews in France France
France is home to the continent's largest Jewish community (about 600,000). Jewish leaders decry an intensifying antisemitism in France,[296] mainly among Muslims of Arab
Arab or African heritage, but also growing among Caribbean
Caribbean islanders from former French colonies.[297] Former Interior Minister Nicolas Sarkozy denounced the killing of Ilan Halimi
Ilan Halimi on 13 February 2006 as an antisemitic crime. Jewish philanthropist Baron Eric de Rothschild
Eric de Rothschild suggests that the extent of antisemitism in France
France has been exaggerated. In an interview with The Jerusalem
Jerusalem Post he says that "the one thing you can't say is that France
France is an anti-Semitic country."[298]

Mourning[299] flags of the European Union, France
France and Midi-Pyrénées on the Capitole de Toulouse
Capitole de Toulouse after the antisemitic attacks. In March 2012, Mohammed Merah opened fire at a Jewish school in Toulouse, killing a teacher and three children. An 8-year-old girl was shot in the head at point blank range. President Nicolas Sarkozy
Nicolas Sarkozy said that it was "obvious" it was an antisemitic attack[300] and that, "I want to say to all the leaders of the Jewish community, how close we feel to them. All of France
France is by their side." The Israeli Prime Minister condemned the "despicable anti-Semitic" murders.[301][302] After a 32-hour siege and standoff with the police outside his house, and a French raid, Merah jumped off a balcony and was shot in the head and killed.[303] Merah told police during the standoff that he intended to keep on attacking, and he loved death the way the police loved life. He also claimed connections with al-Qaeda.[304][305][306] 4 months later, in July 2012, a French Jewish teenager wearing a "distinctive religious symbol" was the victim of a violent antisemitic attack on a train travelling between Toulouse
Toulouse and Lyon. The teen was first verbally harassed and later beaten up by two assailants. Richard Prasquier from the French Jewish umbrella group, CRIF, called the attack "another development in the worrying trend of anti-Semitism in our country."[307] Another incident in July 2012 dealt with the vandalism of the synagogue of Noisy-le-Grand
Noisy-le-Grand of the Seine-Saint-Denis
Seine-Saint-Denis district in Paris. The synagogue was vandalized three times in a ten-day period. Prayer books and shawls were thrown on the floor, windows were shattered, drawers were ransacked, and walls, tables, clocks, and floors were vandalized. The authorities were alerted of the incidents by the Bureau National de Vigilance Contre L'Antisémtisme (BNVCA), a French antisemitism watchdog group, which called for more measures to be taken to prevent future hate crimes. BNVCA President Sammy Ghozlan stated that, "Despite the measures taken, things persist, and I think that we need additional legislation, because the Jewish community is annoyed."[308] In August 2012, Abraham Cooper, the dean of the Simon Wiesenthal Center, met French Interior Minister Manuel Valls
Manuel Valls and reported that antisemitic attacks against French Jews
Jews increased by 40% since Merah's shooting spree in Toulouse. Cooper pressed Valls to take extra measures to secure the safety of French Jews, as well as to discuss strategies to foil an increasing trend of lone-wolf terrorists on the Internet.[309]

Germany Further information: History of the Jews
Jews in Germany Wolfgang Schäuble, the Interior Minister of Germany
Germany in 2006, pointed out the official policy of Germany: "We will not tolerate any form of extremism, xenophobia or anti-Semitism."[310] Although the number of extreme right-wing groups and organisations grew from 141 (2001)[311] to 182 (2006),[312] especially in the formerly communist East Germany,[310] Germany's measures against right-wing groups and antisemitism are effective, despite Germany
Germany having the highest rates of antisemitic acts in Europe. According to the annual reports of the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution the overall number of far-right extremists in Germany
Germany dropped during the last years from 49,700 (2001),[311] 45,000 (2002),[311] 41,500 (2003),[311] 40,700 (2004),[312] 39,000 (2005),[312] to 38,600 in 2006.[312] Germany
Germany provided several million euros to fund "nationwide programs aimed at fighting far-right extremism, including teams of traveling consultants, and victims' groups."[313] In July 2012, two women were assaulted in Germany, sprayed with tear gas, and were shown a "Hitler salute," apparently because of a Star of David necklace that they wore.[314] In late August 2012, Berlin
Berlin police investigated an attack on a 53-year-old rabbi and his 6-year-old daughter, allegedly by four Arab teens, after which the rabbi needed treatment for head wounds at a hospital. The police classified the attack as a hate crime. Jüdische Allgemeine reported that the rabbi was wearing a kippah and was approached by one of the teens, who asked the rabbi if he was Jewish. The teen then attacked the rabbi while yelling antisemitic comments, and threatened to kill the rabbi's daughter. Berlin's mayor condemned the attack, saying that " Berlin
Berlin is an international city in which intolerance, xenophobia and anti-Semitism are not being tolerated. Police will undertake all efforts to find and arrest the perpetrators."[315] In October 2012, various historians, including Dr. Julius H. Schoeps, a prominent German-Jewish historian and a member of the German Interior Ministry's commission to combat antisemitism, charged the majority of Bundestag
Bundestag deputies with failing to understand antisemitism and the imperativeness of periodic legislative reports on German antisemitism. Schoeps cited various antisemitic statements by German parliament members as well. The report in question determined that 15% of Germans are antisemitic while over 20% espouse "latent anti-Semitism," but the report has been criticized for downplaying the sharpness of antisemitism in Germany, as well as for failing to examine anti- Israel
Israel media coverage in Germany.[316]

Greece Main article: Antisemitism
Antisemitism in Greece Antisemitism in Greece
Antisemitism in Greece manifests itself in religious, political and media discourse. The recent Greek government-debt crisis
Greek government-debt crisis has facilitated the rise of far right groups in Greece, most notably the formerly obscure Golden Dawn. Jews
Jews have lived in Greece since antiquity, but the largest community of around 20,000 Sephardic Jews
Jews settled in Thessalonica
Thessalonica after an invitation from the Ottoman Sultan
Ottoman Sultan in the 15th century. After Thessalonica
Thessalonica was annexed to Greece in 1913, the Greek government recognized Jews
Jews as Greek citizens with full rights and attributed Judaism
Judaism the status of a recognized and protected religion. Currently in Greece, Jewish communities representing the 5,000 Greek Jews
Jews are legal entities under public law. According to the ADL (Anti- Defamation
Defamation League) report of 2015, the "ADL Global 100", a report of the status of antisemitism in 100 countries around the world, 69% of the adult population in Greece harbor antisemitic attitudes and 85% think that " Jews
Jews have too much power in the business world".[317] In March 2015, a survey about the Greeks' perceptions of the holocaust was published. Its findings showed that less than 60 percent of the respondents think that holocaust teaching should be included in the curriculum.[318]

Hungary Main article: Antisemitism
Antisemitism in contemporary Hungary Members of the New Hungarian Guard stand at a Jobbik
Jobbik rally against a gathering of the World Jewish Congress
World Jewish Congress in Budapest, 4 May 2013 In the 21st century, antisemitism in Hungary has evolved and received an institutional framework, while verbal and physical aggression against Jews
Jews has escalated, creating a great difference between its earlier manifestations in the 1990s and recent developments. One of the major representatives of this institutionalized antisemitic ideology is the popular Hungarian party Jobbik, which received 17 percent of the vote in the April 2010 national election. The far-right subculture, which ranges from nationalist shops to radical-nationalist and neo- Nazi
Nazi festivals and events, plays a major role in the institutionalization of Hungarian antisemitism in the 21st century. The contemporary antisemitic rhetoric has been updated and expanded, but is still based on the old antisemitic notions. The traditional accusations and motifs include such phrases as Jewish occupation, international Jewish conspiracy, Jewish responsibility for the Treaty of Trianon, Judeo-Bolshevism, as well as blood libels against Jews. Nevertheless, the past few years have seen the reemergence of the blood libel and an increase in Holocaust
Holocaust relativization and denial, while the monetary crisis has revived references to the "Jewish banker class".[319]

Italy Main article: Antisemitism
Antisemitism in 21st-century Italy The ongoing political conflict between Israel
Israel and Palestine has played an important role in the development and expression of antisemitism in the 21st century, and in Italy as well. The Second Intifada, which began in late September 2000, has set in motion unexpected mechanisms, whereby traditional anti-Jewish prejudices were mixed with politically based stereotypes.[320] In this belief system, Israeli Jews were charged with full responsibility for the fate of the peace process and with the conflict presented as embodying the struggle between good (the Palestinians) and evil (the Israeli Jews).[321]

Netherlands Further information: History of the Jews
Jews in the Netherlands The Netherlands
Netherlands has the second highest incidence of antisemitic incidents in the European Union. However, it is difficult to obtain exact figures because the specific groups against whom attacks are made are not specifically identified in police reports, and analyses of police data for antisemitism therefore relies on key-word searches, e.g. "Jew" or "Israel". According to Centre for Information and Documentation on Israel
Israel (CIDI), a pro- Israel
Israel lobby group in the Netherlands,[322] the number of antisemitic incidents reported in the whole of the Netherlands
Netherlands was 108 in 2008, 93 in 2009, and 124 in 2010. Some two thirds of this are acts of aggression. There are approximately 52 000 Dutch Jews.[323] According to the NRC Handelsblad newspaper, the number of antisemitic incidents in Amsterdam
Amsterdam was 14 in 2008 and 30 in 2009.[324] In 2010, Raphaël Evers, an orthodox rabbi in Amsterdam, told the Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten
Aftenposten that Jews
Jews can no longer be safe in the city anymore due to the risk of violent assaults. "We Jews
Jews no longer feel at home here in the Netherlands. Many people talk about moving to Israel," he said.[325] According to the Anne Frank Foundation, antisemitism in the Netherlands
Netherlands in 2011 was roughly at the same level as in 2010.[326] Actual antisemitic incidents increased from 19 in 2010 to 30 in 2011. Verbal antisemitic incidents dropped slightly from 1173 in 2010 to 1098 in 2011. This accounts for 75%–80% of all verbal racist incidents in the Netherlands. Antisemitism
Antisemitism is more prevalent in the age group 23–27 years, which is a younger group than that of racist incidents in general.

Norway Main article: Antisemitism
Antisemitism in Norway In 2010, the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation
Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation after one year of research, revealed that antisemitism was common among some 8th, 9th, and 10th graders in Oslo's schools. Teachers at schools with large numbers of Muslims revealed that Muslim
Muslim students often "praise or admire Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler for his killing of Jews", that "Jew-hate is legitimate within vast groups of Muslim
Muslim students" and that "Muslims laugh or command [teachers] to stop when trying to educate about the Holocaust". Additionally, "while some students might protest when some express support for terrorism, none object when students express hate of Jews", saying that it says in "the Quran
Quran that you shall kill Jews, all true Muslims hate Jews". Most of these students were said to be born and raised in Norway. One Jewish father also stated that his child had been taken by a Muslim
Muslim mob after school (though the child managed to escape), reportedly "to be taken out to the forest and hung because he was a Jew".[327][328] Norwegian Education Minister Kristin Halvorsen referred to the antisemitism reported in this study as being "completely unacceptable." The head of a local Islamic council joined Jewish leaders and Halvorsen in denouncing such antisemitism.[329] In October 2012, the Organization for Security and Co-Operation in Europe
Europe issued a report regarding antisemitism in Norway, criticizing Norway
Norway for an increase in antisemitism in the country and blaming Norwegian officials for failing to address antisemitism."[330]

Poland The sale of stereotypical figures of Jews, including Jew
Jew with a coin (Polish: Żyd z pieniążkiem), Kraków Cloth Hall, 2009 The University of Warsaw's study in 2016 found that 37% of surveyed Poles expressed negative attitudes towards Jews
Jews (up from 32% in 2015); 56% said that they wouldn't accept a Jew
Jew in their family (up from 46%); and 32% wouldn't want Jewish neighbors (up from 27%).[331] In November 2015, following Antoni Macierewicz's (Law and Justice party) designation as Minister of National Defence, he faced allegations of antisemitism and protests by the Anti Defamation League.[332][333][334] In February 2018, the Polish Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki
Mateusz Morawiecki stated that "there were Jewish perpetrators" of the Holocaust, "not only German perpetrators."[335] Ronald Lauder, the president of the World Jewish Congress, condemned Morawiecki's words: "This is nothing short of an attempt to falsify history, that is one of the very worst forms of anti-Semitism and Holocaust
Holocaust obfuscation."[336] Israeli politician Yair Lapid, head of the centrist Yesh Atid
Yesh Atid party, said Morawiecki's remark is "anti-Semitism of the oldest kind."[337]

Russia Main article: Antisemitism
Antisemitism in Russia Since the early 2000s, levels of antisemitism in Russia have been low, and steadily decreasing.[338][339] President of the Russian Jewish Congress attributes this in part to the vanished state sponsorship of antisemitism. At the same time experts warn that worsening economic conditions may lead to the surge of xenophobia and antisemitism in particular.[340]

Spain Main article: Antisemitism
Antisemitism in Spain Sweden Main article: Antisemitism
Antisemitism in Sweden After Germany
Germany and Austria, Sweden has the highest rate of antisemitic incidents in Europe, though the Netherlands
Netherlands has reported a higher rate of antisemitism in some years.[291] A government study in 2006 estimated that 15% of Swedes agree with the statement: "The Jews
Jews have too much influence in the world today".[341] 5% of the total adult population and 39% of adult Muslims "harbour systematic antisemitic views".[341] The former prime minister Göran Persson described these results as "surprising and terrifying". However, the rabbi of Stockholm's Orthodox Jewish community, Meir Horden, said that "It's not true to say that the Swedes are anti-Semitic. Some of them are hostile to Israel
Israel because they support the weak side, which they perceive the Palestinians to be."[342] In 2009, a synagogue that served the Jewish community in Malmö
Malmö was set ablaze. Jewish cemeteries were repeatedly desecrated, worshippers were abused while returning home from prayer, and masked men mockingly chanted "Hitler" in the streets. As a result of security concerns, Malmö's synagogue has guards and rocket-proof glass in the windows, and the Jewish kindergarten can only be reached through thick steel security doors.[343] In early 2010, the Swedish publication The Local published series of articles about the growing antisemitism in Malmö, Sweden.[344] In 2009, the Malmö
Malmö police received reports of 79 antisemitic incidents, which was twice the number of the previous year (2008).[345] Fredrik Sieradzki, spokesman for the Malmö Jewish community, estimated that the already small Jewish population is shrinking by 5% a year. " Malmö
Malmö is a place to move away from," he said, citing antisemitism as the primary reason.[346] In March 2010, Fredrik Sieradzk told Die Presse, an Austrian Internet publication, that Jews
Jews are being "harassed and physically attacked" by "people from the Middle East," although he added that only a small number of Malmö's 40,000 Muslims "exhibit hatred of Jews."[347] In October 2010, The Forward reported on the current state of Jews
Jews and the level of antisemitism in Sweden. Henrik Bachner, a writer and professor of history at the University of Lund, claimed that members of the Swedish Parliament have attended anti- Israel
Israel rallies where the Israeli flag was burned while the flags of Hamas
Hamas and Hezbollah
Hezbollah were waved, and the rhetoric was often antisemitic—not just anti-Israel.[348] Judith Popinski, an 86-year-old Holocaust
Holocaust survivor, stated that she is no longer invited to schools that have a large Muslim
Muslim presence to tell her story of surviving the Holocaust.[346] In December 2010, the Jewish human rights organization Simon Wiesenthal Center
Simon Wiesenthal Center issued a travel advisory concerning Sweden, advising Jews
Jews to express "extreme caution" when visiting the southern parts of the country due to an alleged increase in verbal and physical harassment of Jewish citizens in the city of Malmö.[349] Ilmar Reepalu, the mayor of Malmö
Malmö for over 15 years, has been accused of failing to protect the Jewish community in Malmö, causing 30 Jewish families to leave the city in 2010, and more preparing to leave, which has left the possibility that Malmö's Jewish community will disappear soon. Critics of Reepalu say that his statements, such as antisemitism in Malmö
Malmö actually being an "understandable" consequence of Israeli policy in the Middle East, have encouraged young Muslims to abuse and harass the Jewish community.[343] In an interview with the Sunday Telegraph in February 2010, Reepalu said, "There haven't been any attacks on Jewish people, and if Jews
Jews from the city want to move to Israel
Israel that is not a matter for Malmö," which renewed concerns about Reepalu.[350]

Ukraine Main article: Antisemitism
Antisemitism in Ukraine Antisemithic graffiti in Lviv; Yids
Yids will not reside in Lviv, 2007 Oleh Tyahnybok, the leader of the far-right Svoboda party, whose members hold senior positions in Ukraine's government, urged his party to fight "the Moscow-Jewish mafia ruling Ukraine."[351] The Algemeiner Journal
Algemeiner Journal reported: "Svoboda supporters include among their heroes leaders of pro- Nazi
Nazi World War II
World War II organizations known for their atrocities against Jews
Jews and Poles, such as the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), the Ukrainian Insurgent Army
Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), and the 14th Waffen-SS Galicia Division."[352] According to The Simon Wiesenthal Center
Simon Wiesenthal Center (in January 2011) "Ukraine has, to the best of our knowledge, never conducted a single investigation of a local Nazi
Nazi war criminal, let alone prosecuted a Holocaust
Holocaust perpetrator."[353][354] According to Der Spiegel, Dmytro Yarosh, leader of the far-right Right Sector, wrote: "I wonder how it came to pass that most of the billionaires in Ukraine
Ukraine are Jews?"[355] Late February 2014 Yarosh pledged during a meeting with Israel's ambassador in Kiev
Kiev to fight all forms of racism.[356] Right Sector's leader for West Ukraine, Oleksandr Muzychko, has talked about fighting "communists, Jews
Jews and Russians for as long as blood flows in my veins."[357] Muzychko was shot dead on 24 March 2014.[358] An official inquiry concluded he had shot himself in the heart at the end of a chase with the Ukrainian police.[358] In April 2014, Donetsk
Donetsk Chief Rabbi
Rabbi Pinchas Vishedski said that "Anti-Semitic incidents in the Russian-speaking east were rare, unlike in Kiev
Kiev and western Ukraine."[359] In an April 2014 article about anti-Jewish violence in Ukraine
Ukraine in Haaretz
Haaretz no incidents outside this "Russian-speaking east" were mentioned.[360] According to the Israel's Ambassador to Ukraine, the antisemitism occurs here much less frequently than in other European countries, and has more a hooligan's nature rather than a system.[361] In March 2017, Ukrainian politician Nadiya Savchenko
Nadiya Savchenko said during a television interview that Jews
Jews held disproportionate control over Ukraine.[362] In May 2017, the Security Service of Ukraine (SBU) senior officer Vasily Vovk wrote that Jews
Jews "aren't Ukrainians and I will destroy you along with [Ukrainian oligarch and Jewish lawmaker Vadim] Rabinovych. I'm telling you one more time - go to hell, zhidi [kikes], the Ukrainian people have had it to here with you. Ukraine
Ukraine must be governed by Ukrainians."[363] The antisemitism report for 2017 that Israel's Ministry of Diaspora Affairs under Naftali Bennett
Naftali Bennett published in January 2018 stated that "A striking exception in the trend of decrease in antisemitic incidents in Eastern Europe
Europe was Ukraine, where the number of recorded antisemitic attacks was doubled from last year and surpassed the tally for all the incidents reported throughout the entire region combined.".[364]

United Kingdom

Trends in Antisemitic
Antisemitic Attitudes in United Kingdom[365][366][367][368][369]

Percent responding "probably true"

10

20

30

40

50

Jews
Jews are more loyal to Israel
Israel than to this country

Jews
Jews have too much power in the business world

Jews
Jews have too much power in international financial markets

Jews
Jews still talk too much about the Holocaust

  2004   2005   2007   2009   2012

Main articles: Antisemitism in the United Kingdom
Antisemitism in the United Kingdom and British Jews In 2017 an Institute for Jewish Policy Research
Institute for Jewish Policy Research survey found that the levels of antisemitism in Great Britain were among the lowest in the world, with 2.4% expressing multiple antisemitic attitudes, and about 70% having a favourable opinion of Jews. However, only 17% had a favourable opinion of Israel, with 33% holding an unfavourable view.[370][371] In 2017, a report by the Campaign Against Antisemitism
Campaign Against Antisemitism (CAA) found that the previous year, 2016, had been the worst on record for antisemitic hate crime in the UK.[372] Prior to that, 2015 had been the worst year on record, and 2014 was the worst year on record before that. The report found that in 2016, antisemitic crime rose by 15% compared to 2015, or 45% compared to 2014. It also found that 1 in 10 antisemitic crimes was violent. Despite rising levels of antisemitic crime, the report said there had been a decrease in the charging of antisemitic crime. In the report's foreword, the CAA's Chairman wrote: "Britain has the political will to fight antisemitism and strong laws with which to do it, but those responsible for tackling the rapidly growing racist targeting of British Jews
Jews are failing to enforce the law. There is a very real danger of Jewish citizens emigrating, as has happened elsewhere in Europe
Europe unless there is radical change."[372] Every year since 2015, the CAA has commissioned polling by YouGov concerning the attitude of the British public toward British Jews. In 2017, their polling found that 36% of British adults believed at least one of the antisemitic statements pollsters had shown them to be true, a reduction from 39% in 2016 and 45% in 2015. Additionally, the polling revealed widespread fear amongst British Jews, with almost 1 in 3 saying that they had considered emigrating in the last two years due to antisemitism, and 37% saying that they concealed their Judaism in public. The report gave various indications as to the cause of the fears, with British Jews
Jews identifying Islamist antisemitism, far-left antisemitism and far-right antisemitism as their main concerns, in that order. 78% of British Jews
Jews saying that they had witnessed antisemitism disguised as a political comment about Israel, 76% thoughts that political developments were contributing antisemitism, and 52% felt that the Crown Prosecution Service
Crown Prosecution Service was not doing enough.[373][374] In 2005, a group of British Members of Parliament set up an inquiry into antisemitism, which published its findings in 2006. Its report stated that "until recently, the prevailing opinion both within the Jewish community and beyond [had been] that antisemitism had receded to the point that it existed only on the margins of society." It found a reversal of this progress since 2000. The inquiry was reconstituted following a surge in antisemitic incidents in Britain during the summer of 2014, and the new inquiry published its report in 2015, making recommendations for reducing antisemitism.[375] In 2016, the Home Affairs Select Committee held an inquiry into the rise of antisemitism in the UK.[376] The inquiry called David Cameron, Tim Farron, Angus Robertson,[377] Jeremy Corbyn,[378] Ken Livingstone[379] and others to give evidence.

North America Canada Main article: Antisemitism
Antisemitism in Canada Although antisemitism in Canada is less prevalent than in many other countries, there have been recent incidents. For example, a 2004 study identified 24 incidents of antisemitism between 14 March and 14 July 2004 in Newfoundland, Montreal, Quebec City, Ottawa, the Greater Toronto Area (GTA), and some smaller Ontario communities. The incidents included vandalism and other attacks on four synagogues, six cemeteries, four schools, and a number of businesses and private residences.[380]

United States Main article: Antisemitism
Antisemitism in the United States See also: History of antisemitism
History of antisemitism in the United States In November 2005, the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights examined antisemitism on college campuses. It reported that "incidents of threatened bodily injury, physical intimidation or property damage are now rare", but antisemitism still occurs on many campuses and is a "serious problem." The Commission recommended that the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights
Office for Civil Rights protect college students from antisemitism through vigorous enforcement of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and further recommended that Congress clarify that Title VI applies to discrimination against Jewish students.[381] On 19 September 2006, Yale University
Yale University founded the Yale Initiative for the Interdisciplinary Study of Anti-Semitism (YIISA), the first North American university-based center for study of the subject, as part of its Institution for Social and Policy Studies. Director Charles Small of the Center cited the increase in antisemitism worldwide in recent years as generating a "need to understand the current manifestation of this disease".[382] In June 2011, Yale voted to close this initiative. After carrying out a routine review, the faculty review committee said that the initiative had not met its research and teaching standards. Donald Green, then head of Yale's Institution for Social and Policy Studies, the body under whose aegis the antisemitism initiative was run, said that it had not had many papers published in the relevant leading journals or attracted many students. As with other programs that had been in a similar situation, the initiative had therefore been cancelled.[383][384] This decision has been criticized by figures such as former U.S. Commission on Civil Rights Staff Director Kenneth L. Marcus, who is now the director of the Initiative to Combat Anti-Semitism and Anti-Israelism in America's Educational Systems at the Institute for Jewish and Community Research, and Deborah Lipstadt, who described the decision as "weird" and "strange."[385] Antony Lerman has supported Yale's decision, describing the YIISA as a politicized initiative that was devoted to the promotion of Israel
Israel rather than to serious research on antisemitism.[386] A 2007 survey by the Anti-Defamation League
Anti-Defamation League (ADL) concluded that 15% of Americans hold antisemitic views, which was in-line with the average of the previous ten years, but a decline from the 29% of the early sixties. The survey concluded that education was a strong predictor, "with most educated Americans being remarkably free of prejudicial views." The belief that Jews
Jews have too much power was considered a common antisemitic view by the ADL. Other views indicating antisemitism, according to the survey, include the view that Jews
Jews are more loyal to Israel
Israel than America, and that they are responsible for the death of Jesus
Jesus of Nazareth. The survey found that antisemitic Americans are likely to be intolerant generally, e.g. regarding immigration and free-speech. The 2007 survey also found that 29% of foreign-born Hispanics and 32% of African-Americans hold strong antisemitic beliefs, three times more than the 10% for whites.[387] A 2009 study published in Boston Review
Boston Review found that nearly 25% of non-Jewish Americans blamed Jews
Jews for the financial crisis of 2007–2008, with a higher percentage among Democrats than Republicans. 32% of Democrats blamed Jews
Jews for the financial crisis, versus 18% for Republicans.[388][389] In August 2012, the California state assembly
California state assembly approved a non-binding resolution that "encourages university leaders to combat a wide array of anti-Jewish and anti- Israel
Israel actions," although the resolution "is purely symbolic and does not carry policy implications."[390] In April 2017, Politico
Politico Magazine published an article purporting to show links between U.S. President Donald Trump, Russian President Vladimir Putin
Vladimir Putin and the Jewish outreach organization Chabad-Lubavitch.[391] The article was condemned, with the head of the Anti-Defamation League
Anti-Defamation League Jonathan Greenblatt
Jonathan Greenblatt saying that it "evokes age-old myths about Jews".[392][393] In November 2017, Jonathan Greenblatt, national director and CEO of the Anti- Defamation
Defamation League, stated in an interview, "While anti-Semitic attitudes have remained consistent at 14%... anti-Semitic incidents have been on the rise. In 2016 we saw a 34% increase over the prior year in acts of harassment, vandalism, or violence directed at Jewish individuals and institutions. During the first three quarters of 2017, there was a 67% increase over the same period in 2016. We've seen double the number of incidents in K-12 schools, and almost a 60% increase on college campuses." [394] On October 29, 2018, an antisemitic terrorist attacked the Tree of Life Synagogue
Synagogue in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[395] On April 25, 2019, The New York Times's international edition included a cartoon featuring U.S. President Donald Trump
Donald Trump and Israeli PM Benjamin Netanyahu. Trump was shown wearing a kippah and Netanyahu was displayed as Trump's dog wearing a collar with the Star of David.[396] After criticism from public and religious figures, The Times admitted to using "anti-Semitic tropes".[397][398] On April 29, The New York Times came under scrutiny again for publishing another anti-Semitic cartoon featuring PM Netanyahu.[399]

South America Venezuela Antisemitic
Antisemitic graffiti in Venezuela, alongside a hammer and sickle Further information: Antisemitism in Venezuela
Antisemitism in Venezuela and History of the Jews in Venezuela In a 2009 news story, Michael Rowan and Douglas E. Schoen wrote, "In an infamous Christmas Eve speech several years ago, Chávez said the Jews
Jews killed Christ and have been gobbling up wealth and causing poverty and injustice worldwide ever since."[400] Hugo Chávez stated that "[t]he world is for all of us, then, but it so happens that a minority, the descendants of the same ones that crucified Christ, the descendants of the same ones that kicked Bolívar out of here and also crucified him in their own way over there in Santa Marta, in Colombia. A minority has taken possession of all of the wealth of the world."[401] In February 2012, opposition candidate for the 2012 Venezuelan presidential election Henrique Capriles
Henrique Capriles was subject to what foreign journalists characterized as vicious[402] attacks by state-run media sources.[403][404] The Wall Street
Wall Street Journal said that Capriles "was vilified in a campaign in Venezuela's state-run media, which insinuated he was, among other things, a homosexual and a Zionist agent".[402] A 13 February 2012 opinion article in the state-owned Radio Nacional de Venezuela, titled "The Enemy is Zionism"[405] attacked Capriles' Jewish ancestry and linked him with Jewish national groups because of a meeting he had held with local Jewish leaders,[402][403][406] saying, "This is our enemy, the Zionism
Zionism that Capriles today represents... Zionism, along with capitalism, are responsible for 90% of world poverty and imperialist wars."[402]

See also

Judaism
Judaism portal

1968 Polish political crisis Antisemitism
Antisemitism around the world Antisemitism
Antisemitism in the anti-globalization movement Antisemitism
Antisemitism in the Arab
Arab world Anti-Jewish violence in Eastern Europe, 1944–1946 Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946 Anti-Middle Eastern sentiment Criticism of Judaism Farhud Host desecration Jacob Barnet affair Anti-Semite and Jew Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory May Laws Orientalism Persecution
Persecution of Jews Secondary antisemitism Stab-in-the-back legend Timeline of antisemitism

References Notes

^ "anti-Semitism". Oxford Dictionaries - English. Retrieved 27 October 2018..mw-parser-output cite.citation font-style:inherit .mw-parser-output .citation q quotes:"""""""'""'" .mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center .mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center .mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center .mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration color:#555 .mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center .mw-parser-output code.cs1-code color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error display:none;font-size:100% .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error font-size:100% .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em .mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format font-size:95% .mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left padding-left:0.2em .mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right padding-right:0.2em

^ a b "anti-Semitism". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 27 October 2018.

^ See, for example: "Anti-Semitism". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Johnson, Paul (1988). A History of the Jews. HarperPerennial. p. 133. Lewis, Bernard. "The New Anti-Semitism" Archived 8 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine, The American Scholar, Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25–36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at Brandeis University
Brandeis University on 24 March 2004.

^ United Nations General Assembly
United Nations General Assembly Session 53 Resolution 133. Measures to combat contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance A/RES/53/133 page 4. 1 March 1999.

^ Nathan, Julie (9 November 2014). "2014 Report on Antisemitism
Antisemitism in Australia" (PDF). Executive Council of Australian Jewry. Retrieved 27 October 2018.

^ a b Wisse, Ruth (17 May 2018). "Podcast: Ruth Wisse on the Nature and Functions of Anti-Semitism". Tikvah. Retrieved 27 October 2018.

^ Bein 1990, p. 595.

^ a b c d Lipstadt 2019, p. 22–25.

^ Chanes 2004, p. 150.

^ Rattansi 2007, p. 4–5.

^ Roth 2003, p. 30.

^ Johnston 1983, p. 27.

^ Laqueur (2006). p. 21.

^ Johnson 1987, p. 133.

^ a b Lewis, Bernard. "Semites and Antisemites". Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 27 October 2018.. Extract from Islam
Islam in History: Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East, The Library Press, 1973. Lewis, Bernard. "The New Anti-Semitism" Archived 8 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine, The American Scholar, Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25–36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at Brandeis University
Brandeis University on 24 March 2004.

^ Bein, Alex (1990). The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 594. ISBN 978-0-8386-3252-9. Retrieved 27 October 2018.

^ Falk (2008), p. 21

^ Poliakov, Léon (2003). The History of Anti-Semitism, Vol. 3: From Voltaire
Voltaire to Wagner. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 404. ISBN 978-0-8122-1865-7.

^ Falk, Avner (2008). Anti-Semitism: A History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred. Westport, Conn.: Praeger. p. 21. ISBN 9780313353840. Retrieved 27 October 2018.

^ Brustein, William I. (2003). Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe before the Holocaust. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 118. ISBN 9780521774789. Retrieved 27 October 2018.

^ Hess, Jonathan M. (Winter 2000). "Johann David Michaelis and the Colonial Imaginary: Orientalism
Orientalism and the Emergence of Racial Antisemitism
Antisemitism in Eighteenth-Century Germany". Jewish Social Studies. 6 (2): 56–101. doi:10.1353/jss.2000.0003. When the term "antisemitism" was first introduced in Germany
Germany in the late 1870s, those who used it did so in order to stress the radical difference between their own "antisemitism" and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews
Jews and Judaism.

^ Jaspal, Rusi (2014). "Antisemitism: Conceptual Issues". Antisemitism and Anti-Zionism: Representation, Cognition and Everyday Talk. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing. Retrieved 27 October 2018. Jaspal erroneously gives the date of publication as 1873.

^ Marr, Wilhelm. Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet. Rudolph Costenoble. 1879, 8th edition/printing. Archive.org. Marr uses the word "Semitismus" (Semitism) on pages 7, 11, 14, 30, 32, and 46; for example, one finds in the conclusion the following passage: "Ja, ich bin überzeutgt, ich habe ausgesprochen, was Millionen Juden im Stillen denken: Dem Semitismus gehört die Weltherrschaft!" (Yes, I am convinced that I have articulated what millions of Jews
Jews are quietly thinking: World domination belongs to Semitism!) (p. 46).

^ Marr, Wilhem (1879). "The Victory of Judaism
Judaism over Germanism: Viewed from a Nonreligious Point of View" (PDF). Translated by Rohringer, Gerhard. Retrieved 27 October 2018.

^ "Wilhelm Marr". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 27 October 2018.

^ a b Zimmermann, Moshe (1987). Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism. Oxford University Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-19-536495-8. Retrieved 27 October 2018. The term "anti-Semitism" was unsuitable from the beginning for the real essence of Jew-hatred, which remained anchored, more or less, in the Christian tradition even when it moved via the natural sciences, into racism. It is doubtful whether the term which was first publicizes in an institutional context (the Anti-Semitic League) would have appeared at all if the "Anti-Chancellor League," which fought Bismarck's policy, had not been in existence since 1875. The founders of the new Organization adopted the elements of "anti" and "league," and searched for the proper term: Marr exchanged the term "Jew" for "Semite" which he already favored. It is possible that the shortened form "Sem" is used with such frequency and ease by Marr (and in his writings) due to its literary advantage and because it reminded Marr of Sem Biedermann, his Jewish employer from the Vienna
Vienna period.

^ Deutsch, Gotthard. "Anti-Semitism". The Jewish Encyclopedia. Funk & Wagnalls. p. 641 (A). Retrieved 27 October 2018.

^ "The Jews
Jews in Germany". The Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature, Science, and Art (originally The Contemporary Review). Vol. XXXIII. Leavitt, Trow & Company. March 1881. p. 350. ...the position of German Liberals in this matter of philo-Semitism.

^ Isaac, Benjamin (2004). The Invention of Racism
Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton University Press. p. 442. ISBN 9781400849567. Retrieved 27 October 2018.

^ Matas, David (2005). Aftershock: Anti-Zionism
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^ Lewis (1999), p. 117

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Europe 1870–1933, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003 Poliakov, Léon (1997). "Anti-Semitism". Encyclopaedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. Cecil Roth. Keter Publishing House. ISBN 965-07-0665-8 Prager, Dennis; Telushkin, Joseph (2003) [1985]. Why the Jews? The Reason for Antisemitism
Antisemitism (reprint ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0-7432-4620-0. Rattansi, Ali (2007). Racism: A Very Short Introduction. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-280590-4. Rubenstein, Richard L.; Roth, John K. (2003). Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust
The Holocaust and Its Legacy. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22353-3. Tausch, Arno (2018). The Return of Religious Antisemitism? The Evidence from World Values Survey Data (November 17, 2018). Available at SSRN Tausch, Arno (2015). Islamism
Islamism and Antisemitism. Preliminary Evidence on Their Relationship from Cross-National Opinion Data (August 14, 2015). Available at SSRN or https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2600825 Tausch, Arno (2014). The New Global Antisemitism: Implications from the Recent ADL-100 Data (January 14, 2015). Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Fall 2014). Available at SSRN or https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2549654 Anti-semitism entry by Gotthard Deutsch in the Jewish Encyclopedia, 1901–1906 ed.

Further reading Books and reports

Bodansky, Yossef. Islamic Anti-Semitism as a Political Instrument, Freeman Center For Strategic Studies, 1999. Carr, Steven Alan. Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II, Cambridge University Press 2001. Cohn, Norman. Warrant for Genocide, Eyre & Spottiswoode 1967; Serif, 1996. Freudmann, Lillian C. Antisemitism
Antisemitism in the New Testament, University Press of America, 1994. Gerber, Jane S. (1986). "Anti-Semitism and the Muslim
Muslim World". In History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism, ed. David Berger. Jewish Publications Society. ISBN 0-8276-0267-7 Hilberg, Raul. The Destruction of the European Jews. Holmes & Meier, 1985. 3 volumes. Isser, Natalie. Antisemitism
Antisemitism during the French Second Empire (1991) Kertzer, David I. (2014). The Pope and Mussolini: The Secret History of Pius XI and the Rise of Fascism
Fascism in Europe. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198716167. McKain, Mark. Anti-Semitism: At Issue, Greenhaven Press, 2005. Marcus, Kenneth L. The Definition of Anti-Semitism, 2015, Oxford University Press Michael, Robert and Philip Rosen. Dictionary of Antisemitism, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2007 Michael, Robert. Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust Nirenberg, David. Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2013) 610 pp. Richardson, Peter (1986). Anti- Judaism
Judaism in Early Christianity. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN 978-0-88920-167-5. Roth, Philip. The Plot Against America, 2004 Selzer, Michael (ed). "Kike!" : A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America, New York 1972. Steinweis, Alan E. Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism
Antisemitism in Nazi Germany. Harvard University
Harvard University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-674-02205-X. Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews
Jews of Arab
Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0 Stillman, N.A. (2006). "Yahud". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online "Contemporary Global Anti-Semitism: A Report Provided to the United States Congress" (PDF). (7.4 MB), United States Department of State, 2008. Retrieved 25 November 2010. See HTML version. Stav, Arieh (1999). Peace: The Arabian Caricature – A Study of Anti-semitic Imagery. Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 965-229-215-X Tausch, Arno (14 January 2015). "The New Global Antisemitism: Implications from the Recent ADL-100 Data". Middle East Review of International Affairs. 18 (3 (Fall 2014)). doi:10.2139/ssrn.2549654. SSRN 2549654.

Bibliographies, calendars, etc.

Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles, "Experts explore effects of Ahmadinejad anti-Semitism", 9 March 2007 Lazare, Bernard, Antisemitism: Its History and Causes Anti-Defamation League
Anti-Defamation League Arab
Arab Antisemitism Why the Jews? A perspective on causes of anti-Semitism Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism
Antisemitism (with up to date calendar of antisemitism today) Annotated bibliography of anti-Semitism hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism
Antisemitism (SICSA) Council of Europe, ECRI Country-by-Country Reports Porat, Dina. "What makes an anti-Semite?", Haaretz, 27 January 2007. Retrieved 24 November 2010. Yehoshua, A.B., An Attempt to Identify the Root Cause of Antisemitism, Azure, Spring 2008. Antisemitism
Antisemitism in modern Ukraine Antisemitism
Antisemitism and Special
Special Relativity

External links

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