Ammoxenidae

Ground spiders comprise Gnaphosidae, the seventh largest spider family with over 2,000 described species in over 100 genera distributed worldwide. There are 105 species known to central Europe, and common genera include '' Gnaphosa'', '' Drassodes'', '' Micaria'', ''Cesonia'', '' Zelotes'' and many others. They are closely related to Clubionidae. At present, no ground spiders are known to be seriously venomous to humans.

Description

Generally, ground spiders are characterized by having barrel-shaped anterior spinnerets that are one spinneret diameter apart. The main exception to this rule is found in the ant-mimicking genus ''Micaria''. Another characteristic is an indentation in the endites (paired mouthparts anterior and lateral to the labium, or lip). All ground spiders lack a prey-capture web and generally run prey down on the surface. They hunt at night and spend the day in a silken retreat. The genitalia are diverse and are a good model for studying the evolution of genitalia because of their peculiar copulatory mechanism. The thick-walled egg sacs are guarded by the mother until the spiderlings hatch.

Hunting behavior

Ground spiders hunt by active foraging, chasing down and subduing individual prey items. They are adapted to hunting large and potentially dangerous prey, including other spiders, which they subdue by using their silk. When hunting, ground spiders produce thick, gluey silk from their enlarged spinnerets and attempt to use it to entangle their prey in swathing attacks, often applying their webbing to their prey's legs and mouths. By immobilizing potential prey in this manner, ground spiders can subdue proportionally large creatures while reducing risk of injury to themselves from their prey's attempts to fight back.

Genera

, the World Spider Catalog accepts the following genera:

*'' Allomicythus'' Ono, 2009 — Vietnam
*'' Allozelotes'' Yin & Peng, 1998 — China
*'' Almafuerte'' Grismado & Carrión, 2017 — Bolivia, Argentina, Uruguay
*'' Amazoromus'' Brescovit & Höfer, 1994 — Brazil
*'' Ammoxenus'' Simon, 1893
*'' Amusia'' Tullgren, 1910 — South Africa, East Africa
*'' Anagraphis'' Simon, 1893 — Africa, Asia, Europe
*''Anagrina'' Berland, 1920 — Niger
*''Aneplasa'' Tucker, 1923 — South Africa, Angola
*'' Anzacia'' Dalmas, 1919 — Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea
*'' Aphantaulax'' Simon, 1878 — Asia, Africa, Australia, France
*''Apodrassodes'' Vellard, 1924 — South America, Mexico, India
*''Apodrassus'' Chamberlin, 1916 — Peru
*'' Aponetius'' Kamura, 2020 — Ryukyu Is.
*''Apopyllus'' Platnick & Shadab, 1984 — South America, Mexico
*''Arauchemus'' Ott & Brescovit, 2012 — Brazil
*'' Asemesthes'' Simon, 1887 — Africa
*'' Asiabadus'' Roewer, 1961 — Afghanistan
*'' Australoechemus'' Schmidt & Piepho, 1994 — Cape Verde Is.
*'' Austrammo'' Platnick, 2002
*'' Avstroneulanda'' Zakharov & Ovtsharenko, 2022
*'' Barrowammo'' Platnick, 2002
*'' Benoitodes'' Platnick, 1993 — St. Helena
*'' Berinda'' Roewer, 1928 — Greece, Turkey, Cyprus
*'' Berlandina'' Dalmas, 1922 — Asia, Africa, Europe
*'' Cabanadrassus'' Mello-Leitão, 1941 — Argentina
*'' Callilepis'' Westring, 1874 — Asia, North America, Europe
*'' Callipelis'' Zamani & Marusik, 2017 — Iran
*'' Camillina'' Berland, 1919 — Asia, Central America, South America, Africa, North America, Italy, Caribbean
*'' Canariognapha'' Wunderlich, 2011 — Canary Is.
*'' Ceryerda'' Simon, 1909 — Australia
*''Cesonia'' Simon, 1893 — Greece, Turkey, North America, Central America, Caribbean
*'' Chatzakia'' Lissner & Bosmans, 2016 — Spain
*'' Civizelotes'' Senglet, 2012 — Asia, Morocco, Europe
*'' Cladothela'' Kishida, 1928 — Japan, China, Korea
*'' Coillina'' Yin & Peng, 1998 — China
*'' Coreodrassus'' Paik, 1984 — Asia
*'' Cryptodrassus'' Miller, 1943 — Europe, Asia
*'' Cryptoerithus'' Rainbow, 1915 — Australia
*'' Cubanopyllus'' Alayón & Platnick, 1993 — Cuba
*'' Diaphractus'' Purcell, 1907 — South Africa, Namibia
*'' Drassodes'' Westring, 1851 — Africa, South America, Asia, Europe, North America
*'' Drassodex'' Murphy, 2007 — Spain, France, Switzerland
*'' Drassyllus'' Chamberlin, 1922 — North America, Asia, Europe
*'' Echemella'' Strand, 1906 — Congo, Ethiopia
*'' Echemographis'' Caporiacco, 1955 — Venezuela
*'' Echemoides'' Mello-Leitão, 1938 — South America
*'' Echemus'' Simon, 1878 — Sweden, Asia, Australia, Africa, Brazil
*'' Eilica'' Keyserling, 1891 — Australia, South America, United States, Central America, Caribbean, Africa, India
*'' Encoptarthria'' Main, 1954 — Australia
*'' Epicharitus'' Rainbow, 1916 — Australia
*'' Fedotovia'' Charitonov, 1946 — Mongolia, Iran, Afghanistan
*'' Gaviphosa'' Sankaran, 2021 — India
*'' Gertschosa'' Platnick & Shadab, 1981 — North America, Panama, Jamaica
*'' Gnaphosa'' Latreille, 1804 — Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, Guatemala, Cuba
*'' Haplodrassus'' Chamberlin, 1922 — Europe, Asia, North America, Africa
*'' Herpyllus'' Hentz, 1832 — Argentina, North America, Asia
*'' Heser'' Tuneva, 2004 — Asia, Spain, Africa, North America
*'' Hitobia'' Kamura, 1992 — Asia
*'' Homoeothele'' Simon, 1908 — Australia
*'' Hongkongia'' Song & Zhu, 1998 — Indonesia, China, Hong Kong
*'' Hypodrassodes'' Dalmas, 1919 — New Zealand, Australia
*'' Ibala'' Fitzpatrick, 2009 — Africa
*'' Intruda'' Forster, 1979 — Australia, New Zealand
*'' Iranotricha'' Zamani & Marusik, 2018 — Iran
*'' Kaitawa'' Forster, 1979 — New Zealand
*''Kikongo'' Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020 — D.R. Congo, Kenya
*'' Kishidaia'' Yaginuma, 1960 — Asia, Italy
*'' Kituba'' Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020 — D.R. Congo
*'' Ladissa'' Simon, 1907 — Sierra Leone, India, Benin
*'' Laronius'' Platnick & Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 — Thailand, Indonesia
*'' Lasophorus'' Chatzaki, 2018 — Greece
*'' Latica'' da Silva, Guerrero, Bidegaray-Batista & Simó, 2020 — Uruguay, Argentina
*'' Latonigena'' Simon, 1893 — South America
*'' Leptodrassex'' Murphy, 2007 — Africa, Europe, Asia
*'' Leptodrassus'' Simon, 1878 — Europe, Asia, Africa, Mexico
*'' Leptopilos'' Levy, 2009 — Greece, Asia, Libya
*'' Litopyllus'' Chamberlin, 1922 — United States, Cuba, Mexico
*'' Macarophaeus'' Wunderlich, 2011 — Canary Is., Madeira
*'' Marinarozelotes'' Ponomarev, 2020 — Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America
*'' Marjanus'' Chatzaki, 2018
*'' Matua'' Forster, 1979 — New Zealand
*'' Megamyrmaekion'' Reuss, 1834 — Africa, Asia, Australia
*'' Micaria'' Westring, 1851 — Asia, North America, Africa, Europe, Australia
*'' Microdrassus'' Dalmas, 1919 — Seychelles
*'' Microsa'' Platnick & Shadab, 1977 — Cuba
*'' Micythus'' Thorell, 1897 — Thailand, Myanmar, Indonesia
*'' Minosia'' Dalmas, 1921 — Africa, Asia, Europe
*'' Minosiella'' Dalmas, 1921 — Asia, Africa
*'' Molycria'' Simon, 1887 — Australia
*'' Montebello'' Hogg, 1914 — Australia
*'' Myandra'' Simon, 1887 — Australia
*'' Nauhea'' Forster, 1979 — New Zealand
*'' Neodrassex'' Ott, 2012 — Brazil, Argentina
*'' Nodocion'' Chamberlin, 1922 — North America, India
*'' Nomindra'' Platnick & Baehr, 2006 — Australia
*'' Nomisia'' Dalmas, 1921 — Asia, Africa, Europe
*'' Notiodrassus'' Bryant, 1935 — New Zealand
*'' Odontodrassus'' Jézéquel, 1965 — Africa, Asia, Jamaica
*'' Orodrassus'' Chamberlin, 1922 — United States, Canada
*'' Parabonna'' Mello-Leitão, 1947 — Brazil
*'' Parasyrisca'' Schenkel, 1963 — Europe, Asia, North America
*'' Phaeocedus'' Simon, 1893 — Asia, Europe
*''Poecilochroa'' Westring, 1874 — Asia, Africa, South America, Europe
*'' Pseudodrassus'' Caporiacco, 1935 — China, Libya, Turkey
*'' Pterotricha'' Kulczyński, 1903 — Africa, Asia, Europe
*'' Pterotrichina'' Dalmas, 1921 — Algeria
*'' Rastellus'' Platnick & Griffin, 1990
*'' Sanitubius'' Kamura, 2001 — China, Korea, Japan
*''Scopoides'' Platnick, 1989 — North America, Asia
*'' Scotocesonia'' Caporiacco, 1947 — Guyana
*'' Scotognapha'' Dalmas, 1920 — Canary Islands
*'' Scotophaeus'' Simon, 1893 — Europe, Africa, Asia, South America, New Zealand
*'' Sergiolus'' Simon, 1892 — North America, Caribbean, Asia
*'' Sernokorba'' Kamura, 1992 — Asia, Europe
*'' Setaphis'' Simon, 1893 — Spain, Africa, Asia
*''Shaitan'' Kovblyuk, Kastrygina & Marusik, 2013
*'' Shiragaia'' Paik, 1992 — Korea
*'' Sidydrassus'' Esyunin & Tuneva, 2002 — Asia
*'' Smionia'' Dalmas, 1920 — South Africa
*'' Solitudes'' Lin & Li, 2020 — China
*'' Sosticus'' Chamberlin, 1922 — North America, Asia
*'' Symphanodes'' Rainbow, 1916 — Australia
*'' Synaphosus'' Platnick & Shadab, 1980 — Asia, Africa, North America, Greece
*'' Talanites'' Simon, 1893 — Asia, North America, Ukraine
*'' Talanitoides'' Levy, 2009 — Israel
*''Titus'' O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1901 — Zimbabwe
*'' Trachyzelotes'' Lohmander, 1944 — Europe, Asia, North America, Africa, South America, Samoa
*''Trephopoda'' Tucker, 1923 — South Africa, Namibia
*'' Trichothyse'' Tucker, 1923 — South Africa, Namibia
*'' Turkozelotes'' Kovblyuk & Seyyar, 2009 — Greece, Asia
*'' Urozelotes'' Mello-Leitão, 1938 — Zambia, Europe, Asia
*'' Verita'' Ramírez & Grismado, 2016 — Argentina
*'' Wesmaldra'' Platnick & Baehr, 2006 — Australia
*'' Wydundra'' Platnick & Baehr, 2006 — Australia, Malaysia
*'' Xerophaeus'' Purcell, 1907 — Africa, Yemen
*'' Xizangiana'' Song, Zhu & Zhang, 2004 — China
*''Yoruba'' Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020 — Nigeria, Ivory Coast
*'' Zagrotes'' Zamani, Chatzaki, Esyunin & Marusik, 2021 — Iran
*'' Zelanda'' Özdikmen, 2009 — New Zealand
*'' Zelominor'' Snazell & Murphy, 1997 — Portugal, Spain, Algeria
*'' Zelotes'' Gistel, 1848 — Asia, North America, Europe, Africa, South America, Australia, Caribbean
*'' Zelotibia'' Russell-Smith & Murphy, 2005 — Africa
*'' Zelowan'' Murphy & Russell-Smith, 2010 — Congo, Burundi, Namibia
*'' Zimiromus'' Banks, 1914 — Central America, South America, Caribbean, Mexico

Gallery

File:Ground-spider-frontal-mze.jpg, Unidentified species.
File:Spinnerets.jpg, Spinnerets of an Eastern parson spider (''Herpyllus ecclesiasticus'') in the family Gnaphosidae.
File:SpiderEnditesAndLabium.jpg, Endites and labium (also fangs and sternum) of an Eastern parson spider.

See also

* List of Gnaphosidae species

References

* (1983): A revision of the American spiders of the genus ''Zelotes'' (Araneae, Gnaphosidae). ''Bulletin of the AMNH'' 174: 99-191
PDF (29Mb)

Abstract

External links

Pictures of ''Herpyllus ecclesiastus''
(free for noncommercial use)
* AMNH


A video of Sergiolus, a ground spider in Texas

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ground Spider
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