''Amanita pantherina'', also known as the panther cap, false blusher, and the panther amanita due to its similarity to the true blusher ('' Amanita rubescens''), is a species of

fungus A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately from t ...

found in

Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located entirel ...

and

Western Asia Western Asia, West Asia, or Southwest Asia, is the westernmost subregion of the larger geographical region of Asia, as defined by some academics, UN bodies and other institutions. It is almost entirely a part of the Middle East, and includes Ana ...

Description

*Cap: 5–18 cm wide, hemispheric at first, then

convex Convex or convexity may refer to: Science and technology * Convex lens, in optics Mathematics * Convex set, containing the whole line segment that joins points ** Convex polygon, a polygon which encloses a convex set of points ** Convex polytop ...

to plano-convex, deep brown to hazel-brown to pale ochraceous brown, densely distributed warts that are pure white to sordid cream, minutely verruculose, floccose, easily removable. Viscid when wet, with a short striate margin. The flesh is white, unchanging when injured. *Gills: adnexed to free, close to crowded, white becoming greyish, truncate. *Spores: white in deposit, smooth, broadly ellipsoid to ellipsoid to elongate,

inamyloid In mycology a tissue or feature is said to be amyloid if it has a positive amyloid reaction when subjected to a crude chemical test using iodine as an ingredient of either Melzer's reagent or Lugol's solution, producing a blue to blue-black stain ...

, infrequently globose. 8–14 x 6–10 µm. *Stipe: 5–15 cm long × .6–3 cm wide, subcylindric, somewhat narrowing upward, white, becoming slightly tannish in age, stuffed then hollow, finely floccose becoming smooth above the ring, and with small appressed squamules or creamy floccose material below. The volva is white, becoming grey with age, forming one or sometimes two narrow hoop-like rings just above the bulbous base. The flesh is white, unchanging when injured. *Odour: Unpleasant or like raw potatoes Other than the brownish cap with white warts, distinguishing features of ''Amanita pantherina'' include the collar-like roll of volval tissue at the top of the basal bulb, and the elliptical, inamyloid spores. Contrary to the '' Amanita rubescens'' the panther cap does not color red/pink ("blush") when the flesh is damaged, hence its name "false blusher". This is a key feature in differentiating both species.

Habitat and distribution

The panther cap is an uncommon mushroom, found in both

deciduous In the fields of horticulture and Botany, the term ''deciduous'' () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, ...

, especially beech and, less frequently, coniferous woodland and rarely meadows throughout Europe, western Asia in late summer and autumn. It has also been recorded from

South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the Atlantic Ocean, South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the ...

, where it is thought to have been accidentally introduced with trees imported from Europe, Asia and on

Vancouver Island Vancouver Island is an island in the northeastern Pacific Ocean and part of the Canadian province of British Columbia. The island is in length, in width at its widest point, and in total area, while are of land. The island is the largest by ...

, in British Columbia, Canada. It is common in urban areas from winter to spring. It is an ectomycorrhizal fungus, living in root symbiosis with a tree, deriving

photosynthesis Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that, through cellular respiration, can later be released to fuel the organism's activities. Some of this chemical energy is stored i ...

ed nutrients from it and providing soil nutrients in return.

Biochemistry and toxicity

''A. pantherina'' contains the psychoactive compounds ibotenic acid and

muscimol Muscimol (also known as agarin or pantherine) is one of the principal psychoactive constituents of '' Amanita muscaria'' and related species of mushroom. Muscimol is a potent and selective orthosteric agonist for the GABAA receptors and displa ...

, two psychoactive constituents which can cause effects such as hallucinations, synaesthesia, euphoria,

dysphoria Dysphoria (; ) is a profound state of unease or dissatisfaction. It is the semantic opposite of euphoria. In a psychiatric context, dysphoria may accompany depression, anxiety, or agitation. In psychiatry Intense states of distress and uneas ...

and

retrograde amnesia In neurology, retrograde amnesia (RA) is a loss of memory-access to events that occurred or information that was learned in the past. It is caused by an injury or the onset of a disease. It tends to negatively affect episodic, autobiographical, ...

. The effects of muscimol and ibotenic acid most closely resemble that of a Z drug, like Ambien at high doses, and not a classical psychedelic, i.e.

psilocybin Psilocybin ( , ) is a naturally occurring psychedelic prodrug compound produced by more than 200 species of fungi. The most potent are members of the genus ''Psilocybe'', such as '' P. azurescens'', '' P. semilanceata'', and '' P.&nbs ...

. ''A. pantherina'' is also toxic; if consumed fresh, it may not be fatal to humans, it can cause

diarrhea Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having at least three loose, liquid, or watery bowel movements each day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration due to fluid loss. Signs of dehydration often begin w ...

vomiting Vomiting (also known as emesis and throwing up) is the involuntary, forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose. Vomiting can be the result of ailments like food poisoning, gastroenteri ...

, and

hyperhidrosis Hyperhidrosis is a condition characterized by abnormally increased sweating, in excess of that required for regulation of body temperature. Although primarily a benign physical burden, hyperhidrosis can deteriorate quality of life from a psycholog ...

, which can lead to severe dehydration. ''A. pantherina'' is used as an

entheogen Entheogens are psychoactive substances that induce alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior for the purposes of engendering spiritual development or otherwiseRätsch, Christian, ''The Encyclopedia of Psychoac ...

much less often than its much more distinguishable relative '' Amanita muscaria,'' largely due to being less recognizable and far more potent, containing a higher concentration of ibotenic acid. While ibotenic acid is mostly broken down into the body to muscimol, what remains of the ibotenic acid is believed to cause the majority of dysphoric effects of consuming psychedelic ''Amanita'' species. Ibotenic acid is also a scientifically important neurotoxin used in lab research as a brain-lesioning agent in mice. As with other wild-growing mushrooms, the ratio of ibotenic acid to muscimol depends on countless external factors, including: season, age, and habitat - and percentages will naturally vary from mushroom-to-mushroom — with dark brown ''A. pantherina'' specimens having a greater concentration of ibotenic acid. ''A. pantherina'' var. ''pantherinoides'' is considered inedible and possibly

poisonous Poison is a chemical substance that has a detrimental effect to life. The term is used in a wide range of scientific fields and industries, where it is often specifically defined. It may also be applied colloquially or figuratively, with a broa ...

. Varieties ''multisquamosa'' and ''velatipes'' are considered poisonous.

Legal status

''A. muscaria'' and ''A. pantherina'' are illegal to buy, sell, or possess in the Netherlands since December 2008. Possession of amounts larger than 0.5 g dried or 5 g fresh lead to a criminal charge.Openbaar Ministerie (12-01-2008)
Paddoverbod van kracht
. Retrieved 5 May 2016.

Gallery

Amanita pantherina 100.jpg Amanita pantherina100.jpg Amanita pantherina MdE 1.jpg Amanita.pantherina2.-.lindsey.jpg Amanita pantherina.jpg Amanita Ameripantherina.jpg, ''Amanita ameripathera'' Spore_print_Amanita_Pantherina.jpg, Spore print

References

External links

Webpages on ''Amanita species''
by Tulloss and Yang Zhuliang
Amanita on erowid.org

by IPCS INCHEM {{Taxonbar, from=Q45547 pantherina Fungi of Asia Fungi of Europe Poisonous fungi Psychoactive fungi Fungi described in 1815 Taxa named by Augustin Pyramus de Candolle