''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a

Hindu Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...

sādhanā ''Sādhanā'' (; ; ) is an ego-transcending spiritual practice. It includes a variety of disciplines in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain traditions that are followed in order to achieve various spiritual or ritual objectives. Sadhana is done for a ...

, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' (literally "non-secondness", but usually rendered as " nondualism", and often equated with

monism Monism attributes oneness or singleness (Greek: μόνος) to a concept e.g., existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished: * Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., i ...

) refers to the idea that ''

Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...

'' alone is ultimately

real Real may refer to: Currencies * Brazilian real (R$) * Central American Republic real * Mexican real * Portuguese real * Spanish real * Spanish colonial real Music Albums * ''Real'' (L'Arc-en-Ciel album) (2000) * ''Real'' (Bright album) (2010) ...

, while the transient phenomenal world is an illusory appearance (''

maya Maya may refer to: Civilizations * Maya peoples, of southern Mexico and northern Central America ** Maya civilization, the historical civilization of the Maya peoples ** Maya language, the languages of the Maya peoples * Maya (Ethiopia), a popul ...

'') of Brahman. In this view, (''jiv) Ātman'', the experiencing self, and ''Ātman-Brahman'', the highest Self and Absolute Reality, is non-different. The ''jivatman'' or individual self is a mere reflection or limitation of singular ''Ātman'' in a multitude of apparent individual bodies. In the Advaita tradition, ''

moksha ''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriologic ...

'' (liberation from suffering and rebirth) is attained through recognizing this illusoriness of the phenomenal world and disidentification from the body-mind complex and the notion of 'doership', and acquiring '' vidyā'' (knowledge) of one's true identity as ''Atman''-''Brahman'', self-luminous (''svayam prakāśa'') awareness or Witness-consciousness. Upanishadic statements such as ''

tat tvam asi Tat or TAT may refer to: Geography * Tát, a Hungarian village * Tat Ali, an Ethiopian volcano People *Tat, a son and disciple of Hermes Trismegistus * Tiffani Amber Thiessen, initials T.A.T. * Tat Wood, a British author Arts, entertainment, a ...

'', "that you are," destroy the ignorance ('' avidyā'') regarding one's true identity by revealing that ''(jiv)Ātman'' is non-different from immortal ''Brahman''. While the prominent 8th century Vedic scholar and teacher (''

acharya In Indian religions and society, an ''acharya'' (Sanskrit: आचार्य, IAST: ; Pali: ''ācariya'') is a preceptor and expert instructor in matters such as religion, or any other subject. An acharya is a highly learned person with a ...

'')

Adi Shankara Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shanka ...

emphasized that, since Brahman is ever-present, Brahman-knowledge is immediate and requires no 'action', that is, striving and effort, the Advaita tradition also prescribes elaborate preparatory practice, including contemplation of the mahavakyas and accepting yogic samadhi as a means to knowledge, posing a paradox which is also recognized in other spiritual disciplines and traditions. Advaita Vedānta adapted philosophical concepts from

Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religions, Indian religion or Indian philosophy#Buddhist philosophy, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha. ...

, giving them a Vedantic basis and interpretation, and was influenced by, and influenced, various traditions and texts of

Indian philosophy Indian philosophy refers to philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. A traditional Hindu classification divides āstika and nāstika schools of philosophy, depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the Veda ...

, While Adi Shankara is generally regarded as the most prominent exponent of the Advaita Vedānta tradition, his early influence has been questioned, as his prominence started to take shape only centuries later in the 14th century, with the ascent of Sringeri matha and its ''jagadguru''

Vidyaranya Vidyaranya ( IAST: Vidyāraṇya), usually identified with Mādhavācharya (not to be confused with Madhvāchārya (13th c.)), was Jagadguru of the Sringeri Sharada Peetham from ca. 1374-1380 until 1386 - according to tradition, after ordina ...

(Madhava, 14th cent.) in the

Vijayanagara Empire The Vijayanagara Empire, also called the Karnata Kingdom, was a Hindu empire based in the region of South India, which consisted the modern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa and some parts of Telangana and Mahar ...

. While Shankara did not embrace ''Yoga'', the Advaita Vedānta tradition in medieval times explicitly incorporated elements from the yogic tradition and texts like the '' Yoga Vasistha'' and the ''Bhagavata Purana'', culminating in Swami Vivekananda's full embrace and propagation of Yogic samadhi as an Advaita means of knowledge and liberation. In the 19th century, due to the influence of

's '' Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha'', the importance of Advaita Vedānta was overemphasized by Western scholarship, and Advaita Vedānta came to be regarded as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality, despite the numerical dominance of

theistic Theism is broadly defined as the belief in the existence of a supreme being or deities. In common parlance, or when contrasted with ''deism'', the term often describes the classical conception of God that is found in monotheism (also referred t ...

Bhakti-oriented religiosity. In modern times, Advaita views appear in various Neo-Vedānta movements.

Etymology and nomenclature

Etymology

The word Advaita is a composite of two Sanskrit words: * Prefix "a-" (अ), meaning "non-" * "Dvaita" (द्वैत), which means 'duality' or 'dualism'. ''Advaita'' is often translated as "non-duality," but a more apt translation is "non-secondness." ''Advaita'' has several meanings: * Nonduality of subject and objectElizabeth Reninger, ''Guide Review: David Loy's "Nonduality: A Study In Comparative Philosophy"''
/ref> As Gaudapada states, when a distinction is made between subject and object, people grasp to objects, which is ''samsara''. By realizing one's true identity as ''Brahman'', there is no more grasping, and the mind comes to rest. * Nonduality of Atman and Brahman, the famous diction of Advaita Vedanta that Atman is not distinct from Brahman; the knowledge of this identity is liberating. * Monism: there is no other reality than ''Brahman'', that "Reality is not constituted by parts," that is, ever-changing 'things' have no existence of their own, but are appearances of the one Existent, Brahman; and that there is in reality no duality between the "experiencing self" (''jiva'') and ''Brahman'', the Ground of Being. The word ''Vedānta'' is a composition of two Sanskrit words: The word

Veda upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...

refers to the whole corpus of vedic texts, and the word "anta" means 'end'. The meaning of ''Vedānta'' can be summed up as "the end of the vedas" or "the ultimate knowledge of the vedas". Vedānta is one of six orthodox schools of

Hindu philosophy Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson ( ...

Advaita Vedanta

While "a preferred terminology" for Upanisadic philosophy "in the early periods, before the time of Shankara" was ''Puruṣavāda'', the Advaita Vedānta school has historically been referred to by various names, such as ''Advaita-vada'' (speaker of Advaita), ''Abheda-darshana'' (view of non-difference), ''Dvaita-vada-pratisedha'' (denial of dual distinctions), and ''Kevala-dvaita'' (non-dualism of the isolated). It is also called ''māyāvāda'' by Vaishnava opponents, akin to

Madhyamaka Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhi ...

, due to their insistence that phenomena ultimately lack an inherent essence or reality, According to Richard King, a professor of Buddhist and Asian studies, the term ''Advaita'' first occurs in a recognizably Vedantic context in the prose of

Mandukya Upanishad The Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad ( sa, माण्डूक्य उपनिषद्, ) is the shortest of all the Upanishads, and is assigned to Atharvaveda. It is listed as number 6 in the Muktikā canon of 108 Upanishads. It is in prose, c ...

. In contrast, according to Frits Staal, a professor of philosophy specializing in Sanskrit and Vedic studies, the word ''Advaita'' is from the Vedic era, and the Vedic sage

Yajnavalkya Yajnavalkya or Yagyavalkya ( sa, याज्ञवल्क्य, ) is a Hindu Vedic sage figuring in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 700 BCE)., Quote: "Yajnavalkya, a Vedic sage, taught..."Ben-Ami Scharfstein (1998), ''A comparative histor ...

(8th or 7th-century BCE) is credited to be the one who coined it. Stephen Phillips, a professor of philosophy and Asian studies, translates the ''Advaita'' containing verse excerpt in ''

Brihadaranyaka Upanishad The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' ( sa, बृहदारण्यक उपनिषद्, ) is one of the Principal Upanishads and one of the first Upanishadic scriptures of Hinduism. A key scripture to various schools of Hinduism, the ''Br ...

'', as "An ocean, a single seer without duality becomes he whose world is Brahman."

Advaita tradition

While the term "Advaita Vedanta" in a strict sense may refer to the scholastic tradition of textual exegesis established by Shankara, "advaita" in a broader sense may refer to a broad current of advaitic thought, which incorporates advaitic elements with yogic thought and practice and other strands of Indian religiosity, such as Kashmir Shaivism and the

Nath Nath, also called Natha, are a Shaiva sub-tradition within Hinduism in India and Nepal. A medieval movement, it combined ideas from Buddhism, Shaivism and Yoga traditions in India.doxographies, the influence of Orientalist Indologists like Paul Deussen, and the Indian response to colonial influences, dubbed

neo-Vedanta Neo-Vedanta, also called Hindu modernism, neo-Hinduism, Global Hinduism and Hindu Universalism, are terms to characterize interpretations of Hinduism that developed in the 19th century. The term "Neo-Vedanta" was coined by German Indologist ...

by Paul Hacker, who regarded it as a deviation from "traditional" Advaita Vedanta. Yet, post-Shankara Advaita Vedanta incorporated yogic elements, such as the Yoga Vasistha, and influenced other Indian traditions, and neo-Vedanta is based on this broader strand of Indian thought. This broader current of thought and practice has also been called "greater Advaita Vedanta," "vernacular advaita," and "experiential Advaita." It is this broader advaitic tradition which is commonly presented as "Advaita Vedanta," though the term "advaitic" may be more apt.

Monism

The nondualism of Advaita Vedānta is often regarded as an idealist

. According to King, Advaita Vedānta developed "to its ultimate extreme" the monistic ideas already present in the Upanishads. In contrast, states Milne, it is misleading to call Advaita Vedānta "monistic," since this confuses the "negation of difference" with "conflation into one." ''Advaita'' is a negative term (a-dvaita), states Milne, which denotes the "negation of a difference," between subject and object, or between perceiver and perceived. According to Deutsch, Advaita Vedānta teaches monistic oneness, however without the multiplicity premise of alternate monism theories. According to Jacqueline Suthren Hirst, Adi Shankara positively emphasizes "oneness" premise in his Brahma-sutra Bhasya 2.1.20, attributing it to all the Upanishads. Nicholson states Advaita Vedānta contains realistic strands of thought, both in its oldest origins and in Shankara's writings.

Darśana (view) – central concerns

Advaita is a subschool of Vedānta, the latter being one of the six classical Hindu ''darśanas'', an integrated body of textual interpretations and religious practices which aim at the attainment of ''

'', release or liberation from transmigratory existence. Traditional Advaita Vedānta centers on the study and what it believes to be correct understanding of the ''sruti'', revealed texts, especially the Principal Upanishads, along with the

Brahma Sutras The ''Brahma Sūtras'' ( sa, ब्रह्मसूत्राणि) is a Sanskrit text, attributed to the sage bādarāyaṇa or sage Vyāsa, estimated to have been completed in its surviving form in approx. 400–450 CE,, Quote: "...we c ...

and the Bhagavad Gitā, which are collectively called as ''Prasthantrayi''. A main question in all schools of Vedanta is the relation between the individual self (

jiva ''Jiva'' ( sa, जीव, IAST: ) is a living being or any entity imbued with a life force in Hinduism and Jainism. The word itself originates from the Sanskrit verb-root ''jīv'', which translates as 'to breathe' or 'to live'. The ''jiva'', a ...

) and ''Atman''/''Brahman''. Shankara and his followers regard Atman/Brahman to be the ultimate Real, and ''jivanatman'' "ultimately o beof the nature of Atman/Brahman." This truth is established from a literal reading of selected parts of the oldest Principal Upanishads and

, and is also found in parts of the Bhagavad Gitā and numerous other Hindu texts, and is regarded to be self-evident, though great effort is made to show the correctness of this reading, and its compatibility with reason and experience, by criticizing other systems of thought. ''Vidya'', correct knowledge or understanding of the identity of jivan-ātman and

, destroys or makes null '' avidya'' ('false knowledge'), and results in liberation. According to the contemporary Advaita tradition, this knowledge can be obtained by '' svādhyāya'', study of the self and of the Vedic texts, which consists of four stages of ''samanyasa'': '' virāga'' ('renounciation'), ''sravana'' ('listening to the teachings of the sages'), '' mawnana'' ('reflection on the teachings') and '' nididhyāsana'', introspection and profound and repeated meditation on the mahavakyas, selected Upanishadic statements such as ''

'' ('that art thou' or 'you are That') which are taken literal, and form the ''srutic'' evidence for the identity of ''jivanatman'' and Atman-Brahman.Oxford Index, ''nididhyāsana''
/ref> This meditation negates the misconceptions, false knowledge, and false ego-identity, rooted in ''maya'', which obfuscate the ultimate truth of the oneness of Brahman, and one's true identity as ''Atman-Brahman.'' This culminates in what Adi Shankara refers to as ''anubhava'', immediate intuition, a direct awareness which is construction-free, and not construction-filled. It is not an awareness ''of'' Brahman, but instead an awareness that ''is'' Brahman. Although the threefold practice is broadly accepted in the Advaita tradition, and affirmed by Mandana Misra, it is at odds with Shankara, who took a subitist position, arguing that ''moksha'' is attained at once when the ''mahavakyas'', articulating the identity of ''Atman'' and ''Brahman'', are understood.See also kelamuni (2006), ''The Philosophy of Adi Shankaracharya'', section "II. The Threefold Means," on Brahma Sutra Bhashya 4.1.2 and subitism. While closely related to Samkhya, the Advaita Vedānta tradition rejects the dualism of Samkhya ''

purusha ''Purusha'' (' or ) is a complex concept whose meaning evolved in Vedic and Upanishadic times. Depending on source and historical timeline, it means the cosmic being or self, awareness, and universal principle.Karl Potter, Presuppositions of Ind ...

'' (primal consciousness) and '' prakriti'' (nature), instead stating that Brahman is the sole Reality, "that from which the origination, subsistence, and dissolution of this universe proceed." Samkhya argues that Purusha is the efficient cause of all existence while Prakriti is its material cause. Advaita, like all Vedanta schools, states that Brahman is both the efficient and the material cause. What created all existence is also present in and reflected in all beings and inert matter, the creative principle was and is everywhere, always. By accepting this postulation, various theoretical difficulties arise which Advaita and other Vedānta traditions offer different answers for. First, how did Brahman, which is ''sat'' ('existence'), without any distinction, become manifold universe? Second, how did Brahman, which is ''cit'' ('consciousness'), create the material world? Third, if Brahman is ''ananda'' ('bliss'), why did the empirical world of sufferings arise? The

do not answer these philosophical queries, and later Vedantins including Shankara had to resolve them. To solve these questions, Shankara introduces the concept of "Unevolved Name-and-Form," or primal matter corresponding to ''Prakriti'', from which the world evolves, coming close to Samkhya dualism. Shankara's notion of "Unevolved Name-and-Form" was not adopted by the later Advaita tradition; instead, the later tradition turned ''avidya'' into a metaphysical principle, namely ''mulavidya'' or "root ignorance," a metaphysical substance which is the "primal material cause of the universe (''upadana'')." Prakasatmans (13th c.) defense of '' vivarta'' to explain the origin of the world, which declared phenomenal reality to be an

illusion An illusion is a distortion of the senses, which can reveal how the mind normally organizes and interprets sensory stimulation. Although illusions distort the human perception of reality, they are generally shared by most people. Illusions may oc ...

, became the dominant explanation, with which the primacy of Atman/Brahman can be maintained.

Reality and ignorance

Classical Advaita Vedānta states that all reality and everything in the experienced world has its root in Brahman, which is unchanging Consciousness. To Advaitins, there is no duality between a Creator and the created universe. All objects, all experiences, all matter, all consciousness, all awareness are somehow also this one fundamental reality Brahman. Yet, the knowing self has various experiences of reality during the waking, dream and dreamless states, and Advaita Vedānta acknowledges and admits that from the empirical perspective there are numerous distinctions. Advaita explains this by postulating different levels of reality, and by its theory of errors (''anirvacaniya khyati'').

Three levels of Reality/truth

Shankara proposes three levels of reality, using sublation as the ontological criterion: * ' (''paramartha'', absolute), the Reality that is metaphysically true and ontologically accurate. It is the state of experiencing that "which is absolutely real and into which both other reality levels can be resolved". This reality is the highest; it can't be sublated (assimilated) by any other. * ' (''vyavahara''), or ''samvriti-saya'', consisting of the empirical or pragmatical reality. It is ever changing over time, thus empirically true at a given time and context but not metaphysically true. It is "our world of experience, the phenomenal world that we handle every day when we are awake". It is the level in which both ''

'' (living creatures or individual Selfs) and '' Iswara'' are true; here, the material world is also true but this is incomplete reality and is sublatable. * ' (''pratibhasika'', apparent reality, unreality), "reality based on imagination alone". It is the level of experience in which the mind constructs its own reality. Well-known examples of ''pratibhasika'' is the imaginary reality such as the "roaring of a lion" fabricated in dreams during one's sleep, and the perception of a rope in the dark as being a snake. Absolute and relative reality are valid and true in their respective contexts, but only from their respective particular perspectives. John Grimes explains this Advaita doctrine of absolute and relative truth with the example of light and darkness. From the sun's perspective, it neither rises nor sets, there is no darkness, and "all is light". From the perspective of a person on earth, sun does rise and set, there is both light and darkness, not "all is light", there are relative shades of light and darkness. Both are valid realities and truths, given their perspectives. Yet, they are contradictory. What is true from one point of view, states Grimes, is not from another. To Advaita Vedānta, this does not mean there are two truths and two realities, but it only means that the same one Reality and one Truth is explained or experienced from two different perspectives. As they developed these theories, Advaita Vedānta scholars were influenced by some ideas from the Nyaya, Samkhya and

Yoga Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consci ...

schools of Hindu philosophy. These theories have not enjoyed universal consensus among Advaitins, and various competing ontological interpretations have flowered within the Advaita tradition.

''Pāramārthika'' - ''Sat'' (True Reality)

Ātman

Ātman ( IAST: ātman,

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...

: आत्मन्) is the "real self"Atman
Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford University Press (2012), Quote: "1. real self of the individual; 2. a person's soul" or "essence"Sanskrit Dictionary, ''Atman''
/ref> of the individual. It is ''caitanya'', Pure Consciousness, a consciousness, states Sthaneshwar Timalsina, that is "self-revealed, self-evident and self-aware (''svaprakashata'')," and, states Payne, "in some way permanent, eternal, absolute or unchanging." It is self-existent awareness, limitless and non-dual. It is "a stable subjectivity, or a unity of consciousness through all the specific states of individuated phenomenality." Ātman, states Eliot Deutsch, is the "pure, undifferentiated, supreme power of awareness", it is more than thought, it is a state of being, that which is conscious and transcends subject-object divisions and momentariness. According to Ram-Prasad, "it" is not an object, but "the irreducible essence of being ssubjectivity, rather than an objective self with the quality of consciousness." According to Shankara, it is self-evident and "a matter not requiring any proof" that Atman, the 'I', is 'as different as light is from darkness' from non-Atman, the 'you' or 'that', the material world whose characteristics are mistakingly superimposed on Atman, resulting in notions as "I am this" and "This is mine." One's real self is not the constantly changing body, not the desires, not the emotions, not the ego, nor the dualistic mind, but the introspective, inwardly self-conscious "on-looker" (''saksi''), which is in reality completely disconnected from the non-Atman. The ''jivanatman'' or individual self is a mere reflection of singular Atman in a multitude of apparent individual bodies. It is "not an individual subject of consciousness," but the same in each person and identical to the universal eternal

, a term used interchangeable with Atman. ''Atman'' is often translated as

soul In many religious and philosophical traditions, there is a belief that a soul is "the immaterial aspect or essence of a human being". Etymology The Modern English noun '' soul'' is derived from Old English ''sāwol, sāwel''. The earliest atte ...

, though the two concepts differ significantly, since "soul" includes mental activities, whereas "Atman" solely refers to detached witness-consciousness.

=Three states of consciousness and Turiya

= Advaita posits three states of consciousness, namely waking (jagrat), dreaming (svapna), deep sleep (suṣupti), which are empirically experienced by human beings, and correspond to the Three Bodies Doctrine: # The first state is the waking state, in which we are aware of our daily world. This is the gross body. # The second state is the dreaming mind. This is the subtle body. # The third state is the state of deep sleep. This is the

causal body The Causal body - originally ''Karana-Sarira'' - is a Yoga, Yogic and Vedanta, Vedantic concept that was adopted and modified by Theosophy (Blavatskian), Theosophy and from the latter made its way into the general New Age movement and contemporary ...

. Advaita also posits the fourth state of

Turiya In Hindu philosophy, ''turiya'' (Sanskrit: तुरीय, meaning "the fourth") or chaturiya, chaturtha, is pure consciousness Consciousness, at its simplest, is sentience and awareness of internal and external existence. However, the la ...

, which some describe as pure consciousness, the background that underlies and transcends these three common states of consciousness. Turiya is the state of liberation, where states Advaita school, one experiences the infinite (''ananta'') and non-different (''advaita/abheda''), that is free from the dualistic experience, the state in which ajativada, non-origination, is apprehended. According to Candradhara Sarma, Turiya state is where the foundational Self is realized, it is measureless, neither cause nor effect, all pervading, without suffering, blissful, changeless, self-luminous, real, immanent in all things and transcendent. Those who have experienced the Turiya stage of self-consciousness have reached the pure awareness of their own non-dual Self as one with everyone and everything, for them the knowledge, the knower, the known becomes one, they are the ''Jivanmukta''. Advaita traces the foundation of this ontological theory in more ancient Sanskrit texts. For example, chapters 8.7 through 8.12 of Chandogya Upanishad discuss the "four states of consciousness" as awake, dream-filled sleep, deep sleep, and beyond deep sleep. One of the earliest mentions of ''Turiya'', in the Hindu scriptures, occurs in verse 5.14.3 of the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad''. The idea is also discussed in other early Upanishads.

=''Svayam prakāśa'' (self-luminosity)

= For the Advaita tradition, consciousness is svayam prakāśa, "self-luminous," which means that "self is pure awareness by nature." According to Dasgupta, it is "the most fundamental concept of the Vedanta." According to Jonardon Ganeri, the concept was introduced by the Buddhist philosopher Dignāga (c.480–c.540 CE), and accepted by the Vedanta tradition; according to Zhihua Yao, the concept has older roots in the Mahasanghika school. According to T. R. V. Murti,

Brahman

According to Advaita Vedānta,

is the true Self, consciousness, awareness, and the only Reality (''

Sat The SAT ( ) is a standardized test widely used for college admissions in the United States. Since its debut in 1926, its name and scoring have changed several times; originally called the Scholastic Aptitude Test, it was later called the Schol ...

''). Brahman is ''Paramarthika Satyam'', "Absolute Truth" or absolute Reality. It is That which is unborn and unchanging, and immortal. Other than ''Brahman'', everything else, including the universe, material objects and individuals, are ever-changing and therefore

. Brahman is "not sublatable", which means it cannot be superseded by a still higher reality: In Advaita, Brahman is the substrate and cause of all changes. Brahman is considered to be the material cause and the efficient cause of all that exists. The Brahma Sutras I.1.2 state that Brahman is: Advaita's Upanishadic roots state Brahman's qualities to be '' Sat-cit-ānanda'', "true being-consciousness-bliss,"John Arapura (1986), Hermeneutical Essays on Vedāntic Topics, Motilal Banarsidass, , pp. 12, 13–18 or "Eternal Bliss Consciousness". A distinction is made between ''

nirguna Brahman ''Para Brahman'' ( sa, परब्रह्म, translit=parabrahma, translit-std=IAST) in Hindu philosophy is the "Supreme Brahman" that which is beyond all descriptions and conceptualisations. It is described as the formless (in the sense th ...

'', formless Brahman, and '' saguna Brahman'', Brahman with form, that is, ''Ishvara'', God. ''Nirguna Brahman'' is undescrible, and the Upanishadic '' neti neti'' ('not this, not that' or 'neither this, nor that') negates all conceptualizations of Brahman.

''Vyāvahārika'' (conventional reality) – ''Avidya'' and '

''Avidyā'' (ignorance)

'' Avidyā'' is a central tenet of Shankara's Advaita, and became the main target of Ramanuja's criticism of Shankara. In Shankara's view, avidyā is ''adhyasa'', "the superimposition of the qualities of one thing upon another." As Shankara explains in the ''Adhyasa-bhasya'', the introduction to the ''Brahmasutrabhasya'': Due to ''avidya'', we're steeped in ''loka drsti'', the empirical view. From the beginning we only perceive the empirical world of multiplicity, taking it to be the only and true reality. Due to avidyā there is ignorance, or nescience, of the real Self, ''

Atman-Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...

'', mistakingly identifying the Self with the body-mind complex.Encyclopædia Britannica
''Maya''
/ref> With ''parmartha drsti'' ignorance is removed and ''vidya'' is acquired, and the Real, distinctionless Brahman is perceived as the True reality. The notion of avidyā and its relationship to Brahman creates a crucial philosophical issue within Advaita Vedānta thought: how can avidyā appear in Brahman, since Brahman is pure consciousness? For Shankara, ''avidya'' is a perceptual or psychological error. According to Satchidanandendra Saraswati, for Shankara "''avidya'' is only a technical name to denote the natural tendency of the human mind that is engaged in the act of superimposition." The later tradition diverged from Shankara by turning ''avidya'' into a metaphysical principle, namely ''mulavidya'' or "root ignorance," a metaphysical substance which is the "primal material cause of the universe (''upadana'')," thereby setting aside Shankara's 'Unevolved Name-and-Form' as the explanation for the existence of materiality. According to Mayeda, " order to save monism, they characterized ''avidya'' as indefinable as real or unreal (''sadasadbhyam anirvacanya''), belonging neither to the category of being nor to that of non-being." In the 20th century, this theory of ''mulavidya'' became a point of strong contention among Advaita Vedantins, with Satchidanandendra Saraswati arguing that Padmapada and Prakasatman had misconstrued Shanakara's stance. Shankara did not give a 'location' of ''avidya'', giving precedence to the removal of ignorance. Sengaku Mayeda writes, in his commentary and translation of

's Upadesasahasri: The later Advaita-tradition diverged from Shankara, trying to determinate a locus of ''avidya'', with the Bhamati-school locating ''avidya'' in the ''jiva'' c.q. ''prakriti'', while the Vivarana-school locates it in Brahman.

' (appearance)

In Advaita Vedanta, the perceived empirical world, "including people and other existence," is Māyā, "appearance." Jiva, conditioned by the human mind, is subjected to experiences of a subjective nature, and misunderstands and interprets the physical, changing world as the sole and final reality.HM Vroom (1989), Religions and the Truth: Philosophical Reflections and Perspectives, Eerdmans Publishing, , pp. 122–123 Due to ''avidya'', we take the phenomenal world to be the final reality, while in Reality only ''Sat'' ( True Reality, Brahman) is Real and unchanging. While Shankara took a realistic stance, and his explanations are "remote from any connotation of illusion," the 13th century scholar Prakasatman, founder of the influential Vivarana school, introduced the notion that the world is illusory. According to Hacker, maya is not a prominent theme for Shankara, in contrast to the later Advaita tradition, and "the word ''maya'' has for hankarahardly any terminological weight."

Five ''koshas'' (sheaths)

Due to avidya, atman is covered by ''

koshas A ''kosha'' (also ''kosa''; Sanskrit कोश, IAST: ), usually rendered "sheath", is a covering of the ''Atman'', or Self according to Vedantic philosophy. There are five ''koshas'' (Panchakoshas; ; the five sheaths), and they are often vi ...

'' (sheaths or bodies), which hide man's true nature. According to the

Taittiriya Upanishad The Taittirīya Upanishad (Devanagari: तैत्तिरीय उपनिषद्) is a Vedic era Sanskrit text, embedded as three chapters (''adhyāya'') of the Yajurveda. It is a ''mukhya'' (primary, principal) Upanishad, and likely co ...

, the Atman is covered by five koshas, usually rendered "sheath". They are often visualized like the layers of an onion. From gross to fine the five sheaths are: # Annamaya kosha, physical/food sheath # Pranamaya kosha, life-force sheath # Manomaya kosha, mental sheath #

Vijnanamaya kosha Vigyanamaya kosha is one of the five koshas that cover Atman. Vigyanamaya kosha literally means a shell that is composed of wisdom Wisdom, sapience, or sagacity is the ability to contemplate and act using knowledge, experience, understand ...

, discernment/wisdom sheath #

Anandamaya kosha The Anandamaya kosha or "sheath made of bliss" ( ananda) is in Vedantic philosophy the most subtle or spiritual of the five levels of embodied self. It has been interpreted differently according to specific schools of Indian (and also Theosoph ...

, bliss sheath ('' Ananda'')

''Parinamavada'' and ''vivartavada'' - causality and change

Cause and effect are an important topic in all schools of

Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; sa, वेदान्त, ), also ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six (''āstika'') schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, t ...

. Two sorts of causes are recognised, namely , the

efficient cause The four causes or four explanations are, in Aristotelianism, Aristotelian thought, four fundamental types of answer to the question "why?", in Posterior Analytics, analysis of change or movement in nature: the Four_causes#Material, material, the ...

, that which causes the existence of the universe, and , the

material cause The four causes or four explanations are, in Aristotelian thought, four fundamental types of answer to the question "why?", in analysis of change or movement in nature: the material, the formal, the efficient, and the final. Aristotle wrote th ...

, that from which the matery of this universe comes. All schools of Vedānta agree that Brahman is both the material and the efficient cause, and all subscribe to the theory of '' Satkāryavāda'',Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta''
/ref> which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. There are different views on the origination of the empirical world from Brahman. All commentators "agree that Brahman is the cause of the world," but disagree on how exactly Brahman is the cause of the world. According to Nicholson, "Medieaval Vedantins distinguisghed two basic positions." '' Parinamavada'' is the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman. '' Vivartavada'' is the idea that The ''Brahma Sutras'', the ancient Vedantins, most sub-schools of Vedānta, as well as Samkhya argue for ''parinamavada''. The "most visible advocates of Vivartavada," states Nicholson, are the Advaitins, the followers of Shankara. "Although the world can be described as conventionally real", adds Nicholson, "the Advaitins claim that all of Brahman's effects must ultimately be acknowledged as unreal before the individual self can be liberated". Yet, Adi Shankara himself most likely explained causality through ''parinamavada''. In Shankara's works "''Brahman'' constitutes the basic essence (''svabhava'') of the universe (BS Bh 3.2.21) and as such the universe cannot be thought of as distinct from it (BS Bh 2.1.14)." In Shankara's view, then, "The world is real, but only in so far as its existence is seen as totally dependent upon ''Brahman''." Shankara introduced the concept of "Unevolved Name-and-Form," or primal matter corresponding to ''Prakriti'', from which the world evolves, but this concept was not adopted by the later Advaita tradition. Vivartavada became the dominant explanation, with which the primacy of Atman/Brahman can be maintained. Scholars such as Hajime Nakamura and Paul Hacker already noted that Adi Shankara did not advocate ''Vivartavada'', and his explanations are "remote from any connotation of illusion". It was the 13th century scholar Prakasatman, who founded the influential Vivarana school, who gave a definition to ''vivarta'', introducing the notion that the world is illusory. It is Prakasatman's theory that is sometimes misunderstood as Adi Shankara's position. Andrew Nicholson concurs with Hacker and other scholars, adding that the ''vivarta-vada'' isn't Shankara's theory, that Shankara's ideas appear closer to ''parinama-vada'', and the ''vivarta'' explanation likely emerged gradually in Advaita subschool later.

Moksha – liberating knowledge of Brahman

Knowledge is liberating

The soteriological goal, in Advaita, is to gain self-knowledge as being in essence (Atman), awareness or witness-consciousness, and complete understanding of the identity of ''jivan-ātman'' and

. Correct knowledge of Atman and Brahman is the attainment of ''Brahman'', immortality, and leads to ''

'' (liberation) from suffering and ''samsara'', the cycle of rebirth This is stated by Shankara as follows: According to Advaita Vedānta, liberation can be achieved while living, and is called ''

Jivanmukti A ''jīvanmukta'', literally meaning ''liberated while living'', is a person who, in the Vedānta philosophy, has gained complete self-knowledge and self-realisation and attained '' kaivalya'' or ''moksha'' ( enlightenment and liberation), thus ...

''. in contrast to ''Videhamukti'' (moksha from samsara after death) in theistic sub-schools of Vedānta. The Atman-knowledge, that is the knowledge of true Self and its relationship to Brahman is central to this liberation in Advaita thought. Atman-knowledge, to Advaitins, is that state of full awareness, liberation and freedom which overcomes dualities at all levels, realizing the divine within oneself, the divine in others and all beings, the non-dual Oneness, that Brahman is in everything, and everything is Brahman. According to Anantanand Rambachan, in Advaita, this state of liberating self-knowledge includes and leads to the understanding that "the self is the self of all, the knower of self sees the self in all beings and all beings in the self."

Attaining ''vidhya'' (knowledge)

Advaita Vedānta regards the liberated state of being ''Atman-Brahman'' as one's true identity and inherent to being human. According to Shankara and the Vivarana-school, no human action can 'produce' this liberated state, as it is what one already is. As Swami Vivekananda stated: Yet, the Advaita-tradition also emphasizes human effort, the path of Jnana Yoga, a progression of study and training to realize one's true identity as ''Atman-Brahman'' and attain

. According to critics of neo-Advaita, which also emphasizes direct insight, traditional Advaita Vedanta entails more than self-inquiry or bare insight into one's real nature, but also includes self-restraint, textual studies and ethical perfection. It is described in classical Advaita books like Shankara's Upadesasahasri and the

Vivekachudamani The ''Vivekachudamani'' (; IAST: ) is an introductory treatise within the Advaita Vedanta tradition of Hinduism, traditionally attributed to Adi Shankara of the eighth century, though this attribution has been questioned and mostly rejected by ...

, which is also attributed to Shankara. ''Sruti'' (scriptures), proper reasoning and meditation are the main sources of knowledge (''vidya'') for the Advaita Vedānta tradition. It teaches that correct knowledge of Atman and Brahman is achievable by '' svādhyāya'', study of the self and of the Vedic texts, and three stages of practice: ''sravana'' (perception, hearing), ''manana'' (thinking) and ''nididhyasana'' (meditation), a three-step methodology that is rooted in the teachings of chapter 4 of the ''

''.

Preparation: the fourfold qualities

The Advaita student has to develop the fourfold qualities, or behavioral qualifications (''Samanyasa'', ''Sampattis'', ''sādhana-catustaya''): A student is Advaita Vedānta tradition is required to develop these four qualities - # ' (नित्यानित्य वस्तु विवेकम्) – Viveka is the ability to correctly discriminate between the real and eternal (''nitya'') and the substance that is apparently real, illusory, changing and transitory (''anitya''). # ' (इहाऽमुत्रार्थ फल भोगविरागम्) – The renunciation (''virāga'') of all desires of the mind (bhog) for sense pleasures, in this world (iha) and other worlds. Willing to give up everything that is an obstacle to the pursuit of truth and self-knowledge.George Thibaut, , Oxford University Press, Editor: Max Muller, p. 12 with footnote 1 # ' (शमादि षट्क सम्पत्ति) – the sixfold virtues or qualities - ## ''Śama'' - mental tranquility, ability to focus the mind. ## '' Dama'' - self-restraint, the virtue of temperance. restraining the senses. ## ''

Uparati Uparati, is a Sanskrit word and it literally means "cessation, quietism, stopping worldly action". It is an important concept in Advaita Vedanta pursuit of moksha and refers to the ability to achieve "dispassion",Eliot Deutsch (1980), Advaita Veda ...

'' - dispassion, lack of desire for worldly pleasures, ability to be quiet and disassociated from everything; discontinuation of all religious duties and ceremonies ## '' Titikṣa'' - endurance, perseverance, putting up with pairs of opposites (like heat and cold, pleasure and pain), ability to be patient during demanding circumstances ## ''

Śraddhā Śraddhā ( sa, श्रद्धा) is often glossed in English as ''faith''. ''Āsthā'' is used for faith, religious beliefs and God. The term figures importantly in the literature, teachings, and discourse of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism ...

'' - having faith in teacher and the Sruti scriptural texts ## '' Samādhāna'' - contentedness, satisfaction of mind in all conditions, attention, intentness of mind # ' (मुमुक्षुत्वम्) – An intense longing for freedom, liberation and wisdom, driven to the quest of knowledge and understanding. Having moksha as the primary goal of life

The threefold practice: ''sravana'' (hearing), ''manana'' (thinking) and ''nididhyasana'' (meditation)

The Advaita tradition teaches that correct knowledge, which destroys ''avidya'', psychological and perceptual errors related to Atman and Brahman, is obtained in ''jnanayoga'' through three stages of practice, ''sravana'' (hearing), ''manana'' (thinking) and ''nididhyasana'' (meditation). This three-step methodology is rooted in the teachings of chapter 4 of the ''

'': * ''Sravana'', which literally means hearing. The student listens and discusses the ideas, concepts, questions and answers. of the sages on the

Upanishads The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...

and Advaita Vedānta, studying the Vedantic texts, such as the

, aided by discussions with the

guru Guru ( sa, गुरु, IAST: ''guru;'' Pali'': garu'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverential ...

(teacher, counsellor). * ''Manana'' refers to thinking on these discussions and contemplating over the various ideas based on ''svadhyaya'' and ''sravana''. It is the stage of reflection on the teachings; * '' Nididhyāsana'', the stage of meditation and introspection.Oxford Index, ''nididhyāsana''
/ref> This stage of practice aims at realization and consequent conviction of the truths, non-duality and a state where there is a fusion of thought and action, knowing and being. Although the threefold practice is broadly accepted in the Advaita tradition, Shankara's works show an ambivalence toward it: while accepting its authenticity and merits, as it is based in the scriptures, he also takes a subitist position, arguing that ''moksha'' is attained at once when the ''mahavakyas'', articulating the identity of ''Atman'' and ''Brahman'', are understood.See also kelamuni (2006), ''The Philosophy of Adi Shankaracharya'', section "II. The Threefold Means," on Brahma Sutra Bhashya 4.1.2 and subitism. According to Rambachan, "it is not possible to reconcile Sankara's views with this seemingly well-ordered system." Mandana Misra, on the other hand, explicitly affirms the threefold practice as the means to acquire knowledge of Brahman, referring to meditation as ''dhyana''. He states that these practices, though conceptual, 'can eliminate both ignorance and coneptuality at the same time, leaving only the "pure, transparent nature" of self-awareness'. Bilimoria states that these three stages of Advaita practice can be viewed as ''sadhana'' practice that unifies ''

'' and ''

Karma Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...

'' ("action," referring here to ritual) ideas, and was most likely derived from these older traditions.

Guru

Advaita Vedānta school has traditionally had a high reverence for Guru (teacher), and recommends that a competent Guru be sought in one's pursuit of spirituality, though this is not mandatory. Reading of Vedic literature and reflection is the most essential practice. Adi Shankara, states Comans, regularly employed compound words "such as ''Sastracaryopadesa'' (instruction by way of the scriptures and the teacher) and ''Vedāntacaryopadesa'' (instruction by way of the Upanishads and the teacher) to emphasize the importance of Guru". According to Comans, this reflects the Advaita tradition which holds a competent teacher as important and essential to gaining correct knowledge, freeing oneself from false knowledge, and to self-realization. Nevertheless, in the Bhamati-school the guru has a less essential role, as he can explain the teachings, but the student has to venture its further study. A guru is someone more than a teacher, traditionally a reverential figure to the student, with the ''guru'' serving as a "counselor, who helps mold values, shares experiential knowledge as much as literal knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who helps in the spiritual evolution of a student.Joel Mlecko (1982)
The Guru in Hindu Tradition
Numen, Volume 29, Fasc. 1, pp. 33–61 The guru, states Joel Mlecko, is more than someone who teaches specific type of knowledge, and includes in its scope someone who is also a "counselor, a sort of parent of mind and soul, who helps mold values and experiential knowledge as much as specific knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who reveals the meaning of life."

''Pramana'' (means of knowledge)

In classical Indian thought, ''

pramana ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".means of knowledge) concerns questions like how correct knowledge can be acquired; how one knows, how one doesn't; and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired. In contrast to other schools of Indian philosophy, early Vedanta paid little attention to ''

pramana ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".metaphysics Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality, the first principles of being, identity and change, space and time, causality, necessity, and possibility. It includes questions about the nature of conscio ...

and

soteriology Soteriology (; el, σωτηρία ' "salvation" from σωτήρ ' "savior, preserver" and λόγος ' "study" or "word") is the study of religious doctrines of salvation. Salvation theory occupies a place of special significance in many religion ...

, and he took for granted the ''pramanas''. For Shankara, ''sabda'' is the only means of knowledge for attaining ''Brahman-jnana''. According to Sengaku Mayeda, "in no place in his works ..does he give any systematic account of them," taking ''Atman-Brahman'' to be self-evident (''svapramanaka'') and self-established (''svatahsiddha''), and "an investigation of the means of knowledge is of no use for the attainment of final release." Nevertheless, the Advaita tradition accepts altogether six kinds of . While Adi Shankara emphasized '' Śabda'' (शब्द), relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts with regard to religious insights, and also accepted ''pratyakṣa'' (प्रत्यक्षाय), perception; and ''anumāṇa'' (अनुमान), inference — Classical Advaita Vedānta, just like the Bhatta Purvamimamsaka school, also accepts ''upamāṇa'' (उपमान), comparison, analogy; ''arthāpatti'' (अर्थापत्ति), postulation, derivation from circumstances; and ''anupalabdi'' (अनुपलब्धि), non-perception, negative/cognitive proof.

=Samadhi

= The Advaita tradition emphasizes that, since Brahman is ever-present, Brahman-knowledge is immediate and requires no 'action', that is, striving and effort, as articulated by Shankara; yet, it also prescribes elaborate preparatory practice, including yogic samadhi, posing a paradox which is also recognized in other spiritual disciplines and traditions. Shankara regarded the ''srutis'' as the means of knowledge of Brahman, and he was ambivalent about yogic practices and meditation, which at best may prepare one for ''Brahma-jnana''. According to Rambachan, criticising Vivekananda, Shankara states that the knowledge of Brahman can only be obtained from inquiry of the Shruti, and not by Yoga or samadhi, which at best can only silence the mind. The Bhamati school and the Vivarana school differed on the role of contemplation, but they both "deny the possibility of perceiving supersensuous knowledge through popular yoga techniques." Later Advaita texts like the ''

Dṛg-Dṛśya-Viveka The ''Dṛg-Dṛśya-Viveka'' or ''Vâkyasudhâ'' is an Advaita Vedanta text attributed to Bhāratī Tīrtha or Vidyaranya Swami (c. 1350) Authorship Although also attributed to Adi Shankara, the text is most commonly attributed to Bharatī Tīr ...

'' (14th century) and '' Vedāntasara (of Sadananda)'' (15th century) added

samādhi ''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yoga ...

as a means to liberation, a theme that was also emphasized by Swami Vivekananda. The

, traditionally attributed to Shankara but post-dating him, "conceives of ''

nirvikalpa samadhi ''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yoga ...

'' as the premier method of Self-realization over and above the well-known vedantic discipline of listening, reflection and deep contemplation." Koller states that yogic concentration is an aid to gaining knowledge in Advaita.

= ''Anubhava'' ('experience')

= The role of ''anubhava'', ''anubhuti'' ("experience," "intuition") as "experience" in gaining ''Brahman-jnana'' is contested. While neo-Vedanta claims a central position for ''anubhava'' as "experience," Shankara himself regarded reliance on textual authority as sufficient for gaining ''Brahman-jnana'', "the intuition of Brahman," and used ''anubhava'' interchangeably with ''pratipatta'', "understanding". Arvind Sharma argues that Shankara's own "direct experience of the ultimate truth" guided him in selecting "those passages of the scriptures that resonate with this experience and will select them as the key with which to open previously closed, even forbidden, doors." The ''

'' "explicit ydeclar sthat experience (''anubhuti'') is a ''pramana'', or means of knowing (VCM 59)," and

also accepts ''anubhava'' ("personal experience") as a means of knowledge. Dalal and others state that ''anubhava'' does not center around some sort of "mystical experience," but around the correct knowledge of Brahman. Nikhalananda conquers, stating that (knowledge of) ''Atman'' and ''Brahman'' can only be reached by ''

buddhi :''In Hindu mythology, Buddhi is one of the wives of Ganesha.'' Buddhi (Sanskrit: बुद्धि) refers to the intellectual faculty and the power to "form and retain concepts, reason, discern, judge, comprehend, understand". Etymology ''Bud ...

'', "reason," stating that mysticism is a kind of intuitive knowledge, while ''buddhi'' is the highest means of attaining knowledge.

''Adhyaropa Apavada'' - imposition and negation

Since Gaudapada, who adopted the Buddhist four-cornered negation which negates any positive predicates of 'the Absolute', a central method in Advaita Vedanta to express the inexpressable is the method called ''Adhyaropa Apavada''. In this method, which was highly estimated by Satchidanandendra Saraswati, a property is imposed (''adhyaropa'') on Atman to convince one of its existence, whereafter the imposition is removed (''apavada'') to reveal the true nature of Atman as nondual and undefinable. In this method, "That which cannot be expressed is expressed through false attribution and subsequent denial." As Shankara writes, "First let me bring them on the right path, and then I will gradually be able to bring them round to the final truth afterwards." For example, Atman, the real "I," is described as

witness In law, a witness is someone who has knowledge about a matter, whether they have sensed it or are testifying on another witnesses' behalf. In law a witness is someone who, either voluntarily or under compulsion, provides testimonial evidence, e ...

, giving "it" an attribute to separate it from non-self. Since this implies a duality between observer and observed, next the notion of "witness" is dropped, by showing that the Self cannot be seen and is beyond qualifications, and only that what is remains, without using any words:''adhyAropa apavAda''
/ref>

The ''Mahavyakas'' - the identity of Ātman and Brahman

''Moksha'', liberation from suffering and rebirth and attaining immortality, is attained by disidentification from the body-mind complex and gaining self-knowledge as being in essence ''Atman'', and attaining knowledge of the identity of ''Atman'' and

. According to Shankara, the individual Ātman and Brahman seem different at the empirical level of reality, but this difference is only an illusion, and at the highest level of reality they are really identical. The real self is ''Sat'', "the Existent," that is, ''Atman-Brahman''. Whereas the difference between Atman and non-Atman is deemed self-evident, knowledge of the identity of Atman and Brahman is revealed by the ''shruti'', especially the Upanishadic statement ''tat tvam asi''.

=''Mahavakyas''

= According to Shankara, a large number of Upanishadic statements reveal the identity of ''Atman'' and ''Brahman''. In the Advaita Vedanta tradition, four of those statements, the '' Mahavakyas'', which are taken literal, in contrast to other statements, have a special importance in revealing this identity. They are: * तत्त्वमसि, ''

'', Chandogya VI.8.7. Traditionally rendered as "That Thou Art" (that you are), with '' tat'' in Ch.U.6.8.7 referring to ''

sat The SAT ( ) is a standardized test widely used for college admissions in the United States. Since its debut in 1926, its name and scoring have changed several times; originally called the Scholastic Aptitude Test, it was later called the Schol ...

'', "the Existent"); correctly translated as "That's how husyou are," with ''tat'' in Ch.U.6.12.3, its original location from where it was copied to other verses, referring to "the very nature of all existence as permeated by he finest essence * अहं ब्रह्मास्मि, '' aham brahmāsmi'', Brhadāranyaka I.4.10, "I am Brahman," or "I am Divine." * प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म, ''prajñānam brahma'', Aitareya V.3, "''Prajñānam'' ''is Brahman''." * अयमात्मा ब्रह्म, ''ayamātmā brahma'', Mandukya II, "This Atman is Brahman."

=''That you are''

= The longest chapter of Shankara's '' Upadesasahasri'', chapter 18, "That Art Thou," is devoted to considerations on the insight "I am ever-free, the existent" (''

''), and the identity expressed in Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 in the '' mahavakya'' (great sentence) "''tat tvam asi''", "that thou art." In this statement, according to Shankara, ''tat'' refers to

'', "the Existent" Existence, Being, or Brahman, the Real, the "Root of the world," the true essence or root or origin of everything that exists. "Tvam" refers to one's real I, ''pratyagatman'' or inner Self, the "direct Witness within everything," "free from caste, family, and purifying ceremonies," the essence, ''Atman'', which the individual at the core is.Max Muller
Chandogya Upanishad 6.1-6.16
The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 92-109 with footnotes As Shankara states in the '' Upadesasahasri'': The statement "tat tvam asi" sheds the false notion that ''Atman'' is different from ''Brahman''. According toNakamura, the non-duality of ''atman'' and ''Brahman'' "is a famous characteristic of Sankara's thought, but it was already taught by Sundarapandya" (c.600 CE or earlier). Shankara cites Sundarapandya in his comments to ''Brahma Sutra'' verse I.1.4: From this, and a large number of other accordances, Nakamura concludes that Shankar was not an original thinker, but "a synthesizer of existing Advaita and the rejuvenator, as well as a defender, of ancient learning."

=Direct perception versus contemplation of the ''Mahavakyas''

= In the ''Upadesasahasri Shankara'', Shankara is ambivalent on the need for meditation on the Upanishadic ''mahavakya''. He states that "right knowledge arises at the moment of hearing," and rejects ''prasamcaksa'' or ''prasamkhyana'' meditation, that is, meditation on the meaning of the sentences, and in Up.II.3 recommends ''parisamkhyana'', separating ''Atman'' from everything that is not ''Atman'', that is, the sense-objects and sense-organs, and the pleasant and unpleasant things and merit and demerit connected with them. Yet, Shankara then concludes with declaring that only ''Atman'' exists, stating that "all the sentences of the ''Upanishads'' concerning non-duality of ''Atman'' should be fully contemplated, should be contemplated." As Mayeda states, "how they 'prasamcaksa'' or ''prasamkhyana'' versus ''parisamkhyana''differ from each other in not known." ''Prasamkhyana'' was advocated by Mandana Misra, the older contemporary of Shankara who was the most influential Advaitin until the 10th century. "According to Mandana, the ''mahavakyas'' are incapable, by themselves, of bringing about ''brahmajnana''. The ''Vedanta-vakyas'' convey an indirect knowledge which is made direct only by deep meditation (''prasamkhyana''). The latter is a continuous contemplation of the purport of the ''mahavakyas''. Vācaspati Miśra, a student of Mandana Misra, agreed with Mandana Misra, and their stance is defended by the Bhamati-school, founded by Vācaspati Miśra. In contrast, the Vivarana school founded by Prakasatman (c. 1200–1300) follows Shankara closely, arguing that the ''mahavakyas'' are the direct cause of gaining knowledge. Shankara's insistence on direct knowledge as liberating also differs from the '' asparsa yoga'' described in Gaudapada's ''Mandukyakarika'' III.39-46. In this practice of 'non-contact' (''a-

sparśa Sparśa (Sanskrit; Pali: ''phassa'') is a Sanskrit/Indian term that is translated as "contact", "touching", "sensation", "sense impression", etc. It is defined as the coming together of three factors: the sense organ, the sense object, and sen ...

''), the mind is controlled and brought to rest, and does not create "things" (appearances) after which it grasps; it becomes non-dual, free from the subject- raspingobject dualism. Knowing that only ''Atman-Brahman'' is real, the creations of the mind are seen as false appearances (MK III.31-33). When the mind is brought to rest, it becomes or is ''Brahman'' (MK III.46).

=Renouncement of ritualism

= In the ''Upadesasahasri'' Shankara discourages ritual worship such as oblations to ''Deva'' (God), because that assumes the Self within is different from

. The "doctrine of difference" is wrong, asserts Shankara, because, "he who knows the Brahman is one and he is another, does not know Brahman". The false notion that ''Atman'' is different from ''Brahman'' is connected with the novice's conviction that (''Upadesasaharsi II.1.25'') Recognizing oneself as "the Existent-''Brahman''," which is mediated by scriptural teachings, is contrasted with the notion of "I act," which is mediated by relying on sense-perception and the like. According to Shankara, the statement "Thou art That" "remove the delusion of a hearer," "so through sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own ''Atman'', the witness of all internal organs," and not from any actions. With this realization, the performance of rituals is prohibited, "since he use ofrituals and their requisites is contradictory to the realization of the identity f ''Atman''with the highest ''Atman''."

Ethics

Some claim, states Deutsch, "that Advaita turns its back on all theoretical and practical considerations of morality and, if not unethical, is at least 'a-ethical' in character". However, Deutsch adds, ethics ''does'' have a firm place in this philosophy. Its ideology is permeated with ethics and value questions enter into every metaphysical and epistemological analysis, and it considers "an independent, separate treatment of ethics are unnecessary". According to Advaita Vedānta, states Deutsch, there cannot be "any absolute moral laws, principles or duties", instead in its axiological view Atman is "beyond good and evil", and all values result from self-knowledge of the reality of "distinctionless Oneness" of one's real self, every other being and all manifestations of Brahman. Advaitin ethics includes lack of craving, lack of dual distinctions between one's own Self and another being's, good and just

. The values and ethics in Advaita Vedānta emanate from what it views as inherent in the state of liberating self-knowledge. This state, according to Rambachan, includes and leads to the understanding that "the self is the self of all, the knower of self sees the self in all beings and all beings in the self." Such knowledge and understanding of the indivisibility of one's and other's Atman, Advaitins believe leads to "a deeper identity and affinity with all". It does not alienate or separate an Advaitin from his or her community, rather awakens "the truth of life's unity and interrelatedness". These ideas are exemplified in the Isha Upanishad – a ''sruti'' for Advaita, as follows: Adi Shankara, in verse 1.25 to 1.26 of his ''Upadeśasāhasrī'', asserts that the Self-knowledge is understood and realized when one's mind is purified by the observation of

Yamas The Yamas ( sa, यम, translit=Yama), and their complement, the Niyamas, represent a series of "right living" or ethical rules within Yoga philosophy. It means "reining in" or "control". These are restraints for proper conduct as given in the ...

(ethical precepts) such as Ahimsa (non-violence, abstinence from injuring others in body, mind and thoughts), Satya (truth, abstinence from falsehood), Asteya (abstinence from theft), Aparigraha (abstinence from possessiveness and craving) and a simple life of meditation and reflection. Rituals and rites can help focus and prepare the mind for the journey to Self-knowledge, but can be abandoned when moving on to "hearing, reflection, and meditation on the Upanishads." Elsewhere, in verses 1.26–1.28, the Advaita text Upadesasahasri states the ethical premise of equality of all beings. Any ''Bheda'' (discrimination), states Shankara, based on class or caste or parentage is a mark of inner error and lack of liberating knowledge. This text states that the fully liberated person understands and practices the ethics of non-difference.

Texts

The

, the Bhagavad Gitā and

are the central texts of the Advaita Vedānta tradition, providing doctrines about the identity of ''Atman'' and ''Brahman'' and their changeless nature. Adi Shankara gave a nondualist interpretation of these texts in his commentaries.

's ''

Bhashya Bhashya () is a "commentary" or "exposition" of any primary or secondary text in ancient or medieval Indian literature. Common in Sanskrit literature, ''Bhashya'' is also found in other Indian languages. Bhashya are found in various fields, ranging ...

'' (commentaries) have become central texts in the Advaita Vedānta philosophy, but are one among many ancient and medieval manuscripts available or accepted in this tradition. The subsequent Advaita tradition has further elaborated on these sruti and commentaries. Adi Shankara is also credited for the famous text

Nirvana Shatakam The ''Atmashatakam'' (, ), also known as ''Nirvanashatkam '' (निर्वाणषट्कम्, ), is a non-dualistic (advaita) composition consisting of 6 verses or ślokas, attributed to the Hindu exegete Adi Shankara summarizing the basic ...

''Prasthanatrayi''

The ''Vedānta'' tradition provides exegeses of the ''

'', the ''

'', and the ''

Bhagavadgita The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...

'', collectively called the ''

Prasthanatrayi Prasthanatrayi ( sa, प्रस्थानत्रयी, IAST: ), literally, ''three sources (or axioms)'', refers to the three canonical texts of theology having epistemic authority, especially of the Vedanta schools. It consists of: # The ...

'', literally, ''three sources''. # The ''

'', or ''Śruti prasthāna''; considered the '' '' (Vedic scriptures) foundation of ''Vedānta''. Most scholars, states Eliot Deutsch, are convinced that the Śruti in general, and the Upanishads in particular, express "a very rich diversity" of ideas, with the early ''Upanishads'' such as ''

'' and '' Chandogya Upanishad'' being more readily amenable to ''Advaita Vedānta'' school's interpretation than the middle or later ''Upanishads''. In addition to the oldest ''Upanishads'', states Williams, the ''Sannyasa Upanishads'' group composed in pre-''Shankara'' times "express a decidedly ''Advaita'' outlook". # The ''

'', or ''Nyaya prasthana'' / ''Yukti prasthana''; considered the reason-based foundation of ''Vedānta''. The ''Brahma Sutras'' attempted to synthesize the teachings of the ''Upanishads''. The diversity in the teachings of the ''Upanishads'' necessitated the systematization of these teachings. The only extant version of this synthesis is the ''Brahma Sutras'' of '' Badarayana''. Like the ''Upanishads'', ''Brahma Sutras'' is also an aphoristic text, and can be interpreted as a non-theistic ''Advaita Vedānta'' text or as a theistic ''Dvaita Vedānta'' text. This has led, states Stephen Phillips, to its varying interpretations by scholars of various sub-schools of ''Vedānta''. The ''Brahmasutra'' is considered by the Advaita school as the ''Nyaya Prasthana'' (canonical base for reasoning). # The '' Bhagavad Gitā'', or ''Smriti prasthāna''; considered the ''

Smriti ''Smriti'' ( sa, स्मृति, IAST: '), literally "that which is remembered" are a body of Hindu texts usually attributed to an author, traditionally written down, in contrast to Śrutis (the Vedic literature) considered authorless, that ...

'' (remembered tradition) foundation of ''Vedānta''. It has been widely studied by ''Advaita'' scholars, including a commentary by ''Adi Shankara''.

Textual authority

The Advaita Vedānta tradition considers the knowledge claims in the Vedas to be the crucial part of the Vedas, not its ''karma-kanda'' (ritual injunctions). The knowledge claims about self being identical to the nature of ''Atman-Brahman'' are found in the

, which Advaita Vedānta has regarded as "errorless revealed truth." Nevertheless, states Koller, Advaita Vedantins did not entirely rely on revelation, but critically examined their teachings using reason and experience, and this led them to investigate and critique competing theories. Advaita Vedānta, like all orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, accepts as an epistemic premise that

Śruti ''Shruti'' ( sa, श्रुति, , ) in Sanskrit means "that which is heard" and refers to the body of most authoritative, ancient religious texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism. Manusmriti states: ''Śrutistu vedo vijñeyaḥ'' ( ...

(Vedic literature) is a reliable source of knowledge. The Śruti includes the four Vedas including its four layers of embedded texts – the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the early Upanishads. Of these, the Upanishads are the most referred to texts in the Advaita school. The possibility of different interpretations of the Vedic literature, states Arvind Sharma, was recognized by ancient Indian scholars. The Brahmasutra (also called Vedānta Sutra, composed in 1st millennium BCE) accepted this in verse 1.1.4 and asserts the need for the Upanishadic teachings to be understood not in piecemeal cherrypicked basis, rather in a unified way wherein the ideas in the Vedic texts are harmonized with other means of knowledge such as perception, inference and remaining

pramana ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".Brahmasutra as a common reference and a consolidated textual authority for Advaita. The Bhagavad Gitā, similarly in parts can be interpreted to be a monist Advaita text, and in other parts as theistic Dvaita text. It too has been widely studied by Advaita scholars, including a commentary by Adi Shankara.

Other texts

A large number of texts are attributed to Shankara; of these texts, the Brahma Sutra Bhasya (commentary on the Brahma Sutras), the commentaries on the principal Upanishads, and the Upadesasahasri are considered genuine and stand out. Other notable texts attributed to Shankara are the

, Atma bodha, and Aparokshanubhuti. Post-Shankara Advaita saw the composition of both scholarly commentaries and treatises, as well as popular works and compositions which incorporate Yoga ideas. These include

Advaita Bodha Deepika ''Advaita Bodha Deepika'', ''Lamp of Non-Dual Knowledge'', is an Advaita Vedanta text written by Sri Karapatra Swami. Contents The ''Advaita Bodha Deepika'' is set as a dialogue between a master and a student. Just like other medieval Advaita Ve ...

and Dŗg-Dŗśya-Viveka. Texts which influenced the Advaita tradition include the

Avadhuta Gita ''Avadhuta Gita'' (Devanagari: अवधूत गीता, IAST: ) is a Sanskrit text of Hinduism whose title means "Song of the free soul". The text's poetry is based on the principles of Advaita and Dvaita schools of Hindu philosophy.Katz, Jer ...

, the Yoga Vasistha, and the

Yoga Yajnavalkya The ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' ( sa, योगयाज्ञवल्क्य, ''Yoga-Yājñavalkya'') is a classical Hindu yoga text in the Sanskrit language. The text is written in the form of a male-female dialogue between the sage Yajnavalkya and ...

Sampradaya and Smarta tradition

Monastic order - Mathas

Advaita Vedānta is not just a philosophical system, but also a tradition of

renunciation Renunciation (or renouncing) is the act of rejecting something, especially if it is something that the renunciant has previously enjoyed or endorsed. In religion, renunciation often indicates an abandonment of pursuit of material comforts, in t ...

. Philosophy and renunciation are closely related: According to tradition, around 740 AD Gaudapada founded

Shri Gaudapadacharya Math Shri Gaudapadacharya Math ( sa, श्री संस्थान गौडपदाचार्य मठ, '), also known as (), located in Kavale, Ponda, Goa, is the oldest matha of the Smarthan Saraswat Brahman Samaj. It was founded by ...

, , also known as . It is located in

Kavale {{Infobox settlement , name = Kavale , other_name = , nickname = , settlement_type = village , image_skyline = , image_alt = , image_caption = , ...

, Ponda, Goa,Asram Vidya Order, ''Biographical Notes About Sankara And Gaudapada''
/ref> and is the oldest

matha A ''matha'' (; sa, मठ, ), also written as ''math'', ''muth'', ''mutth'', ''mutt'', or ''mut'', is a Sanskrit word that means 'institute or college', and it also refers to a monastery in Hinduism.

of the

South India South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territ ...

Saraswat Brahmin The Saraswat Brahmins are Hindu Brahmins, who are spread over widely separated regions spanning from Kashmir in North India to Konkan in West India to Kanara (coastal region of Karnataka) and Kerala in South India. The word ''Saraswat'' is de ...

s.Kavale Math Official Website
/ref> Shankara, himself considered to be an incarnation of

Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...

, is credited with establishing the Dashanami Sampradaya, organizing a section of the Ekadandi monks under an umbrella grouping of ten names.Sankara Acarya Biography – Monastic Tradition
Several Hindu monastic and Ekadandi traditions, however, remained outside the organisation of the Dasanāmis. Sankara is said to have organised the Hindu monks of these ten sects or names under four (Sanskrit: ) (monasteries), called the ''Amnaya Mathas'', with the headquarters at

Dvārakā Dvārakā, also known as ''Dvāravatī'' (Sanskrit द्वारका "the gated ity, possibly meaning having many gates, or alternatively having one or several very grand gates), is a sacred historic city in the sacred literature of H ...

in the West,

Jagannatha Puri The Jagannath Temple is an important Hindu temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Vishnu - one of the trinity of supreme divinity in Hinduism. Puri is in the state of Odisha, on the eastern coast of India. The present temple was rebuilt f ...

in the East, Sringeri in the South and

Badrikashrama Badrinath is a town and nagar panchayat in Chamoli district in the state of Uttarakhand, India. A Hindu holy place, it is one of the four sites in India's Char Dham pilgrimage and is also part of India's Chota Char Dham pilgrimage circu ...

in the North. According to tradition, each math was first headed by one of his four main disciples, and the tradition continues since then. Yet, according to Paul Hacker, no mention of the ''mathas'' can be found before the 14th century CE. Until the 15th century, the timespan of the directors of Sringeri Math are unrealistically long, spanning 60+ and even 105 years. After 1386, the timespans become much shorter. According to Hacker, these mathas may have originated as late as the 14th century, to propagate Shankara's view of Advaita. According to another tradition in Kerala, after Sankara's

samadhi ''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yoga ...

at Vadakkunnathan Temple, his disciples founded four mathas in Thrissur, namely Naduvil Madhom, Thekke Madhom, Idayil Madhom and Vadakke Madhom. Monks of these ten orders differ in part in their beliefs and practices, and a section of them is not considered to be restricted to specific changes attributed to Shankara. While the dasanāmis associated with the Sankara maths follow the procedures attributed to Adi Śankara, some of these orders remained partly or fully independent in their belief and practices; and outside the official control of the Sankara maths. The advaita sampradaya is not a Saiva sect, despite the historical links with Shaivism. Nevertheless, contemporary Sankaracaryas have more influence among Saiva communities than among Vaisnava communities.

Smarta Tradition

The

Smarta The ''Smarta'' tradition ( sa, स्मार्त), also called Smartism, is a movement in Hinduism that developed and expanded with the Puranas genre of literature. It reflects a synthesis of four philosophical strands, namely Mimamsa, A ...

tradition of

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...

is a synthesis of various strands of Indian religious thought and practice, which developed with the

Hindu synthesis The history of Hinduism covers a wide variety of related religious traditions native to the Indian subcontinent. It overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in the Indian subcontinent since the Iron Age, with some of its tradition ...

, dating back to the early first century CE. It is particularly found in south and west India, and revers all Hindu divinities as a step in their spiritual pursuit. Their

worship Worship is an act of religious devotion usually directed towards a deity. It may involve one or more of activities such as veneration, adoration, praise, and praying. For many, worship is not about an emotion, it is more about a recogniti ...

practice is called ''Panchayatana puja''. The worship symbolically consists of five deities:

Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" withi ...

, Devi or

Durga Durga ( sa, दुर्गा, ) is a major Hindu goddess, worshipped as a principal aspect of the mother goddess Mahadevi. She is associated with protection, strength, motherhood, destruction, and wars. Durga's legend centres around c ...

, Surya and an

Ishta Devata Ishta may refer to: * ''Ishta'' (film), a 2011 Kannada-language film * Ishta (Stargate) Over its decade of existence, science fiction TV series ''Stargate SG-1'' developed an extensive and detailed backdrop of diverse characters. Many of the ch ...

or any personal god of devotee's preference. In the Smarta tradition, Advaita Vedānta ideas combined with bhakti are its foundation. Adi Shankara is regarded as the greatest teacher and reformer of the Smarta. According to Alf Hiltebeitel, Shankara's Advaita Vedānta and practices became the doctrinal unifier of previously conflicting practices with the ''smarta'' tradition. Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all images and statues (

murti In the Hindu tradition, a ''murti'' ( sa, मूर्ति, mūrti, ) is a devotional image such as a statue, or "idol" (a common and non-pejorative term in Indian English), of a deity or saint. In Hindu temples, it is a symbolic icon. T ...

), or just five marks or any anicons on the ground, are visibly convenient icons of spirituality ''saguna Brahman''. The multiple icons are seen as multiple representations of the same idea, rather than as distinct beings. These serve as a step and means to realizing the abstract Ultimate Reality called nirguna Brahman. The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, then follow a philosophical and meditative path to understanding the oneness of Atman (Self) and Brahman – as "That art Thou".The Four Denominations of Hinduism
Basics of Hinduism, Kauai Hindu Monastery

Buddhist influences

Similarities

Advaita Vedānta and various other schools of Hindu philosophy share numerous terminology, doctrines and dialectical techniques with Buddhism. According to a 1918 paper by the Buddhism scholar O. Rozenberg, "a precise differentiation between Brahmanism and Buddhism is impossible to draw." Murti notices that "the ultimate goal" of Vedanta, Samkhya and Mahayana Buddhism is "remarkably similar"; while Advaita Vedanta postulates a "foundational self," "Mahayana Buddhism implicitly affirms the existence of a deep underlying reality behind all empirical manifestations in its conception of '' sunyata'' (the indeterminate, the void), or '' vijnapti-matrata'' (consciousness only), or '' tathata'' (thatness), or '' dharmata'' (noumenal reality)." According to Frank Whaling, the similarities between Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism are not limited to the terminology and some doctrines, but also includes practice. The monastic practices and monk tradition in Advaita are similar to those found in Buddhism.

Mahayana influences

The influence of Mahayana Buddhism on Advaita Vedānta has been significant. Sharma points out that the early commentators on the Brahma Sutras were all realists, or

pantheist Pantheism is the belief that reality, the universe and the cosmos are identical with divinity and a supreme supernatural being or entity, pointing to the universe as being an immanent creator deity still expanding and creating, which has e ...

realists. He states that they were influenced by Buddhism, particularly during the 5th-6th centuries CE when Buddhist thought developing in the

Yogacara Yogachara ( sa, योगाचार, IAST: '; literally "yoga practice"; "one whose practice is yoga") is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through ...

school. Von Glasenap states that there was a mutual influence between Vedanta and Buddhism.Helmuth Von Glasenapp (1995), Vedanta & Buddhism: A comparative study, Buddhist Publication Society, pages 2-3, Quote: "Vedanta and Buddhism have lived side by side for such a long time that obviously they must have influenced each other. The strong predilection of the Indian mind for a doctrine of universal unity has led the representatives of Mahayana to conceive Samsara and Nirvana as two aspects of the same and single true reality; for

Nagarjuna Nāgārjuna . 150 – c. 250 CE (disputed)was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist thinker, scholar-saint and philosopher. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosophers.Garfield, Jay L. (1995), ''The Fundamental Wisdom of ...

the empirical world is a mere appearance, as all dharmas, manifest in it, are perishable and conditioned by other dharmas, without having any independent existence of their own. Only the indefinable "Voidness" (''Sunyata'') to be grasped in meditation, and realized in Nirvana, has true reality n Buddhism. Dasgupta and Mohanta suggest that Buddhism and Shankara's Advaita Vedānta represent "different phases of development of the same non-dualistic metaphysics from the Upanishadic period to the time of Sankara." The influence of Buddhist doctrines on Gauḍapāda has been a vexed question. Modern scholarship generally accepts that Gauḍapāda was influenced by Buddhism, at least in terms of using Buddhist terminology to explain his ideas, but adds that Gauḍapāda was a Vedantin and not a Buddhist. Adi Shankara, states Natalia Isaeva, incorporated "into his own system a Buddhist notion of ''

'' which had not been minutely elaborated in the Upanishads". According to Mudgal, Shankara's Advaita and the Buddhist Madhyamaka view of ultimate reality are compatible because they are both transcendental, indescribable, non-dual and only arrived at through a '' via negativa'' ( neti neti). Mudgal concludes therefore that "the difference between Sunyavada (Mahayana) philosophy of Buddhism and

Advaita ''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' (l ...

philosophy of Hinduism may be a matter of emphasis, not of kind. Similarly, there are many points of contact between Buddhism's Vijnanavada and Shankara's Advaita. According to S.N. Dasgupta,

Differences from Buddhism

The Advaita Vedānta tradition has historically rejected accusations of crypto-Buddhism highlighting their respective views on ''Atman'', ''Anatta'' and ''Brahman''. Yet, some Buddhist texts chronologically placed in the 1st millennium of common era, such as the Mahayana tradition's ''Tathāgatagarbha sūtras'' suggest self-like concepts, variously called ''Tathagatagarbha'' or ''

Buddha nature Buddha-nature refers to several related Mahayana Buddhist terms, including '' tathata'' ("suchness") but most notably ''tathāgatagarbha'' and ''buddhadhātu''. ''Tathāgatagarbha'' means "the womb" or "embryo" (''garbha'') of the "thus-gone ...

''. In modern era studies, scholars such as Wayman and Wayman state that these "self-like" concepts are neither self nor sentient being, nor soul, nor personality. Some scholars posit that the ''Tathagatagarbha Sutras'' were written to promote Buddhism to non-Buddhists. The epistemological foundations of Buddhism and Advaita Vedānta are different. Buddhism accepts two valid means to reliable and correct knowledge – perception and inference, while Advaita Vedānta accepts six (described elsewhere in this article). However, some Buddhists in history, have argued that Buddhist scriptures are a reliable source of spiritual knowledge, corresponding to Advaita's ''Śabda'' pramana, however Buddhists have treated their scriptures as a form of inference method. Advaita Vedānta posits a substance ontology, an ontology which holds that underlying the change and impermanence of empirical reality is an unchanging and permanent absolute reality, like an eternal substance it calls Atman-Brahman. In its substance ontology, as like other philosophies, there exist a universal, particulars and specific properties and it is the interaction of particulars that create events and processes. In contrast,

posits a process ontology, also called as "event ontology". According to the Buddhist thought, particularly after the rise of ancient Mahayana Buddhism scholarship, there is neither empirical nor absolute permanent reality and ontology can be explained as a process. There is a system of relations and interdependent phenomena (''pratitya samutpada'') in Buddhist ontology, but no stable persistent identities, no eternal universals nor particulars. Thought and memories are mental constructions and fluid processes without a real observer, personal agency or cognizer in Buddhism. In contrast, in Advaita Vedānta, like other schools of Hinduism, the concept of self (atman) is the real on-looker, personal agent and cognizer.

Criticisms of concurring Hindu schools

Some Hindu scholars criticized Advaita for its ''Maya'' and non-theistic doctrinal similarities with Buddhism. sometimes referring to the Advaita-tradition as ''Māyāvāda''.

Ramanuja Ramanuja ( Middle Tamil: Rāmāṉujam; Classical Sanskrit: Rāmanuja; 1017 CE – 1137 CE; ; ), also known as Ramanujacharya, was an Indian Hindu philosopher, guru and a social reformer. He is noted to be one of the most important exponents ...

, the founder of Vishishtadvaita Vedānta, accused Adi Shankara of being a ''Prachanna Bauddha'', that is, a "crypto-Buddhist", and someone who was undermining theistic Bhakti devotionalism. The non-Advaita scholar Bhaskara of the Bhedabheda Vedānta tradition, similarly around 800 CE, accused Shankara's Advaita as "this despicable broken down Mayavada that has been chanted by the Mahayana Buddhists", and a school that is undermining the ritual duties set in Vedic orthodoxy.

Relationship with other forms of Vedānta

The Advaita Vedānta ideas, particularly of 8th century Adi Shankara, were challenged by theistic Vedānta philosophies that emerged centuries later, such as the 11th-century

Vishishtadvaita Vishishtadvaita ( IAST '; sa, विशिष्टाद्वैत) is one of the most popular schools of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. Vedanta literally means the in depth meaning ''of the Vedas.'' ''Vishisht Advaita'' (literal ...

(qualified nondualism) of

, and the 14th-century Dvaita (theistic dualism) of

Madhvacharya Madhvacharya (; ; CE 1199-1278 or CE 1238–1317), sometimes anglicised as Madhva Acharya, and also known as Purna Prajna () and Ānanda Tīrtha, was an Indian philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the '' Dvaita'' (dualism) sch ...

. Their application of Vedanta philosophy to ground their faith turned Vedanta into a major factor in India's religious landscape.

Vishishtadvaita

Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita school and Shankara's Advaita school are both nondualism Vedānta schools,J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008)
Ramanuja – Hindu theologian and Philosopher
Encyclopædia Britannica both are premised on the assumption that all Selfs can hope for and achieve the state of blissful liberation; in contrast, Madhvacharya and his Dvaita subschool of Vedānta believed that some Selfs are eternally doomed and damned. Shankara's theory posits that only Brahman and causes are metaphysical unchanging reality, while the empirical world (

Maya Maya may refer to: Civilizations * Maya peoples, of southern Mexico and northern Central America ** Maya civilization, the historical civilization of the Maya peoples ** Maya language, the languages of the Maya peoples * Maya (Ethiopia), a popul ...

) and observed effects are changing, illusive and of relative existence. Spiritual liberation to Shankara is the full comprehension and realization of oneness of one's unchanging Atman (Self) as the same as Atman in everyone else as well as being identical to the ''nirguna'' Brahman. In contrast, Ramanuja's theory posits both Brahman and the world of matter are two different absolutes, both metaphysically real, neither should be called false or illusive, and ''saguna'' Brahman with attributes is also real. God, like man, states Ramanuja, has both soul and body, and all of the world of matter is the glory of God's body. The path to Brahman (Vishnu), asserted Ramanuja, is devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of personal god (''saguna'' Brahman, Vishnu), one which ultimately leads one to the oneness with ''nirguna'' Brahman.

Shuddhadvaita

Vallabhacharya Vallabhacharya Mahaprabhu (1479–1531 CE), also known as Vallabha, Mahaprabhuji and Vishnuswami, or Vallabha Acharya, is a Hindu Indian saint and philosopher who founded the Krishna-centered PushtiMarg sect of Vaishnavism in the Braj(Vraj) ...

(1479–1531 CE), the proponent of the philosophy of

Shuddhadvaita Shuddadvaita (Sanskrit: "pure non-dualism") is the "purely non-dual" philosophy propounded by Vallabhacharya (1479-1531 CE), the founding philosopher and guru of the ("tradition of Vallabh") or ("The path of grace"), a Hindu Vaishnava tradit ...

Brahmvad enunciates that Ishvara has created the world without connection with any external agency such as Maya (which itself is his power) and manifests Himself through the world. That is why shuddhadvaita is known as 'Unmodified transformation' or 'Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda'. Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual Selfs and the world. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a 'part' (but devoid of bliss).

Dvaita

Madhvacharya was also a critic of

Vedānta. Advaita's nondualism asserted that Atman (Self) and Brahman are identical, there is interconnected oneness of all Selfs and Brahman, and there are no pluralities. Madhva in contrast asserted that Atman (Self) and Brahman are different, only

is the Lord (Brahman), individual Selfs are also different and depend on Vishnu, and there are pluralities.Stafford Betty (2010), Dvaita, Advaita, and Viśiṣṭādvaita: Contrasting Views of Mokṣa, Asian Philosophy: An International Journal of the Philosophical Traditions of the East, Volume 20, Issue 2, pp. 215–224 Madhvacharya stated that both Advaita Vedānta and Mahayana Buddhism were a nihilistic school of thought. Madhvacharya wrote four major texts, including ''Upadhikhandana'' and ''Tattvadyota'', primarily dedicated to criticizing Advaita.SMS Chari (1999), Advaita and Visistadvaita, Motilal Banarsidass, , pp. 5–7 Followers of

ISKCON The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), known colloquially as the Hare Krishna movement or Hare Krishnas, is a Gaudiya Vaishnava Hindu religious organization. ISKCON was founded in 1966 in New York City by A. C. Bhaktiv ...

are highly critical of Advaita Vedānta, regarding it as ''māyāvāda'', identical to Mahayana Buddhism.Gaura Gopala Dasa
''The Self-Defeating Philosophy of Mayavada''
/ref>
/ref>

Influence on other traditions

Within the ancient and medieval texts of Hindu traditions, such as

Vaishnavism Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...

Shaivism Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...

and

Shaktism Shaktism ( sa, शाक्त, , ) is one of several major Hindu denominations, wherein the metaphysical reality is considered metaphorically a woman and Shakti ( Mahadevi) is regarded as the supreme godhead. It includes many goddesses, al ...

, the ideas of Advaita Vedānta have had a major influence. Advaita Vedānta influenced Krishna Vaishnavism in the different parts of India. One of its most popular text, the ''

Bhagavata Purana The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in S ...

'', adopts and integrates in Advaita Vedānta philosophy. The ''Bhagavata Purana'' is generally accepted by scholars to have been composed in the second half of 1st millennium CE. In the ancient and medieval literature of

, called the '' Āgamas'', the influence of Advaita Vedānta is once again prominent. Of the 92 ''Āgamas'', ten are '' Dvaita'' texts, eighteen are ''

Bhedabheda Bhedābheda Vedānta is a subschool of Vedānta, which teaches that the individual self (''jīvātman'') is both different and not different from the ultimate reality known as Brahman. Etymology ''Bhedābheda'' (Devanagari: ) is a Sanskrit wo ...

'', and sixty-four are ''

'' texts. According to Natalia Isaeva, there is an evident and natural link between 6th-century Gaudapada's Advaita Vedānta ideas and Kashmir Shaivism.

, the Hindu tradition where a goddess is considered identical to Brahman, has similarly flowered from a syncretism of the monist premises of Advaita Vedānta and dualism premises of Samkhya–Yoga school of Hindu philosophy, sometimes referred to as ''Shaktadavaitavada'' (literally, the path of nondualistic ''Shakti''). Other influential ancient and medieval classical texts of Hinduism such as the ''

'', '' Yoga Vashishta'', '' Avadhuta Gitā'', ''

Markandeya Purana The ''Markandeya Purana'' ( sa, मार्कण्डेय पुराण; IAST: ) is a Sanskrit text of Hinduism, and one of the eighteen major Puranas. The text's title Markandeya refers to a sage in Hindu History, who is the central c ...

'' and '' Sannyasa Upanishads'' predominantly incorporate premises and ideas of Advaita Vedānta.

History of Advaita Vedānta

Historiography

The historiography of Advaita Vedanta is coloured by Orientalist notions, while modern formulations of Advaita Vedānta, which developed as a reaction to western Orientalism and

Perennialism The perennial philosophy ( la, philosophia perennis), also referred to as perennialism and perennial wisdom, is a perspective in philosophy and spirituality that views all of the world's religious traditions as sharing a single, metaphysical trut ...

have "become a dominant force in Indian intellectual thought." According to Michael S. Allen and Anand Venkatkrishnan, "scholars have yet to provide even a rudimentary, let alone comprehensive account of the history of Advaita Vedānta in the centuries leading up to the colonial period."

Early Vedānta

The Upanishads form the basic texts, of which Vedānta gives an interpretation. The Upanishads do not contain "a rigorous philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting arguments". This philosophical inquiry was performed by the darsanas, the various philosophical schools. The

of Bādarāyana, also called the ''Vedānta Sutra'', were compiled in its present form around 400–450 AD, but "the great part of the ''Sutra'' must have been in existence much earlier than that". Estimates of the date of Bādarāyana's lifetime differ between 200 BC and 200 AD. The Brahma Sutra is a critical study of the teachings of the Upanishads, possibly "written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint." Bādarāyana was not the first person to systematise the teachings of the Upanishads. He refers to seven Vedantic teachers before him.

Early Advaita Vedānta

Two Advaita writings predating Maṇḍana Miśra and Shankara were known to scholars such as Nakamura in the first half of 20th-century, namely the ''Vākyapadīya'', written by

Bhartṛhari Bhartṛhari (Devanagari: ; also romanised as Bhartrihari; fl. c. 5th century CE) was a Hindu linguistic philosopher to whom are normally ascribed two influential Sanskrit texts: * the ''Vākyapadīya'', on Sanskrit grammar and linguistic philo ...

(second half 5th century), and the ''Māndūkya-kārikā'' written by Gauḍapāda (7th century). Later scholarship added the Sannyasa Upanishads (first centuries CE) to the earliest known corpus, some of which are of a sectarian nature, and have a strong Advaita Vedānta outlook. According to Nakamura, "there must have been an enormous number of other writings turned out in this period etween the Brahma Sutras and Shankara but unfortunately all of them have been scattered or lost and have not come down to us today". In his commentaries, Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his Sampradaya. In the beginning of his commentary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes the teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.advaita-deanta.org, ''Advaita Vedanta before Sankaracarya''
/ref> Pre-Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works of the later schools, which does give insight into the development of early Vedānta philosophy.

Gauḍapāda and '

According to tradition, Gauḍapāda (6th century) was the teacher of

Govinda Bhagavatpada Govinda Bhagavatpada (IAST ) was the Guru of the Adi Shankara. Little is known of his life and works, except that he is mentioned in all the traditional accounts ( Shankara Vijayams) as the teacher of Adi Shankara. He was the disciple of Gaudapad ...

and the grandteacher of Shankara. Gauḍapāda wrote or compiled the ', also known as the ' or the '. The ' is a commentary in verse form on the '' Māṇḍūkya Upanishad'', one of the shortest

consisting of just 13 prose sentences. Of the ancient literature related to Advaita Vedānta, the oldest surviving complete text is the ''Māṇḍukya Kārikā''. The ''Māṇḍūkya Upanishad'' was considered to be a

before the era of Adi Shankara, but not treated as particularly important. In later post-Shankara period its value became far more important, and regarded as expressing the essence of the Upanishad philosophy. The entire ''Karika'' became a key text for the Advaita school in this later era. Gaudapada took over the Yogachara teaching of '' vijñapti-mātra'', "representation-only," which states that the empirical reality that we experience is a fabrication of the mind, experienced by consciousness-an-sich, and the four-cornered negation, which negates any positive predicates of 'the Absolute'. Gaudapada "wove oth doctrinesinto the philosophy of ''Mandukaya Upanisad'', which was further developed by Shankara". In this view, Gauḍapāda uses the concepts of Ajātivāda to explain that 'the Absolute' is not subject to birth, change and death. The Absolute is ''aja'', the unborn eternal. The empirical world of appearances is considered

unreal Unreal may refer to: Books and TV * ''Unreal'' (short story collection), a 1985 book of short stories by Paul Jennings * ''Unreal'' (TV series), a 2015 television drama series on Lifetime Computing and games * ''Unreal'' (video game series), ...

, and not absolutely existent.

Early medieval period - Maṇḍana Miśra and Adi Shankara

Maṇḍana Miśra

Maṇḍana Miśra, an older contemporary of Shankara, was a Mimamsa scholar and a follower of Kumarila, but also wrote a seminal text on Advaita that has survived into the modern era, the ''Brahma-siddhi''. According to Fiordalis, he was influenced by the Yoga-tradition, and with that indiractly by Buddhism, given the strong influence of Buddhism on the Yoga-tradition. For a couple of centuries he seems to have been regarded as "the most important representative of the Advaita position," and the "theory of error" set forth in the ''Brahma-siddhi'' became the normative Advaita Vedanta theory of error.

Adi Shankara

Very little is known about Shankara. According to Dalal, "Hagiographical accounts of his life, the '' Śaṅkaravijayas'' ("Conquests of Śaṅkara"), were composed several centuries after his death," in the 14th to 17th century, and established Shankara as a rallying symbol of valuesin a time when most of India was conquered by Muslims. He is often considered to be the founder of the Advaita Vedānta school, but was actually a systematizer, not a founder.

=Systematizer of Advaita thought

= Shankara was a scholar who synthesized and systematized ''Advaita-vāda'' thought which already existed at his lifetime. According to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of the early Vedantins and Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were advocated by someone before Śankara". According to Nakamura, after the growing influence of Buddhism on Vedānta, culminating in the works of Gauḍapāda, Adi Shankara gave a Vedantic character to the Buddhistic elements in these works, synthesising and rejuvenating the doctrine of Advaita. According to Koller, using ideas in ancient Indian texts, Shankara systematized the foundation for Advaita Vedānta in the 8th century, reforming Badarayana's Vedānta tradition. According to Mayeda, Shankara represents a turning point in the development of Vedānta, yet he also notices that it is only since Deussens's praise that Shankara "has usually been regarded as the greatest philosopher of India." Mayeda further notes that Shankara was primarily concerned with ''moksha'', "and not with the establishment of a complete system of philosophy or theology," following Potter, who qualifies Shankara as a "speculative philosopher." Lipner notes that Shankara's "main literary approach was commentarial and hence perforce disjointed rather than procedurally systematic ..though a systematic philosophy can be derived from Samkara's thought."

=Writings

= Adi Shankara is best known for his reviews and commentaries (''Bhasyas'') on ancient Indian texts. His ''Brahmasutrabhasya'' (literally, commentary on

Brahma Sutra The ''Brahma Sūtras'' ( sa, ब्रह्मसूत्राणि) is a Sanskrit text, attributed to the sage bādarāyaṇa or sage Vyāsa, estimated to have been completed in its surviving form in approx. 400–450 CE,, Quote: "...we can ...

) is a fundamental text of the Vedānta school of Hinduism. His commentaries on ten

Mukhya Principal Upanishads, also known as Mukhya Upanishads, are the most ancient and widely studied Upanishads of Hinduism. Composed between 800 BCE to the start of common era, these texts are connected to the Vedic tradition. Content The Principal U ...

(principal) Upanishads are also considered authentic by scholars. Other authentic works of Shankara include commentaries on the Bhagavad Gitā (part of his Prasthana Trayi Bhasya). He also authored Upadesasahasri, his most important original philosophical work.John Koller (2007), in Chad Meister and Paul Copan (Editors): ''The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion'', Routledge, , pp. 98–106Wilhelm Halbfass (1990), ''Tradition and Reflection: Explorations in Indian Thought'', State University of New York Press, , pp. 205–208 The authenticity of Shankara being the author of has been questioned, and "modern scholars tend to reject its authenticity as a work by Shankara."

=Influence of Shankara

= While Shankara has an unparalleled status in the history of Advaita Vedanta, scholars have questioned the traditional narrative of Shankara's early influence in India. Until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary Maṇḍana Miśra, who was considered to be the major representative of Advaita. Only when Vacaspati Misra, an influential student of Maṇḍana Miśra, harmonised the teachings of Shankara with those of Maṇḍana Miśra, Shankara's teachings gained prominence. Some modern Advaitins argue that most of post-Shankara Advaita Vedanta actually deviates from Shankara, and that only his student Suresvara, who's had little influence, represents Shankara correctly. In this view, Shankara's influential student Padmapada misunderstood Shankara, while his views were manitained by the Suresvara school. According to Satchidanandendra Sarasvati, "almost all the later Advaitins were influenced by Mandana Misra and Bhaskara." Until the 11th century, Vedanta itself was a peripheral school of thought; Vedanta became a major influence when Vedanta philosophy was utilized by various sects of Hinduism to ground their doctrines, such as

(11th c.), who aligned bhakti, "the major force in the religions of Hinduism," with philosophical thought, meanwhile rejecting Shankara's views.Encyclopædia Britannica
Ramanajua
/ref> The cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta started only centuries later, in the

in the 14th century, when Sringeri ''matha'' started to receive patronage from the kings of the Vijayanagara Empire and became a powerful institution.

, also known as Madhava, who was the Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada Pītham from ca. 1374–1380 to 1386 played a central role in this growing influence of Advaita Vedanta, and the

deification Apotheosis (, ), also called divinization or deification (), is the glorification of a subject to divine levels and, commonly, the treatment of a human being, any other living thing, or an abstract idea in the likeness of a deity. The term has ...

of Shankara as a

ruler A ruler, sometimes called a rule, line gauge, or scale, is a device used in geometry and technical drawing, as well as the engineering and construction industries, to measure distances or draw straight lines. Variants Rulers have long ...

- renunciate. From 1346 onwards Sringeri ''matha'' received patronage from the Vijayanagara kings, and its importance and influence grew rapidly in the second half of the 14th century. Vidyaranya and the Sringeri matha competed for royal patronage and converts with Srivaisnava ''Visistadvaita'', which was dominant in territories conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire, and Madhava (the pre-ordination name of Vidyaranya) presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all ''darsanas'', portraying the other ''darsanas'' as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings. The subsequent ''

Shankara Digvijayam Digvijaya, (Sanskrit: दिग्विजय; ''Dig'':''"Direction"'' and ''Vijaya'':''"Victory"''), in India was originally a Sanskrit term that meant conquest of the "four quarters", in a military or a moral context. In medieval times, it came ...

'' genre, following the example of the earlier ''Madhva Digvijayam'', presented Shankara as a

- renunciate, conquering the four quarters of India and bringing harmony. The genre created legends to turn Shankara into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his ''digvijaya'' ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror." Shankara's position was further established in the 19th and 20th century, when neo-Vedantins and western Orientalists, following Vidyaranya, elevated Advaita Vedanta "as the connecting theological thread that united Hinduism into a single religious tradition." Shankara became "an iconic representation of Hindu religion and culture," despite the fact that most Hindus do not adhere to Advaita Vedanta.

Advaita Vedanta sub-schools

Two defunct schools are the ''Pancapadika'' and ''Istasiddhi'', which were replaced by Prakasatman's Vivarana school. The still existing Bhāmatī and Vivarana developed in the 11th-14th century. These schools worked out the logical implications of various Advaita doctrines. Two of the problems they encountered were the further interpretations of the concepts of māyā and avidya. Padmapada (c. 800 CE), the founder of the defunct Pancapadika school, was a direct disciple of Shankara. He wrote the ''Pancapadika'', a commentary on the ''Sankara-bhaya''. Padmapada diverged from Shankara in his description of ''avidya'', designating ''prakrti'' as ''avidya'' or ''ajnana''. Sureśvara (fl. 800–900 CE) was a contemporary of Shankara, and often (incorrectly) identified with Maṇḍana Miśra. Sureśvara has also been credited as the founder of a pre-Shankara branch of Advaita Vedānta. Mandana Mishra's student Vachaspati Miśra (9th/10th century CE), who is believed to have been an incarnation of Shankara to popularize the Advaita view, wrote the '' Bhamati'', a commentary on Shankara's ''Brahma Sutra Bhashya'', and the ''Brahmatattva-samiksa'', a commentary on Mandana Mishra's ''Brahma-siddhi''. His thought was mainly inspired by Mandana Miśra, and harmonises Shankara's thought with that of Mandana Miśra.The Bhamati and Vivarana Schools
/ref> The Bhamati school takes an ontological approach. It sees the

Jiva ''Jiva'' ( sa, जीव, IAST: ) is a living being or any entity imbued with a life force in Hinduism and Jainism. The word itself originates from the Sanskrit verb-root ''jīv'', which translates as 'to breathe' or 'to live'. The ''jiva'', a ...

as the source of avidya. It sees contemplation as the main factor in the acquirement of liberation, while the study of the Vedas and reflection are additional factors. Vimuktatman (c. 1200 CE) wrote the ''Ista-siddhi''. It is one of the four traditional ''siddhi'', together with Mandana's ''Brahma-siddhi'', Suresvara's ''Naiskarmya-siddhi'', and Madusudana's ''Advaita-siddhi''. According to Vimuktatman, absolute Reality is "pure intuitive consciousness". His school of thought was eventually replaced by Prakasatman's Vivarana school. Prakasatman (c. 1200–1300) wrote the ''Pancapadika-Vivarana'', a commentary on the ''Pancapadika'' by

Padmapadacharya Padmapadacharya was an Indian philosopher, a follower of Adi Shankara. Padmapāda's dates are unknown, but some modern scholarship places his life around the middle of the 8th century; similarly information about him comes mainly from h ...

. The ''Vivarana'' lends its name to the subsequent school. According to Roodurmun, " s line of thought ..became the leitmotif of all subsequent developments in the evolution of the Advaita tradition." The Vivarana school takes an epistemological approach. It is distinguished from the ''Bhamati'' school by its rejection of action and favouring Vedic study and "a direct apprehension of Brahma." Prakasatman was the first to propound the theory of ''mulavidya'' or ''maya'' as being of "positive beginningless nature", and sees Brahman as the source of avidya. Critics object that Brahman is pure consciousness, so it cannot be the source of avidya. Another problem is that contradictory qualities, namely knowledge and ignorance, are attributed to Brahman.

Late medieval India

Michael S. Allen and Anand Venkatkrishnan note that Shankara is very well-studied, but "scholars have yet to provide even a rudimentary, let alone comprehensive account of the history of Advaita Vedānta in the centuries leading up to the colonial period." While indologists like Paul Hacker and Wilhelm Halbfass took Shankara's system as the measure for an "orthodox" Advaita Vedānta, the living Advaita Vedānta tradition in medieval times was influenced by, and incorporated elements from, the yogic tradition and texts like the '' Yoga Vasistha'' and the ''Bhagavata Purana''. Yoga and samkhya had become minor schools of thought since the time of Shankara, and no longer posed a thread for the sectarian identity of Advaita, in contrast to the Vaishnava traditions. The ''Yoga Vasistha'' became an authoritative source text in the Advaita vedānta tradition in the 14th century, and the "yogic Advaita" of Vidyāraņya's ''Jivanmuktiviveka'' (14th century) was influenced by the ''(Laghu-)Yoga-Vasistha'', which in turn was influenced by Kashmir Shaivism. Vivekananda's 19th century emphasis on ''nirvikalpa samadhi'' was preceded by medieval yogic influences on Advaita Vedānta. In the 16th and 17th centuries, some

Nath Nath, also called Natha, are a Shaiva sub-tradition within Hinduism in India and Nepal. A medieval movement, it combined ideas from Buddhism, Shaivism and Yoga traditions in India.hatha yoga texts also came within the scope of the developing Advaita Vedānta tradition. According to Nicholson, it was with the arrival of Islamic rule, first in the form of Delhi Sultanate and later the

Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire was an early-modern empire that controlled much of South Asia between the 16th and 19th centuries. Quote: "Although the first two Timurid emperors and many of their noblemen were recent migrants to the subcontinent, the d ...

, and the subsequent persecution of Indian religions, that Hindu scholars began a self-conscious attempts to define an identity and unity. Between the twelfth and the fourteenth century, according to Andrew Nicholson, this effort emerged with a classification of astika and nastika systems of Indian philosophies. Certain thinkers, according to Nicholson, began to retrospectively classify ancient thought into "six systems" (''saddarsana'') of mainstream Hindu philosophy.

Vidyāraṇya

It is only during this period that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta was established. Advaita Vedanta's position as most influential Hindu ''darsana'' took shape as Advaitins in the

competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their sect. Central in this repositioning was Vidyāraṇya, also known as Madhava, who was the Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada Pītham from 1380 to 1386Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mādhava Āchārya". Encyclopædia Britannica. and a minister in the Vijayanagara Empire. He inspired the re-creation of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire of South India, in response to the devastation caused by the Islamic Delhi Sultanate, but his efforts were also targeted at Srivaisnava groups, especially ''

Visistadvaita Vishishtadvaita (IAST '; sa, विशिष्टाद्वैत) is one of the most popular schools of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. Vedanta literally means the in depth meaning ''of the Vedas.'' ''Vishisht Advaita'' (literall ...

'', which was dominant in territories conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire. Sects competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their own sectarian system, and Vidyaranya efforts were aimed at promoting Advaita Vedanta. Most of Shankara's biographies were created and published from the 14th to the 17th century, such as the widely cited ''Śankara-vijaya'', in which legends were created to turn Shankara into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his ''digvijaya'' ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror." Vidyaranya and his brothers wrote extensive Advaitic commentaries on the Vedas and Dharma to make "the authoritative literature of the Aryan religion" more accessible. In his

doxography Doxography ( el, δόξα – "an opinion", "a point of view" + – "to write", "to describe") is a term used especially for the works of classical historians, describing the points of view of past philosophers and scientists. The term ...

'' Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha'' ("Summary of all views") Vidyaranya presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all ''darsanas'', presenting the other ''darsanas'' as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings, which was regarded to be the most inclusive system. The Vaishanava traditions of Dvaita and Visitadvaita were not classified as Vedanta, and placed just above Buddhism and Jainism, reflecting the threat they posed for Vidyaranya's Advaita allegiance.

wasn't mentioned at all, "literally written out of the history of Indian philosophy." Vidyaranya became head of Sringeri ''matha'', proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself. Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support, and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries (''mathas'') to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta.

Modern Advaita

Niścaldās and "Greater" Advaita

Michael S. Allen has written on the influence and popularity of Advaita Vedanta in early modern north India, especially on the work of the Advaita Dādū-panthī monk Niścaldās (ca. 1791–1863), author of ''The Ocean of Inquiry'' (Hindi: Vicār-sāgar), a vernacular compendium of Advaita.Allen, Michael S. Greater Advaita Vedānta: The Case of Niścaldās. ''International Journal of Hindu Studies'' 21 (3):275-297 (2017). https://philpapers.org/rec/ALLGAV According to Allen, the work of Niścaldās "was quite popular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries: it was translated into over eight languages and was once referred to by Vivekananda as having 'more influence in India than any

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that has been written in any language within the last three centuries.'" Allen highlights the widespread prominence in early modern India of what he calls "Greater Advaita Vedānta" which refers to popular Advaita works, including "narratives and dramas, “eclectic” works blending Vedānta with other traditions, and vernacular works such as ''The Ocean of Inquiry''." Allen refers to several popular late figures and texts which draw on Advaita Vedanta, such as the Maharashtrian sant Eknāth (16th c.), the popular '' Adhyātma-rāmāyaṇa'' (ca. late 15th c.), which synthesizes Rama bhakti and advaita metaphysics and the '' Tripurā-rahasya'' (a tantric text that adopts an advaita metaphysics). Other important vernacular Advaita figures include the Hindu authors Manohardās and Māṇakdās (who wrote the Ātma-bodh). Advaita literature was also written in Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, Marathi, Gujarati, Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, and Oriya.

Neo-Vedanta

According to King, with the consolidation of the British imperialist rule the new rulers started to view Indians through the "colonially crafted lenses" of Orientalism. In response Hindu nationalism emerged, striving for socio-political independence and countering the influence of Christian missionaries. Among the colonial era intelligentsia the monistic Advaita Vedānta has been a major ideological force for Hindu nationalism, with Hindu intellectuals formulating a "humanistic, inclusivist" response, now called Neo-Vedānta, attempting to respond to this colonial stereotyping of "Indian culture sbackward, superstitious and inferior to the West." Due to the influence of Vidyaranya's ''Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha'', early Indologists regarded Advaita Vedanta as the most accurate interpretation of the Upanishads. Vedānta came to be regarded, both by westerners as by Indian nationalists, as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedānta came to be regarded as "then paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion" and umbrella of "inclusivism". Colonial era Indian thinkers, such as

Vivekananda Swami Vivekananda (; ; 12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902), born Narendranath Datta (), was an Indian Hindu monk, philosopher, author, religious teacher, and the chief disciple of the Indian mystic Ramakrishna. He was a key figure in the intr ...

, presented Advaita Vedānta as an inclusive universal religion, a spirituality that in part helped organize a religiously infused identity. It also aided the rise of Hindu nationalism as a counter weight to Islam-infused Muslim communitarian organizations such as the

Muslim League Muslim League may refer to: Political parties Subcontinent ; British India *All-India Muslim League, Mohammed Ali Jinah, led the demand for the partition of India resulting in the creation of Pakistan. **Punjab Muslim League, a branch of the organ ...

, to Christianity-infused colonial orientalism and to religious persecution of those belonging to Indian religions. Neo-Vedānta subsumed and incorporated Buddhist ideas thereby making the

Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in L ...

a part of the Vedānta tradition, all in an attempt to reposition the history of Indian culture. This view on Advaita Vedānta, according to King, "provided an opportunity for the construction of a nationalist ideology that could unite Hindus in their struggle against colonial oppression". Vivekananda discerned a

universal religion Religion is usually defined as a social- cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relates humanity to supernatural, t ...

, regarding all the apparent differences between various traditions as various manifestations of one truth. Vivekananda emphasised ''nirvikalpa''

as the spiritual goal of Vedānta, he equated it to the liberation in

and encouraged Yoga practice which he called ''Raja yoga''. With the efforts of

, modern formulations of Advaita Vedānta have "become a dominant force in Indian intellectual thought", though Hindu beliefs and practices are diverse.

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (; 5 September 1888 – 17 April 1975), natively Radhakrishnayya, was an Indian philosopher and statesman. He served as the 2nd President of India from 1962 to 1967. He also 1st Vice President of India from 1952 ...

, first a professor at Oxford University and later a President of India, further popularized Advaita Vedānta, presenting it as the essence of Hinduism. According to Michael Hawley, Radhakrishnan saw other religions, as well as "what Radhakrishnan understands as lower forms of Hinduism," as interpretations of Advaita Vedānta, thereby "in a sense Hindusizing all religions". Radhakrishnan metaphysics was grounded in Advaita Vedānta, but he reinterpreted Advaita Vedānta for contemporary needs and context.Michael Hawley, ''Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888—1975)'', Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
/ref> Gandhi declared his allegiance to Advaita Vedānta, and was another popularizing force for its ideas.

Contemporary Advaita Vedānta

Contemporary teachers are the orthodox Jagadguru of Sringeri Sharada Peetham; the more traditional teachers

Sivananda Saraswati Sivananda Saraswati (or Swami Sivananda; 8 September 1887 – 14 July 1963) was a yoga guru, a Hindu spiritual teacher, and a proponent of Vedanta. Sivananda was born Kuppuswami in Pattamadai, in the Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu. He stu ...

(1887–1963), Chinmayananda Saraswati (1916-1993),

Dayananda Saraswati (Arsha Vidya) Swami Dayananda Saraswati (15 August 1930 – 23 September 2015) was a renunciate of the Hindu order of sannyasa, a renowned traditional teacher of Advaita Vedanta, and founder of the Arsha Vidya Gurukulam and AIM For Seva. Biography Early ...

(1930-2015), Swami Paramarthananda, Swami Tattvavidananda Sarasvati, Carol Whitfield (Radha), Sri Vasudevacharya (previously Michael Comans) and less traditional teachers such as

Narayana Guru Narayana Guru, , (20 August 1856 – 20 September 1928) was a philosopher, spiritual leader and social reformer in India. He led a reform movement against the injustice in the caste-ridden society of Kerala in order to promote spiritua ...

.Advaita Vision, ''teachers''
/ref> According to Sangeetha Menon, prominent names in 20th century Advaita tradition are Shri Chandrashekhara Bharati Mahaswami, Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Swamigal, Sacchidānandendra Saraswati.Sangeetha Menon (2007), ''Advaita Vedānta'', Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
/ref>

Influence on New religious movements

Advaita Vedānta has gained attention in western spirituality and

New Age New Age is a range of spiritual or religious practices and beliefs which rapidly grew in Western society during the early 1970s. Its highly eclectic and unsystematic structure makes a precise definition difficult. Although many scholars consi ...

as nondualism, where various traditions are seen as driven by the same non-dual experience. Nonduality points to "a primordial, natural awareness without subject or object". It is also used to refer to interconnectedness, "the sense that all things are interconnected and not separate, while at the same time all things retain their individuality". '' Neo-Advaita'' is a

New Religious Movement A new religious movement (NRM), also known as alternative spirituality or a new religion, is a religious or spiritual group that has modern origins and is peripheral to its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in origin or th ...

based on a popularised, western interpretation of Advaita Vedānta and the teachings of Ramana Maharshi. Neo-Advaita is being criticised for discarding the traditional prerequisites of knowledge of the scriptures and "

as necessary preparation for the path of ''jnana''-yoga". Notable neo-advaita teachers are H. W. L. Poonja, his students Gangaji Andrew Cohen, and

Eckhart Tolle Eckhart Tolle ( ; ; born Ulrich Leonard Tölle, February 16, 1948) is a German-born spiritual teacher and self-help author of ''The Power of Now'' and '' A New Earth''. After being recommended by Oprah Winfrey, his first book, ''The Power of No ...

Notes

References

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Shankara
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

External links

{{Commons category * Sangeetha Menon (2007)
''Advaita Vedānta''
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Ancient to 9th-century literature

9th-century to 20th-century literature * {{curlie, Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Advaita_Vedanta, Advaita Vedanta
Vedānta Hub
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{{Reflist, group=note {{Hindudharma {{Indian Philosophy {{Authority control

Movements in ancient Indian philosophy Hindu philosophical concepts Monism Hindu mysticism Nondualism Transtheism Vedanta