Earth bulk continental crust and upper continental crust
*C1 — Crust: CRC Handbook
*C2 — Crust: Kaye and
Laby
*C3 — Crust: Greenwood
*C4 — Crust: Ahrens (Taylor)
*C5 — Crust: Ahrens (Wänke)
*C6 — Crust: Ahrens (Weaver)
*U1 — Upper crust: Ahrens (Taylor)
*U2 — Upper crust: Ahrens (Shaw)
Urban soils
The established abundances of chemical elements in urban soils can be considered a
geochemical
Geochemistry is the science that uses the tools and principles of chemistry to explain the mechanisms behind major geological systems such as the Earth's crust and its oceans. The realm of geochemistry extends beyond the Earth, encompassing the e ...
(
ecological
Ecology () is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere level. Ecology overlaps wi ...
and geochemical) characteristic, the accumulated impact of
technogenic and natural processes at the beginning of the 21st century. The figures estimate average concentrations of chemical elements in the soils of more than 300 cities and settlements in Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and America.
Regardless of significant differences between abundances of several elements in urban soils and those values calculated for the Earth's crust, the element abundances in urban soils generally reflect those in the Earth's crust. With the development of technology the abundances may be refined.
Mass fraction, in mg/kg (ppm).
Sea water
*W1 — CRC Handbook
*W2 — Kaye & Laby
Mass per volume fraction, in kg/L. (The average density of sea water in the surface is 1.025 kg/L)
Sun and solar system
*S1 — Sun: Kaye & Laby
*Y1 — Solar system: Kaye & Laby
*Y2 — Solar system: Ahrens, with uncertainty s (%)
Atom mole fraction relative to silicon = 1.
See also
*
Chemical elements data references
The List of data references for chemical elements is divided into datasheets that give values for many properties of the elements, together with various references. Each datasheet is sequenced by atomic number.
References for chemical elements
...
Notes
Due to the estimate nature of these values, no single recommendations are given. All values are normalized for these tables. Underlined zeroes indicate figures of indeterminable
significance that were present in the source notation.
References
CRC Handbook
From these sources in an online version of David R. Lide (ed.), ''
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
The ''CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics'' is a comprehensive one-volume reference resource for science research. First published in 1914, it is currently () in its 103rd edition, published in 2022. It is sometimes nicknamed the "Rubber Bible ...
, 85th Edition''. CRC Press. Boca Raton, Florida (2005). Section 14, Geophysics, Astronomy, and Acoustics; Abundance of Elements in the Earth's Crust and in the Sea:
:*R.S. Carmichael (ed.), ''CRC Practical Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks and Minerals'', CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, (1989).
:*I. Bodek ''et al.'', ''Environmental Inorganic Chemistry'', Pergamon Press, New York, (1988).
:*A.B. Ronov, A.A. Yaroshevsky, ''Earth's Crust Geochemistry'', in Encyclopedia of Geochemistry and Environmental Sciences, R.W. Fairbridge (ed.), Van Nostrand, New York, (1969).
:Estimated abundance of the elements in the continental crust (C1) and in seawater near the surface (W1). The median values of reported measurements are given. Concentrations of the less abundant elements may vary with location by several orders of magnitude.
Kaye & Laby
National Physical Laboratory, Kaye and Laby ''Tables of Physical & Chemical Constants'' (2005)
Section 3.1.3, Abundances of the elements B.E.J. Pagel
:Abundances in sea water (W2) and in crustal rocks (C2) from:
:*K.K. Turekian (1970) in ''
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology
McGraw Hill is an American educational publishing company and one of the "big three" educational publishers that publishes educational content, software, and services for pre-K through postgraduate education. The company also publishes refere ...
'', 4, 627.
:For the sun (S1) and the solar system (Y1) from:
:*N. Grevesse, E. Anders, J. Waddington (ed.) in ''Cosmic Abundances of Matter'', Amer. Inst. Phys., New York, p. 1. (1988).
:Except solar iron abundance from:
:*H. Holweger, A. Bard, A. Kock, M. Kock, Astron. Astrophys., 249, 545. (1991).
:Accuracy of the solar abundances varies between ± 10% and a factor of two, values more uncertain than that are marked with "about". The solar system abundances are mainly derived from carbonaceous chondrite meteorites and are assumed generally accurate to ±10% or better. Solar system abundances based on other sources are marked with asterisks (*).
Greenwood
A. Earnshaw, N. Greenwood, ''Chemistry of the Elements'', 2nd edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, (1997). Appendix 4, Abundance of Elements in Crustal Rocks.
:From this source with some modifications and additions of later data:
:*W.S. Fyfe, ''Geochemistry'', Oxford University Press, (1974).
:Further referring to:
:*C.K. Jorgensen, ''Comments Astrophys.'' 17, 49–101 (1993).
:Values are subject to various geological assumptions but assumed acceptable as an indication of elemental abundance in crustal rocks (C3).
Ahrens
:Bulk continental crust (C4) and upper continental crust (U1) from:
:*S.R. Taylor, S.M. McLennan, ''The continental crust: Its composition and evolution'', Blackwell Sci. Publ., Oxford, 330 pp. (1985).
:Upper continental crust (U2) from:
:*D.M. Shaw, J. Dostal, R.R. Keays, ''Additional estimates of continental surface Precambrian shield composition in Canada'', Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 40, 73–83, (1976).
:Bulk continental crust (C5) from:
:*H. Wänke, G. Dreibus, E. Jagoutz, ''Mantle chemistry and accretion history of the Earth'', in Archean Geochemistry, A. Kröner, G.N. Hanson, A.M. Goodwin (eds.), pp. l-24, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, (1984).
:Bulk continental crust (C6) from:
:*B.L. Weaver, J. Tamey, ''Major and trace element composition of the continental lithosphere'', in ''Physics and Chemistry of the Earth'', 15, H.N. Pollack, V.R. Murthy (eds.) pp. 39–68, Pergamon, Oxford, (1984).
:Solar system (Y2) from:
:*
Urban soils
:*Alekseenko V.A., Alekseenko A.V. (2013) ''Chemical elements in geochemical systems. The abundances in urban soils''. Publishing House of Southern Federal University, Rostov-on-Don (388 pp., in Russian with English Abstract).
:*Vladimir Alekseenko, Alexey Alekseenko (2014) ''The abundances of chemical elements in urban soils''. Journal of Geochemical Exploration. No. 147 (B). pp. 245–249.
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