Abram Hoffer (November 11, 1917 – May 27, 2009) was a

Canadian Canadians (french: Canadiens) are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Canadians, many (or all) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of ...

biochemist Biochemists are scientists who are trained in biochemistry. They study chemical processes and chemical transformations in living organisms. Biochemists study DNA, proteins and cell parts. The word "biochemist" is a portmanteau of "biological ch ...

physician A physician (American English), medical practitioner (Commonwealth English), medical doctor, or simply doctor, is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through th ...

, and

psychiatrist A psychiatrist is a physician who specializes in psychiatry, the branch of medicine devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, study, and treatment of mental disorders. Psychiatrists are physicians and evaluate patients to determine whether their sy ...

known for his "adrenochrome hypothesis" of

schizoaffective disorder Schizoaffective disorder (SZA, SZD or SAD) is a mental disorder characterized by abnormal thought processes and an unstable mood. This diagnosis is made when the person has symptoms of both schizophrenia (usually psychosis) and a mood disorder: ...

s. According to Hoffer, megavitamin therapy and other

nutrition Nutrition is the biochemical and physiological process by which an organism uses food to support its life. It provides organisms with nutrients, which can be metabolized to create energy and chemical structures. Failure to obtain sufficient ...

al interventions are potentially effective treatments for

cancer Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Possible signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal b ...

and

schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by continuous or relapsing episodes of psychosis. Major symptoms include hallucinations (typically hearing voices), delusions, and disorganized thinking. Other symptoms include social w ...

. Hoffer was also involved in studies of LSD as an experimental therapy for alcoholism and the discovery that high-dose

niacin Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid, is an organic compound and a form of vitamin B3, an essential human nutrient. It can be manufactured by plants and animals from the amino acid tryptophan. Niacin is obtained in the diet from a variet ...

can be used to treat high cholesterol and other

dyslipidemia Dyslipidemia is an abnormal amount of lipids (e.g. triglycerides, cholesterol and/or fat phospholipids) in the blood. Dyslipidemia is a risk factor for the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease ( ASCVD). ASCVD includes coronary ar ...

s. Hoffer's ideas about megavitamin therapy to treat mental illness are not accepted by the medical community.

Biography

Hoffer was born in the small Jewish settlement of Sonnenfeld in southern

Saskatchewan Saskatchewan ( ; ) is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province in Western Canada, western Canada, bordered on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by Manitoba, to the northeast by Nunavut, and on t ...

, Canada, in 1917, the last of four children and the son of Israel Hoffer.

Dyck Dyck is a form of the Dutch surname (van) Dijck, which is also common among Russian Mennonites. Notable surnames * Anthony van Dyck (1599–1641), Flemish artist * Cornelius Van Allen Van Dyck (1818–1895), American missionary * Howard Dyck (bo ...

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Originally interested in agriculture, Hoffer earned both a

Bachelor of Science A Bachelor of Science (BS, BSc, SB, or ScB; from the Latin ') is a bachelor's degree awarded for programs that generally last three to five years. The first university to admit a student to the degree of Bachelor of Science was the University o ...

and a master's degree in

agricultural chemistry Agricultural chemistry is the study of chemistry, especially organic chemistry and biochemistry, as they relate to agriculture—agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and environmental monitoring and r ...

from the

University of Saskatchewan A university () is an institution of higher (or tertiary) education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines. Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs. In the United State ...

Saskatoon Saskatoon () is the largest city in the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian province of Saskatchewan. It straddles a bend in the South Saskatchewan River in the central region of the province. It is located along the Trans-Canada Hig ...

. He then took up a scholarship for a year of post-graduate work with the

University of Minnesota The University of Minnesota, formally the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, (UMN Twin Cities, the U of M, or Minnesota) is a public land-grant research university in the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States. ...

, followed by work developing

assay An assay is an investigative (analytic) procedure in laboratory medicine, mining, pharmacology, environmental biology and molecular biology for qualitatively assessing or quantitatively measuring the presence, amount, or functional activity of ...

s for niacin levels at a

wheat Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus ''Triticum'' ; the most widely grown is common wheat (''T. aestivum''). The archaeologi ...

products laboratory in

Winnipeg Winnipeg () is the capital and largest city of the province of Manitoba in Canada. It is centred on the confluence of the Red and Assiniboine rivers, near the longitudinal centre of North America. , Winnipeg had a city population of 749 ...

. Hoffer earned a

PhD PHD or PhD may refer to: * Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), an academic qualification Entertainment * '' PhD: Phantasy Degree'', a Korean comic series * '' Piled Higher and Deeper'', a web comic * Ph.D. (band), a 1980s British group ** Ph.D. (Ph.D. al ...

in biochemistry in 1944, part of which involved the study of vitamins (particularly

B vitamins B vitamins are a class of water-soluble vitamins that play important roles in cell metabolism and synthesis of red blood cells. Though these vitamins share similar names (B1, B2, B3, etc.), they are chemically distinct compounds that often coexi ...

and their effect on the body) and with an interest in

went on to study medicine at the

University of Manitoba The University of Manitoba (U of M, UManitoba, or UM) is a Canadian public research university in the province of Manitoba.University of Toronto The University of Toronto (UToronto or U of T) is a public research university in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, located on the grounds that surround Queen's Park. It was founded by royal charter in 1827 as King's College, the first institution ...

, Hoffer earned his MD in 1949. Though originally intending to be a general practitioner, during his studies Hoffer developed an interest in

psychiatry Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders. These include various maladaptations related to mood, behaviour, cognition, and perceptions. See glossary of psychiatry. Initial p ...

. He married Rose Miller in 1942, and his son Bill Hoffer was born in 1944 followed by two more children, John and Miriam, in 1947 and 1949. Hoffer was hired by the Saskatchewan Department of Public Health in 1950 to establish a provincial research program in psychiatry, and joined the Regina Psychiatric Services Branch, Department of Public Health in 1951. He remained the Director of Psychiatric Research until entering private practice in 1967. Critical of psychiatry for its emphasis on psychosomatic

psychoanalysis PsychoanalysisFrom Greek: + . is a set of theories and therapeutic techniques"What is psychoanalysis? Of course, one is supposed to answer that it is many things — a theory, a research method, a therapy, a body of knowledge. In what might ...

and for what he considered a lack of adequate definition and measurement, Hoffer felt that

biochemistry Biochemistry or biological chemistry is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology and ...

and human physiology may be used instead. He hypothesised that people with schizophrenia may lack the ability to remove the hallucinogenic catecholamine metabolite

adrenochrome Adrenochrome is a chemical compound produced by the oxidation of adrenaline (epinephrine). It was the subject of limited research from the 1950s through to the 1970s as a potential cause of schizophrenia. While it has no current medical applic ...

from their brains. Hoffer thought niacin could be used as a

methyl In organic chemistry, a methyl group is an alkyl derived from methane, containing one carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms, having chemical formula . In formulas, the group is often abbreviated as Me. This hydrocarbon group occurs in ...

acceptor to prevent the conversion of noradrenaline into adrenaline and that Vitamin C could be used to prevent the oxidation of Adrenaline to Adrenochrome. Hoffer called his theory the "adrenochrome hypothesis". In 1967, Hoffer resigned some of his academic and administrative positions, entered into private psychiatric practice in

Saskatoon, Saskatchewan Saskatoon () is the largest city in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. It straddles a bend in the South Saskatchewan River in the central region of the province. It is located along the Trans-Canada Yellowhead Highway, and has served as ...

and created the ''Journal of Schizophrenia'' (renamed the ''

Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine The ''Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine'' was established in 1967 by Abram Hoffer. It publishes studies in nutritional and orthomolecular medicine. There is controversy surrounding the journal, as the validity of the field of orthomolecular medi ...

'' in 1986). Hoffer used the journal to publish articles on what he called "nutritional psychiatry", later orthomolecular psychiatry, claiming his ideas were consistently rejected by mainstream journals because they were unacceptable to the medical establishment. In 1976, Hoffer relocated to

Victoria, British Columbia Victoria is the capital city of the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian province of British Columbia, on the southern tip of Vancouver Island off Canada's Pacific Ocean, Pacific coast. The city has a population of 91,867, and the Gre ...

and continued with his private psychiatric practice until his retirement in 2005. In 1994 Hoffer founded the International Society for Orthomolecular Medicine, holding its inaugural in

Vancouver Vancouver ( ) is a major city in western Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the most populous city in the province, the 2021 Canadian census recorded 662,248 people in the city, up from 631,486 in 2016. ...

in April of the same year. Hoffer continued to provide nutritional consultations and served as editor of the ''Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine''. He was also President of the Orthomolecular Vitamin Information Centre in Victoria, BC. Hoffer died at the age of 91 on May 27, 2009, in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. His remains were buried in the Jewish Cemetery of Victoria.

Research

Working in Saskatchewan with

Humphry Osmond Humphry Fortescue Osmond (1 July 1917 – 6 February 2004) was an English psychiatrist who expatriated to Canada, then moved to work in the United States. He is known for inventing the word ''psychedelic'' and for his research into interesting a ...

(who coined the term "

psychedelic Psychedelics are a subclass of hallucinogenic drugs whose primary effect is to trigger non-ordinary states of consciousness (known as psychedelic experiences or "trips").Pollan, Michael (2018). ''How to Change Your Mind: What the New Science o ...

"), Hoffer and other scientists sought to find medicinal uses for

hallucinogen Hallucinogens are a large, diverse class of psychoactive drugs that can produce altered states of consciousness characterized by major alterations in thought, mood, and perception as well as other changes. Most hallucinogens can be categorize ...

ic drugs. Part of the research involved Hoffer, Osmond and their wives consuming LSD in an effort to become better acquainted with, and better understand its effects, later joined by other experimenters and their wives.

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Their work began attracting notoriety within professional, provincial and federal and political circles, and they were courted by the emerging movement to restrict

peyote The peyote (; ''Lophophora williamsii'' ) is a small, spineless cactus which contains Psychoactive cactus, psychoactive alkaloids, particularly mescaline. ''Peyote'' is a Spanish word derived from the Nahuatl (), meaning "caterpillar Pupa#Cocoo ...

as well as Native American groups that used the substance in religious ceremonies.

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Hoffer, Osmond and others treated alcoholics with LSD. Canadian scientists reported a fifty percent success rate in one study, although Hoffer speculated that it was more likely the psychedelic experience of LSD, rather than simulated ''

delirium tremens Delirium tremens (DTs) is a rapid onset of confusion usually caused by withdrawal from alcohol. When it occurs, it is often three days into the withdrawal symptoms and lasts for two to three days. Physical effects may include shaking, shiver ...

'', that convinced the alcoholics to stop drinking. While working at the Regina General Hospital in the 1950s, Hoffer and James Stephen examined the effects of large doses of niacin on various diseases, including

; Hoffer theorized that adrenalin, when oxidized to

was an

endogenous Endogenous substances and processes are those that originate from within a living system such as an organism, tissue, or cell. In contrast, exogenous substances and processes are those that originate from outside of an organism. For example, ...

neurotoxin Neurotoxins are toxins that are destructive to nerve tissue (causing neurotoxicity). Neurotoxins are an extensive class of exogenous chemical neurological insultsSpencer 2000 that can adversely affect function in both developing and mature nerv ...

that could cause schizophrenia. At the same time, another Canadian working in Saskatoon,

pathologist Pathology is the study of the causes and effects of disease or injury. The word ''pathology'' also refers to the study of disease in general, incorporating a wide range of biology research fields and medical practices. However, when used in th ...

Rudolf Altschul, was exploring the use of high doses of niacin to lower cholesterol in rabbits and patients with degenerative vascular disease. The three combined their work, and in 1955 produced a paper entitled "Influence of nicotinic acid on serum cholesterol in man." The paper summarized their research showing high-dose niacin significantly lowered cholesterol in both high cholesterol patients as well as low cholesterol control subjects. The results were replicated by researchers at the

Mayo Clinic The Mayo Clinic () is a nonprofit American academic medical center focused on integrated health care, education, and research. It employs over 4,500 physicians and scientists, along with another 58,400 administrative and allied health staf ...

and in

Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...

the following year. High-dose niacin has since become a treatment option for individuals with high blood cholesterol and related blood lipid abnormalities. At such high doses niacin acts like a

drug A drug is any chemical substance that causes a change in an organism's physiology or psychology when consumed. Drugs are typically distinguished from food and substances that provide nutritional support. Consumption of drugs can be via inhala ...

rather than a

vitamin A vitamin is an organic molecule (or a set of molecules closely related chemically, i.e. vitamers) that is an essential micronutrient that an organism needs in small quantities for the proper functioning of its metabolism. Essential nutrie ...

and may have

side effects In medicine, a side effect is an effect, whether therapeutic or adverse, that is secondary to the one intended; although the term is predominantly employed to describe adverse effects, it can also apply to beneficial, but unintended, consequenc ...

of intense flushing of the face and torso and, rarely, liver toxicity. Hoffer continued to promote niacin as a treatment for schizophrenia, though this approach was not accepted by mainstream medicine. Subsequent research suggested that Hoffer's adrenochrome theory had merit as people with schizophrenia have defects in the genes that produce

glutathione S-transferase Glutathione ''S''-transferases (GSTs), previously known as ligandins, are a family of eukaryotic and prokaryotic phase II metabolic isozymes best known for their ability to catalyze the conjugation of the reduced form of glutathione (GSH) ...

, which eliminates the byproducts of

catecholamine A catecholamine (; abbreviated CA) is a monoamine neurotransmitter, an organic compound that has a catechol (benzene with two hydroxyl side groups next to each other) and a side-chain amine. Catechol can be either a free molecule or a su ...

s from the brain. Though Hoffer and Osmond reported nicotinic acid could help with the treatment of schizophrenia, others reported that they could not replicate these results. Despite the apparent face validity of Hoffer's "transmethylation hypothesis" (in which it was thought that the production of

s could sometimes go awry and produce a hallucinogenic neurotoxin), it was ultimately rejected for two reasons: the alleged neurotoxins were never identified and the cause of schizophrenia became attributed to dysfunctions in

neurotransmitter A neurotransmitter is a signaling molecule secreted by a neuron to affect another cell across a synapse. The cell receiving the signal, any main body part or target cell, may be another neuron, but could also be a gland or muscle cell. Neu ...

Controversy

Hoffer's claims regarding schizophrenia and his theories of holistic orthomolecular medicine have been criticized by the mainstream of Pharmaceutical Psychiatry. In 1973, the

American Psychiatric Association The American Psychiatric Association (APA) is the main professional organization of psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the United States, and the largest psychiatric organization in the world. It has more than 37,000 members are invo ...

reported methodological flaws in Hoffer's work on niacin as a schizophrenia treatment and referred to follow-up studies that did not confirm any benefits of the treatment, prompting at least two responses. Multiple additional studies in the United States, Canada, and Australia similarly failed to find benefits of megavitamin therapy to treat

. The term "orthomolecular medicine" was labeled a misnomer as early as 1973. Psychiatrist and critic of psychiatry

Thomas Szasz Thomas Stephen Szasz ( ; hu, Szász Tamás István ; 15 April 1920 – 8 September 2012) was a Hungarian-American academic and psychiatrist. He served for most of his career as professor of psychiatry at the State University of New York Upstate M ...

, author of ''

The Myth of Mental Illness ''The Myth of Mental Illness: Foundations of a Theory of Personal Conduct'' is a 1961 book by the psychiatrist Thomas Szasz, in which the author criticizes psychiatry and argues against the concept of mental illness. It received much publicity, ...

'' (1961), believed Hoffer's view of

as a physical disease treatable with vitamins and self-help therapy to be "pure quackery".

Publications

* ''Chemical Basis of Clinical Psychiatry'', with

. Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1960. . * ''Niacin Therapy in Psychiatry''. Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1962. . * ''How to Live With Schizophrenia''. New Hyde Park, NY: University Books, 1966. * ''New Hope for Alcoholics''. Hyde Park, NY: University Books, 1966. * ''The Hallucinogens'', with

and Thaddeus E. Weckowicz.

Academic Press Academic Press (AP) is an academic book publisher founded in 1941. It was acquired by Harcourt, Brace & World in 1969. Reed Elsevier bought Harcourt in 2000, and Academic Press is now an imprint of Elsevier. Academic Press publishes refer ...

, 1967. . * ''Hoffer-Osmond Diagnostic Test'', with

and Kelm H. Tuscaloosa, AL: Behavior Science Press, 1975.
''Megavitamin Therapy: In Reply to the American Psychiatric Association Task Force Report on Megavitamins and Orthomolecular Psychiatry''.
Regina, Saskatchewan: Canadian Schizophrenia Foundation, 1976.Lipton, Morris, et al
''Megavitamin and Orthomolecular Therapy in Psychiatry: A Report of the APA Task Force on Vitamin Therapy in Psychiatry.''
Washington, D.C.:

, 1973. *''Nutrients to Age Without Senility'', with Morton Walker and Roger J. Williams. Keats Pub, Inc., 1980. . *''Orthomolecular medicine for physicians''. McGraw-Hill Trade, 1989. . *''How to Live with Schizophrenia.'' Carol Publishing Group, 1992. . *''Hoffer's Laws of Natural Nutrition: A Guide to Eating Well for Pure Health.'' Quarry Press, 1996. . *''Vitamin B-3 and Schizophrenia: Discovery, Recovery, Controversy.'' Quarry Press, 1996. . *''Putting It All Together: The New Orthomolecular Nutrition.'' McGraw-Hill Education, 1998. ISBN 0879836334. *''Orthomolecular Treatment for Schizophrenia,'' McGraw-Hill Education, 1999. . *''Dr. Hoffer's ABC of Natural Nutrition for Children: With Learning Disabilities, Behavioral Disorders, and Mental State Dysfunctions,'' Quarry Press, 1999. . * ''Healing Cancer: Complementary Vitamin & Drug Treatments''. CCNM Press, 2004. . *''User's Guide to Natural Therapies for Cancer Prevention & Control: Learn How Diet and Supplements Can Help Prevent and Treat Cancer.'' Basic Health Publications, Inc., 2004. . *''Naturopathic Nutrition'', with Jonathan Prousky. Canadian College of Naturopathic Medicine Press, 2006. . *''Feel Better, Live Longer with Vitamin B-3: Nutrient Deficiency and Dependency'', with Harold D. Foster. CCNM Press, 2007. . * ''Orthomolecular Medicine For Everyone,'' with Andrew W. Saul''.'' Laguna Beach, CA: Basic Health, 2008. . *''The Vitamin Cure for Alcoholism: Orthomolecular Treatment of Addictions''. Basic Health Publications, Inc., 2009. . *''Psychiatry Yesterday (1950) and Today (2007): From Despair to Hope with Orthomolecular Psychiatry.'' Trafford Publishing, 2009. . *''Hospitals and Health: Your Orthomolecular Guide to a Shorter, Safer Hospital Stay'', with Andrew W. Saul and Steve Hickey. Basic Health Publications, Inc., 2010. . *''Healing Schizophrenia: Complementary Vitamin & Drug Treatments (Naturopathic Healing Series, Professional Edition).'' CCNM Press, 2011. . *''Niacin: The Real Story: Learn about the Wonderful Healing Properties of Niacin,'' with Andrew W. Saul and Harold D. Foster''.'' Basic Health Publications, Inc., 2015. . *''Healing Children's Attention and Behavior Disorders: Complementary Nutritional & Psychological Treatments.'' CCNM Press, 2015. .

Footnotes

References

External links

Hoffer's Home Page (archived)Hoffer's publications
at

ResearchGate ResearchGate is a European commercial social networking site for scientists and researchers to share papers, ask and answer questions, and find collaborators. According to a 2014 study by ''Nature'' and a 2016 article in ''Times Higher Education'' ...

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hoffer, Abram 1917 births 2009 deaths Alternative cancer treatment advocates Jewish Canadian scientists Canadian psychiatrists Orthomolecular medicine advocates University of Minnesota alumni University of Toronto alumni Pseudoscientific diet advocates Canadian psychedelic drug advocates University of Saskatchewan faculty Scientists from Saskatchewan Psychedelic drug researchers Schizophrenia researchers