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X.400
X.400 is a suite of ITU-T Recommendations that defines the ITU-T Message Handling System (MHS). At one time, the designers of X.400 were expecting it to be the predominant form of email, but this role has been taken by the SMTP-based Internet e-mail. Despite this, it has been widely used within organizations and was a core part of Microsoft Exchange Server until 2006; variants continue to be important in military and aviation contexts. History The first X.400 Recommendations were published in 1984 (''Red Book''), and a substantially revised version was published in 1988 (''Blue Book''). New features were added in 1992 (''White Book'') and subsequent updates. Although X.400 was originally designed to run over the OSI transport service, an adaptation to allow operation over TCP/IP, RFC 1006, has become the most popular way to run X.400. Developed in cooperation with ISO/IEC, the X.400-series recommendations specify OSI standard protocols for exchanging and addressing electroni ...
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Email
Electronic mail (email or e-mail) is a method of exchanging messages ("mail") between people using electronic devices. Email was thus conceived as the electronic ( digital) version of, or counterpart to, mail, at a time when "mail" meant only physical mail (hence '' e- + mail''). Email later became a ubiquitous (very widely used) communication medium, to the point that in current use, an email address is often treated as a basic and necessary part of many processes in business, commerce, government, education, entertainment, and other spheres of daily life in most countries. ''Email'' is the medium, and each message sent therewith is also called an ''email.'' The term is a mass noun. Email operates across computer networks, primarily the Internet, and also local area networks. Today's email systems are based on a store-and-forward model. Email servers accept, forward, deliver, and store messages. Neither the users nor their computers are required to be online simul ...
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Military Message Handling System
Military Message Handling System (MMHS) is a profile and set of extensions to X.400 for messaging in military environments. It is NATO standard STANAG 4406 and CCEB standard ACP 123. It adds to standard X.400 email support for military requirements such as mandatory access control (i.e. Classified/ Secret/Top Secret messages and users, etc.). In particular it defines a new message format, P772 that is used in place of X.400's interpersonal message formats P2 (1984 standard) and P22 (1988 standard). MMHS specifications are implemented by several X.400 vendors, particularly those located in Europe, such as Raytheon UK, Boldon James, Deep-Secure, Thales Group, Nexor, Cassidian and Isode. Several RFC are supported: RFC 6477
- Registration of Military Message Handling System (MMHS) Header Fields for Use in Internet Mail


Implementations

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Microsoft Exchange Server
Microsoft Exchange Server is a mail server and calendaring server developed by Microsoft. It runs exclusively on Windows Server operating systems. The first version was called Exchange Server 4.0, to position it as the successor to the related Microsoft Mail 3.5. Exchange initially used the X.400 directory service but switched to Active Directory later. Until version 5.0, it came bundled with an email client called Microsoft Exchange Client. This was discontinued in favor of Microsoft Outlook. Exchange Server primarily uses a proprietary protocol called MAPI to talk to email clients, but subsequently added support for POP3, IMAP, and EAS. The standard SMTP protocol is used to communicate to other Internet mail servers. Exchange Server is licensed both as on-premises software and software as a service (SaaS). In the on-premises form, customers purchase client access licenses (CALs); as SaaS, Microsoft charges a monthly service fee instead. History Microsoft had sold a nu ...
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ITU-T
The ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) is one of the three sectors (divisions or units) of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). It is responsible for coordinating standards for telecommunications and Information Communication Technology such as X.509 for cybersecurity, Y.3172 and Y.3173 for machine learning, and H.264/MPEG-4 AVC for video compression, between its Member States, Private Sector Members, and Academia Members. The first meeting of the World Telecommunication Standardization Assembly (WTSA), the sector's governing conference, took place on 1 March of that year. ITU-T has a permanent secretariat called the Telecommunication Standardization Bureau (TSB), which is based at the ITU headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. The current director of the TSB is Chaesub Lee (of South Korea), whose first 4-year term commenced on 1 January 2015, and whose second 4-year term commenced on 1 January 2019. Chaesub Lee succeeded Malcolm Johnson of the ...
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Aeronautical Message Handling System
Air Traffic Services Message Handling Services (AMHS) is a standard for aeronautical ground-ground communications (e.g. for the transmission of NOTAM, Flight Plans or Meteorological Data) based on X.400 profiles. It has been defined by the ICAO. Levels of service ICAO Doc 9880 Part II defines two fundamental levels of service within the ATSMHS; * Basic ATSMHS and * the Extended ATSMHS. Additionally, ICAO Doc 9880 (Part II, section 3.4) outlines different subsets of the Extended ATSMHS. The Basic ATSMHS performs an operational role similar to the Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication Network with a few enhancements. The Extended ATSMHS provided enhanced features but includes the Basic level of service capability; in this way it is ensured that users with Extended Service capabilities can inter-operate, at a basic level, with users having Basic Service capabilities and vice versa. The ATSMHS is provided by a set of end systems, which collectively comprise the ATS Message Handling S ...
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Open Systems Interconnection
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that 'provides a common basis for the coordination of SOstandards development for the purpose of systems interconnection'. In the OSI reference model, the communications between a computing system are split into seven different abstraction layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application. The model partitions the flow of data in a communication system into seven abstraction layers to describe networked communication from the physical implementation of transmitting bits across a communications medium to the highest-level representation of data of a distributed application. Each intermediate layer serves a class of functionality to the layer above it and is served by the layer below it. Classes of functionality are realized in all software development through all and any standardized communication protocols. Each layer in the OSI model has its own well-defined fu ...
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TCP/IP
The Internet protocol suite, commonly known as TCP/IP, is a framework for organizing the set of communication protocols used in the Internet and similar computer networks according to functional criteria. The foundational protocols in the suite are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and the Internet Protocol (IP). In the development of this networking model, early versions of it were known as the Department of Defense (DoD) model because the research and development were funded by the United States Department of Defense through DARPA. The Internet protocol suite provides end-to-end data communication specifying how data should be packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received. This functionality is organized into four abstraction layers, which classify all related protocols according to each protocol's scope of networking. An implementation of the layers for a particular application forms a protocol stack. From lowest t ...
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Government Open Systems Interconnection Profile
The Government Open Systems Interconnection Profile (GOSIP) was a specification that profiled open networking products for procurement by governments in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Timeline * 1988 - GOSIP: Government Open Systems Interconnection Profile published by CCTA, an agency of UK government * 1988 - UK's CCTA commences work with France and West Germany on European Procurement Handbook (EPHOS) * 1990 - The US specification requiring Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) protocols was first published as Federal Information Processing Standards document FIPS 146-1. The requirement for US Government vendors to demonstrate their support for this profile led them to join the formal interoperability and conformance testing for networking products, which had been done by industry professionals at the annual InterOp show since 1980. * 1990 - Publication of European Procurement Handbook (EPHOS), intended to be a European GOSIP * 1991 - 4th and final version of UK GOSIP released * 1 ...
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Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
The Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP ) is an open, vendor-neutral, industry standard application protocol for accessing and maintaining distributed directory information services over an Internet Protocol (IP) network. Directory services play an important role in developing intranet and Internet applications by allowing the sharing of information about users, systems, networks, services, and applications throughout the network. As examples, directory services may provide any organized set of records, often with a hierarchical structure, such as a corporate email directory. Similarly, a telephone directory is a list of subscribers with an address and a phone number. LDAP is specified in a series of Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Standard Track publications called Request for Comments (RFCs), using the description language ASN.1. The latest specification is Version 3, published aRFC 4511ref name="gracion Gracion.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-17. (a road map to th ...
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Replication (computing)
Replication in computing involves sharing information so as to ensure consistency between redundant resources, such as software or hardware components, to improve reliability, fault-tolerance, or accessibility. Terminology Replication in computing can refer to: * ''Data replication'', where the same data is stored on multiple storage devices * ''Computation replication'', where the same computing task is executed many times. Computational tasks may be: ** ''Replicated in space'', where tasks are executed on separate devices ** ''Replicated in time'', where tasks are executed repeatedly on a single device Replication in space or in time is often linked to scheduling algorithms. Access to a replicated entity is typically uniform with access to a single non-replicated entity. The replication itself should be transparent to an external user. In a failure scenario, a failover of replicas should be hidden as much as possible with respect to quality of service. Computer scien ...
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S/MIME
S/MIME (Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) is a standard for public key encryption and signing of MIME data. S/MIME is on an IETF standards track and defined in a number of documents, most importantly . It was originally developed by RSA Data Security and the original specification used the IETF MIME specification with the de facto industry standard PKCS#7 secure message format. Change control to S/MIME has since been vested in the IETF and the specification is now layered on Cryptographic Message Syntax (CMS), an IETF specification that is identical in most respects with PKCS #7. S/MIME functionality is built into the majority of modern email software and interoperates between them. Since it is built on CMS, MIME can also hold an advanced digital signature. Function S/MIME provides the following cryptographic security services for electronic messaging applications: * Authentication * Message integrity * Non-repudiation of origin (using digital signatures) * Privacy ...
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Directory Service
In computing, a directory service or name service maps the names of network resources to their respective network addresses. It is a shared information infrastructure for locating, managing, administering and organizing everyday items and network resources, which can include volumes, folders, files, printers, users, groups, devices, telephone numbers and other objects. A directory service is a critical component of a network operating system. A directory server or name server is a server which provides such a service. Each resource on the network is considered an object by the directory server. Information about a particular resource is stored as a collection of attributes associated with that resource or object. A directory service defines a namespace for the network. The namespace is used to assign a ''name'' (unique identifier) to each of the objects. Directories typically have a set of rules determining how network resources are named and identified, which usually includes a ...
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