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''Samatha'' (
Pāli Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or '' Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of ''Theravāda'' Buddhi ...
; sa, शमथ ''śamatha''; ), "calm," "serenity," "tranquillity of awareness," and ''vipassanā'' (
Pāli Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or '' Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of ''Theravāda'' Buddhi ...
;
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
''vipaśyanā''), literally "special, super (''vi-''), seeing (''-passanā'')", are two qualities of the mind developed in tandem in
Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
practice. In the
Pali Canon The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from the Tamrashatiya school. During t ...
and the Āgama they are not specific practices, but elements of "a single path," and "fulfilled" with the development ('' bhāvanā'') of ''
sati Sati or SATI may refer to: Entertainment * ''Sati'' (film), a 1989 Bengali film by Aparna Sen and starring Shabana Azmi * ''Sati'' (novel), a 1990 novel by Christopher Pike *Sati (singer) (born 1976), Lithuanian singer *Sati, a character in ''Th ...
'' ("mindfulness") and '' jhana/dhyana'' ("meditation") and other path-factors. While ''jhana/dhyana'' has a central role in the Buddhist path, ''vipassanā'' is hardly mentioned separately, but mostly described along with ''samatha''. The '' Abhidhamma Pitaka'' and the commentaries describe samatha and vipassanā as two separate techniques, taking samatha to mean concentration-meditation, and ''vipassana'' as a practice to gain insight. In the
Theravada ''Theravāda'' () ( si, ථේරවාදය, my, ထေရဝါဒ, th, เถรวาท, km, ថេរវាទ, lo, ເຖຣະວາດ, pi, , ) is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school' ...
-tradition, ''vipassanā'' is defined as a practice that seeks "insight into the true nature of reality", defined as ''anicca'' "
impermanence Impermanence, also known as the philosophical problem of change, is a philosophical concept addressed in a variety of religions and philosophies. In Eastern philosophy it is notable for its role in the Buddhist three marks of existence. It ...
", '' dukkha'' "suffering, unsatisfactoriness", '' anattā'' "non-self", the
three marks of existence In Buddhism, the three marks of existence are three characteristics (Pali: tilakkhaṇa; Sanskrit: त्रिलक्षण trilakṣaṇa) of all existence and beings, namely '' aniccā'' (impermanence), '' dukkha'' (commonly translated as "su ...
. In the
Mahayana ''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing br ...
-traditions ''vipassanā'' is defined as insight into ''
śūnyatā ''Śūnyatā'' ( sa, शून्यता, śūnyatā; pi, suññatā; ), translated most often as ''emptiness'', ''vacuity'', and sometimes ''voidness'', is an Indian philosophical concept. Within Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and other ...
'' "emptiness" and '' Buddha-nature''. In modern Theravada, the relation between ''samatha'' and ''vipassanā'' is a matter of dispute. Meditation-practice was reinvented in the
Theravada ''Theravāda'' () ( si, ථේරවාදය, my, ထေရဝါဒ, th, เถรวาท, km, ថេរវាទ, lo, ເຖຣະວາດ, pi, , ) is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school' ...
tradition in the 18th-20th century, based on contemporary readings of the ''
Satipaṭṭhāna sutta The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta ( Majjhima Nikaya 10: ''The Discourse on the Establishing of Mindfulness''), and the subsequently created Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta ( Dīgha Nikāya 22: ''The Great Discourse on the Establishing of Mindfulness''), ar ...
'', the ''
Visuddhimagga The ''Visuddhimagga'' (Pali; English: ''The Path of Purification''), is the 'great treatise' on Buddhist practice and Theravāda Abhidhamma written by Buddhaghosa approximately in the 5th century in Sri Lanka. It is a manual condensing and sys ...
'', and other texts, centering on ''vipassana'' and 'dry insight' and downplaying ''
samatha ''Samatha'' (Pāli; sa, शमथ ''śamatha''; ), "calm," "serenity," "tranquillity of awareness," and ''vipassanā'' (Pāli; Sanskrit ''vipaśyanā''), literally "special, super (''vi-''), seeing (''-passanā'')", are two qualities of the ...
''. ''Vipassana'' became of central importance in the 20th century Vipassanā movement favoring vipassanā over samatha. Some critics point out that both are necessary elements of the Buddhist training, while other critics argue that dhyana is not a single-pointed concentration exercise.


Etymology


Samatha

Sanskrit: "tranquility"; "tranquility of the mind"; "tranquillity of awareness"; "serenity"; "calm"; "meditative calm"; "quietude of the heart." The Tibetan term for ''samatha'' is ''shyiné'' (). The
semantic field In linguistics, a semantic field is a lexical set of words grouped semantically (by meaning) that refers to a specific subject.Howard Jackson, Etienne Zé Amvela, ''Words, Meaning, and Vocabulary'', Continuum, 2000, p14. The term is also used in ...
of Sanskrit ''shama'' and Tibetan ''shi'' is "pacification", "the slowing or cooling down", "rest." The semantic field of Tibetan ''né'' is "to abide or remain" and this is cognate or equivalent with the final syllable of the Sanskrit, ''thā''. According to
Jamgon Kongtrul Jamgön Kongtrül Lodrö Thayé (, 1813–1899), also known as Jamgön Kongtrül the Great, was a Tibetan Buddhist scholar, poet, artist, physician, tertön and polymath.Jackson, Roger R. The Tibetan Leonardo, 2012, https://www.lionsroar.com/the ...
, the terms refer to "peace" and "pacification" of the mind and the thoughts.


Vipassana

Vipassanā is a Pali word derived from the prefix "vi-" and the verbal root "-passanā": * prefix ''vi-'': "special," "super"; "in a special way," "into, through"; "clear." * verbal root ''-passanā'': "seeing"; "seeing," "perceiving"; "free from preconception." The literal meaning is "super-seeing," but is often translated as "insight" or "clear-seeing."
Henepola Gunaratana Bhante Henepola Gunaratana is a Sri Lankan Theravada Buddhist monk. He is affectionately known as Bhante G. Bhante Gunaratana is currently the abbot of the Bhavana Society, a monastery and meditation retreat center that he founded in High Vie ...
defines vipassanā as " oking into something with clarity and precision, seeing each component as distinct and separate, and piercing all the way through so as to perceive the most fundamental reality of that thing." According to Mitchell Ginsberg, ''vipassana'' is " sight into how things are, not how we thought them to be." A synonym for vipassanā is ''paccakkha'' "perceptible to the senses" (Pāli; Sanskrit: '), literally "before the eyes", which refers to direct experiential perception. Thus, the type of seeing denoted by vipassanā is that of direct perception, as opposed to knowledge derived from reasoning or argument. In Tibetan, vipaśyanā is ''lhaktong'' (). ''Lhak'' means "higher", "superior", "greater"; ''tong'' is "view, to see". So together, ''lhaktong'' may be rendered into English as "superior seeing", "great vision" or "supreme wisdom". This may be interpreted as a "superior manner of seeing", and also as "seeing that which is the essential nature". Its nature is a lucidity—a clarity of mind.


Origins and development


Early Buddhism

According to Thanissaro Bhikkhu, "''samatha'', ''jhana'', and ''vipassana'' were all part of a single path." According to Keren Arbel, ''samatha'' and ''vipassana'' are not specific practices, but qualities of the mind which come to fulfillment with the development of the factors of the
Noble Eightfold Path The Noble Eightfold Path (Pali: ; Sanskrit: ) is an early summary of the path of Buddhist practices leading to liberation from samsara, the painful cycle of rebirth, in the form of nirvana. The Eightfold Path consists of eight practices: ...
, including ''
sati Sati or SATI may refer to: Entertainment * ''Sati'' (film), a 1989 Bengali film by Aparna Sen and starring Shabana Azmi * ''Sati'' (novel), a 1990 novel by Christopher Pike *Sati (singer) (born 1976), Lithuanian singer *Sati, a character in ''Th ...
'' ("mindfulness") and '' jhana/dhyana'' (meditation"). In the sutta pitaka the term "vipassanā" is hardly mentioned, while they frequently mention
jhana In the oldest texts of Buddhism, ''dhyāna'' () or ''jhāna'' () is a component of the training of the mind (''bhavana''), commonly translated as meditation, to withdraw the mind from the automatic responses to sense-impressions, "burn up" the ...
as the meditative practice to be undertaken. As Thanissaro Bhikkhu writes, According to Vetter and Bronkhorst, '' dhyāna'' constituted the original "liberating practice" of the Buddha. Vetter further argues that the
Noble Eightfold Path The Noble Eightfold Path (Pali: ; Sanskrit: ) is an early summary of the path of Buddhist practices leading to liberation from samsara, the painful cycle of rebirth, in the form of nirvana. The Eightfold Path consists of eight practices: ...
constitutes a body of practices which prepare one, and lead up to, the practice of ''dhyana''. Vetter and Bronkhorst further note that ''dhyana'' is not limited to single-pointed concentration, which seems to be described in the first ''jhana'', but develops into equanimity and mindfulness, "born from samadhi." Wynne notes that one is then no longer absorbed in concentration, but is mindfully aware of objects while being indifferent to it, "directing states of meditative absorption towards the mindful awareness of objects." A number of suttas mention ''samatha'' and ''vipassana'' as mental qualities that are to be developed in tandem. In SN 43.2, the Buddha states: "And what,
bhikkhu A ''bhikkhu'' (Pali: भिक्खु, Sanskrit: भिक्षु, ''bhikṣu'') is an ordained male in Buddhist monasticism. Male and female monastics ("nun", ''bhikkhunī'', Sanskrit ''bhikṣuṇī'') are members of the Sangha (Buddhist ...
s, is the path leading to the unconditioned? Serenity and insight...." In SN 35.245, the ''Kimsuka Tree Sutta'', the Buddha provides an elaborate metaphor in which serenity and insight are "the swift pair of messengers" who deliver the message of ''
nibbana Nirvana (Sanskrit: निर्वाण, '; Pali: ') is "blowing out" or "quenching" of the activities of the worldly mind and its related suffering. Nirvana is the goal of the Hinayana and Theravada Buddhist paths, and marks the soteriologica ...
'' (Pāli; Skt.: ''Nirvana'') via the
noble eightfold path The Noble Eightfold Path (Pali: ; Sanskrit: ) is an early summary of the path of Buddhist practices leading to liberation from samsara, the painful cycle of rebirth, in the form of nirvana. The Eightfold Path consists of eight practices: ...
. AN 2.30, ''Vijja-bhagiya Sutta'' ("A Share in Clear Knowing"): In AN 4.170, the ''Four Ways to Arahantship Sutta'', Ven.
Ānanda Ānanda (5th4th century BCE) was the primary attendant of the Buddha and one of his ten principal disciples. Among the Buddha's many disciples, Ānanda stood out for having the best memory. Most of the texts of the early Buddhist '' Sutta-Piṭ ...
reports that people attain
arahant In Buddhism, an ''arhat'' (Sanskrit: अर्हत्) or ''arahant'' (Pali: अरहन्त्, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana'' and liberated ...
ship in one of four ways:


Disjunction of ''samatha'' and ''vipassana''

Buddhaghosa, in his influential Theravada scholastic treatise
Visuddhimagga The ''Visuddhimagga'' (Pali; English: ''The Path of Purification''), is the 'great treatise' on Buddhist practice and Theravāda Abhidhamma written by Buddhaghosa approximately in the 5th century in Sri Lanka. It is a manual condensing and sys ...
, states that ''jhana'' is induced by ''samatha'', and then ''jhana'' is reflected upon with mindfulness, becoming the object of ''vipassana,'' realizing that ''jhana'' is marked by the three characteristics. One who uses this method is referred to as a "tranquility worker" (
Pali Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or '' Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of '' Theravāda'' Buddh ...
: ''samatha yānika''). However modern Buddhist teachers such as
Henepola Gunaratana Bhante Henepola Gunaratana is a Sri Lankan Theravada Buddhist monk. He is affectionately known as Bhante G. Bhante Gunaratana is currently the abbot of the Bhavana Society, a monastery and meditation retreat center that he founded in High Vie ...
state that there is virtually no evidence of this method in the Pali suttas. A few suttas describe a method of "bare insight", or "dry insight" where only ''vipassana'' is practiced, examining ordinary physical and mental phenomena to discern the three marks. Gombrich and Brooks argue that the distinction as two ''separate'' paths originates in the earliest ''interpretations'' of the Sutta Pitaka, not in the suttas themselves. According to
Richard Gombrich Richard Francis Gombrich (; born 17 July 1937) is a British Indologist and scholar of Sanskrit, Pāli, and Buddhist studies. He was the Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford from 1976 to 2004. He is currently Founder-Presiden ...
, a development took place in early Buddhism resulting in a change in doctrine, which considered ''prajna'' to be an alternative means to awakening, alongside the practice of ''dhyana''. The suttas contain traces of ancient
debate Debate is a process that involves formal discourse on a particular topic, often including a moderator and audience. In a debate, arguments are put forward for often opposing viewpoints. Debates have historically occurred in public meetings, a ...
s between Mahayana and Theravada schools in the interpretation of the teachings and the development of insight. Out of these debates developed the idea that bare insight suffices to reach liberation, by discerning the three marks (qualities) of (human) existence (''tilakkhana''), namely dukkha (suffering), anatta (non-self) and
anicca Impermanence, also known as the philosophical problem of change, is a philosophical concept addressed in a variety of religions and philosophies. In Eastern philosophy it is notable for its role in the Buddhist three marks of existence. It i ...
(impermanence). Thanissaro Bikkhu also argues that samatha and vipassana have a "unified role," whereas " e Abhidhamma and the Commentaries, by contrast, state that samatha and vipassana are two distinct meditation paths." Gunaratana notes that " e classical source for the distinction between the two vehicles of serenity and insight is the Visuddhimagga." Referencing MN 151, vv. 13-19, and AN IV, 125-27, Ajahn Brahm (who, like Bhikkhu Thanissaro, is of the
Thai Forest Tradition The Kammaṭṭhāna Forest Tradition of Thailand (from pi, kammaṭṭhāna meaning "place of work"), commonly known in the West as the Thai Forest Tradition, is a lineage of Theravada Buddhist monasticism. The Thai Forest Tradition sta ...
) writes that


Theravāda and the vipassana movement

By the tenth century meditation was no longer practiced in the Theravada tradition, due to the belief that Buddhism had degenerated, and that liberation was no longer attainable until the coming of the future Buddha, '' Maitreya''. It was re-invented in Myanmar (Burma) in the 18th century by
Medawi Medawi ( pi, ; 1728–1816) was a Burmese Theravada Buddhist monk credited with being the first author of extant modern vipassanā manuals and thus may have been the first practitioner in the modern vipassana movement. Medawi's first manual date ...
(1728–1816), leading to the rise of the
Vipassana movement The Vipassanā movement, also called (in the United States) the Insight Meditation Movement and American vipassana movement, refers to a branch of modern Burmese Theravāda Buddhism that promotes "bare insight" (''sukha-vipassana'') to attain ...
in the 20th century, re-inventing ''vipassana'' meditation and developing simplified meditation techniques, based on the ''
Satipatthana sutta The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta ( Majjhima Nikaya 10: ''The Discourse on the Establishing of Mindfulness''), and the subsequently created Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (Dīgha Nikāya 22: ''The Great Discourse on the Establishing of Mindfulness''), are ...
'', the '' Ānāpānasati Sutta'', the ''
Visuddhimagga The ''Visuddhimagga'' (Pali; English: ''The Path of Purification''), is the 'great treatise' on Buddhist practice and Theravāda Abhidhamma written by Buddhaghosa approximately in the 5th century in Sri Lanka. It is a manual condensing and sys ...
'', and other texts, emphasizing ''
satipatthana ''Satipatthana'' ( pi, Satipaṭṭhāna, italic=yes; sa, smṛtyupasthāna, italic=yes) is a central practice in the Buddha's teachings, meaning "the establishment of mindfulness" or "presence of mindfulness", or alternatively "foundations of ...
'' and bare insight. In this approach, samatha is regarded as a preparation for vipassanā, pacifying the mind and strengthening concentration, in order for insight into impermanence to arise, which leads to liberation. Ultimately, these techniques aim at
stream entry A stream is a continuous body of surface water flowing within the bed and banks of a channel. Depending on its location or certain characteristics, a stream may be referred to by a variety of local or regional names. Long large streams a ...
, with the idea that this first stage of the path to awakening safeguards future development of the person towards full awakening, despite the degenerated age we live in.


Samatha

According to the Theravada tradition, ''samatha'' refers to techniques that assist in calming the mind. ''Samatha'' is thought to be developed by
samadhi ''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yoga ...
, interpreted by the Theravada commentatorial tradition as concentration-meditation, the ability to rest the attention on a single object of perception. One of the principal techniques for this purpose is mindfulness of breathing (Pali: '' ānāpānasati''). ''Samatha'' is commonly practiced as a prelude to and in conjunction with wisdom practices.


Objects of samatha-meditation

Some meditation practices such as contemplation of a '' kasina'' object favor the development of ''samatha'', others such as contemplation of the aggregates are conducive to the development of ''vipassana'', while others such as mindfulness of breathing are classically used for developing both mental qualities. The ''
Visuddhimagga The ''Visuddhimagga'' (Pali; English: ''The Path of Purification''), is the 'great treatise' on Buddhist practice and Theravāda Abhidhamma written by Buddhaghosa approximately in the 5th century in Sri Lanka. It is a manual condensing and sys ...
'' (5th century CE) mentions forty objects of meditation. Mindfulness (''sati'') of breathing (''ānāpāna'': '' ānāpānasati''; S. ''ānāpānasmṛti'') is the most common ''samatha'' practice. ''Samatha'' can include other ''
samādhi ''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yoga ...
'' practices as well.


Signs and stages of joy in samatha-meditation

Theravada Buddhism describes the development of samatha in terms of three successive mental images or 'signs' (''nimitta'') and five stages of joy (
Pīti ''Pīti'' in Pali (Sanskrit: ''Prīti'') is a mental factor (Pali:''cetasika'', Sanskrit: ''caitasika'') associated with the development of '' jhāna'' (Sanskrit: ''dhyāna'') in Buddhist meditation. According to Buddhadasa Bhikkhu, ''piti'' i ...
). According to the Theravada-tradition, pīti, a feeling of joy, gladness or rapture, arises from the abandonment of the five hindrances in favor of concentration on a single object. These stages are outlined by the Theravada exegete Buddhaghosa in his
Visuddhimagga The ''Visuddhimagga'' (Pali; English: ''The Path of Purification''), is the 'great treatise' on Buddhist practice and Theravāda Abhidhamma written by Buddhaghosa approximately in the 5th century in Sri Lanka. It is a manual condensing and sys ...
(also in
Atthasālinī Atthasālinī (Pali) is a Buddhist text composed by Buddhaghosa in the Theravada Abhidharma tradition. The title has been translated as "The Expositor"van Gorkom (2009)Preface or "Providing the Meaning". In the ''Atthasālinī'', Buddhaghosa expla ...
) and the earlier Upatissa (author of the
Vimuttimagga __NOTOC__ The ''Vimuttimagga'' ("Path of Freedom") is a Buddhist practice manual, traditionally attributed to the Arahant Upatissa (c. 1st or 2nd century). It was translated into Chinese in the sixth century as the ''Jietuo dao lun'' 解脫道論 ...
). Following the establishment of access concentration (upacāra-samādhi), one can enter the four jhanas, powerful states of joyful absorption in which the entire body is pervaded with
Pīti ''Pīti'' in Pali (Sanskrit: ''Prīti'') is a mental factor (Pali:''cetasika'', Sanskrit: ''caitasika'') associated with the development of '' jhāna'' (Sanskrit: ''dhyāna'') in Buddhist meditation. According to Buddhadasa Bhikkhu, ''piti'' i ...
.


Variations in samatha

In the Theravada-tradition various understandings of samatha exist; * In Sri Lanka ''samatha'' includes all the meditations directed at static objects. * In Burma, ''samatha'' comprises all concentration practices, aimed at calming the mind. * The Thai Forest tradition deriving from Ajahn Mun and popularized by
Ajahn Chah Chah Subhaddo ( th, ชา สุภัทโท, known in English as Ajahn Chah, occasionally with honorific titles '' Luang Por'' and ''Phra'') also known by his honorific name "Phra Bodhiñāṇathera" ( th, พระโพธิญาณเ� ...
stresses the inseparability of ''samatha'' and ''vipassana'', and the essential necessity of both practices.


Vipassana

In modern Theravada, liberation is thought to be attained by insight into the transitory nature of phenomena. This is accomplished by establishing ''
sati Sati or SATI may refer to: Entertainment * ''Sati'' (film), a 1989 Bengali film by Aparna Sen and starring Shabana Azmi * ''Sati'' (novel), a 1990 novel by Christopher Pike *Sati (singer) (born 1976), Lithuanian singer *Sati, a character in ''Th ...
'' (mindfulness) and ''samatha'' through the practice of '' anapanasati'' (mindfulness of breathing), using mindfulness for observing the
impermanence Impermanence, also known as the philosophical problem of change, is a philosophical concept addressed in a variety of religions and philosophies. In Eastern philosophy it is notable for its role in the Buddhist three marks of existence. It ...
in the bodily and mental changes, to gain insight (''
vipassanā ''Samatha'' ( Pāli; sa, शमथ ''śamatha''; ), "calm," "serenity," "tranquillity of awareness," and ''vipassanā'' ( Pāli; Sanskrit ''vipaśyanā''), literally "special, super (''vi-''), seeing (''-passanā'')", are two qualities of t ...
'' (P: ''vipassanā''; S: ''vipaśyana''), ''
sampajañña ''Sampajañña'' (Pāli; Skt.: '' saṃprajanya,'' Tib: ''shes bzhin'') is a term of central importance for meditative practice in all Buddhist traditions. It refers to "The mental process by which one continuously monitors one's own body and ...
'') c.q.
wisdom Wisdom, sapience, or sagacity is the ability to contemplate and act using knowledge, experience, understanding, common sense and insight. Wisdom is associated with attributes such as unbiased judgment, compassion, experiential self-knowle ...
(P: ''paññā'', S: ''prajñā'') into the true nature of phenomena.


Vipassanā movement

The term ''vipassana'' is often conflated with the
Vipassana movement The Vipassanā movement, also called (in the United States) the Insight Meditation Movement and American vipassana movement, refers to a branch of modern Burmese Theravāda Buddhism that promotes "bare insight" (''sukha-vipassana'') to attain ...
, a movement which popularised the new ''vipassana'' teachings and practice. It started in the 1950s in Burma, but has gained wide renown mainly through American Buddhist teachers such as Joseph Goldstein, Tara Brach,
Gil Fronsdal Gil Fronsdal (born 1954) is a Norwegian-born, American Buddhist teacher, writer and scholar based in Redwood City, California. He has been practicing Buddhism of the Sōtō Zen and Vipassanā sects since 1975, and is currently teaching the pract ...
,
Sharon Salzberg Sharon Salzberg (born August 5, 1952) is a ''New York Times'' bestselling author and teacher of Buddhist meditation practices in the West. In 1974, she co-founded the Insight Meditation Society at Barre, Massachusetts, with Jack Kornfield and Jos ...
, and
Jack Kornfield Jack Kornfield (born 1945) is an American writer and teacher in the Vipassana movement in American Theravada Buddhism. He trained as a Buddhist monk in Thailand, Burma and India, first as a student of the Thai forest master Ajahn Chah and Maha ...
. The movement has had a wide appeal due to being open and inclusive to different Buddhist and non-buddhist wisdom, poetry as well as science. It has together with the modern American Zen tradition served as one of the main inspirations for the 'mindfulness movement' as developed by
Jon Kabat-Zinn Jon Kabat-Zinn (born Jon Kabat, June 5, 1944) is an American professor emeritus of medicine and the creator of the Stress Reduction Clinic and the Center for Mindfulness in Medicine, Health Care, and Society at the University of Massachusetts Medi ...
and others. The Vipassanā Movement, also known as the Insight Meditation Movement, is rooted in
Theravāda ''Theravāda'' () ( si, ථේරවාදය, my, ထေရဝါဒ, th, เถรวาท, km, ថេរវាទ, lo, ເຖຣະວາດ, pi, , ) is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school' ...
Buddhism and the revival of meditation techniques, especially the " New Burmese Method" and the
Thai Forest Tradition The Kammaṭṭhāna Forest Tradition of Thailand (from pi, kammaṭṭhāna meaning "place of work"), commonly known in the West as the Thai Forest Tradition, is a lineage of Theravada Buddhist monasticism. The Thai Forest Tradition sta ...
, as well as the modern influences on the traditions of Sri Lanka,
Burma Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John Wells explai ...
, Laos and
Thailand Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is b ...
. In the Vipassanā Movement, the emphasis is on the
Satipatthana Sutta The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta ( Majjhima Nikaya 10: ''The Discourse on the Establishing of Mindfulness''), and the subsequently created Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (Dīgha Nikāya 22: ''The Great Discourse on the Establishing of Mindfulness''), are ...
and the use of mindfulness to gain insight into the impermanence of the self. It argues that the development of strong samatha can be disadvantageous, a stance for which the Vipassana Movement has been criticised, especially in Sri Lanka. The "New Burmese Method" was developed by
U Nārada U Nārada ( my, နာရဒ; 1868–1955),Robert H. Sharf, ''Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience,'' Numen 42 (1995) pg 242 also Mingun Jetawun Sayādaw or Mingun Jetavana Sayādaw, was a Burmese monk in the Theravada ...
(1868–1955), and popularised by Mahasi Sayadaw (1904–1982) and Nyanaponika Thera (1901–1994). Other influential Burmese proponents include Ledi Sayadaw and Mogok Sayadaw (who was less known to the West due to lack of International Mogok Centres) as well as Mother Sayamagyi and S. N. Goenka, who were both students of
Sayagyi U Ba Khin Sayagyi U Ba Khin ( my, ဘခင်, ; 6 March 1899 – 19 January 1971) was the first Accountant General of the Union of Burma. He was the founder of the International Meditation Centre in Yangon, Myanmar and is principally known as a leadin ...
. Influential Thai teachers are
Ajahn Chah Chah Subhaddo ( th, ชา สุภัทโท, known in English as Ajahn Chah, occasionally with honorific titles '' Luang Por'' and ''Phra'') also known by his honorific name "Phra Bodhiñāṇathera" ( th, พระโพธิญาณเ� ...
and
Buddhadasa Phra Dharmakosācārya (Nguam Indapañño) ( th, พระธรรมโกศาจารย์ (เงื่อม อินฺทปญฺโญ); ), also known as Buddhadāsa Bhikkhu ( th, พุทธทาสภิกขุ; , 27 May 1906 � ...
. A well-known Asian female teacher is Dipa Ma.


Stages of practice

Practice begins with the preparatory stage, the practice of '' sila'', morality, giving up worldly thoughts and desires. Jeff Wilson notes that morality is a quintessential element of Buddhist practice, and is also emphasized by the first generation of post-war western teachers. Yet, in the contemporary mindfulness movement, morality as an element of practice has been mostly discarded, 'mystifying' the origins of mindfulness. The practitioner then engages in '' anapanasati'', mindfulness of breathing, which is described in the
Satipatthana Sutta The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta ( Majjhima Nikaya 10: ''The Discourse on the Establishing of Mindfulness''), and the subsequently created Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (Dīgha Nikāya 22: ''The Great Discourse on the Establishing of Mindfulness''), are ...
as going into the forest and sitting beneath a tree and then to simply watch the breath. If the breath is long, to notice that the breath is long, if the breath is short, to notice that the breath is short. In the "New Burmese Method", the practitioner pays attention to any arising mental or physical phenomenon, engaging in vitarka, noting or naming physical and mental phenomena ("breathing, breathing"), without engaging the phenomenon with further conceptual thinking.Mahasi Sayadaw, ''Practical Vipassana Instructions'' By noticing the arising of physical and mental phenomena, the meditator becomes aware how sense impressions arise from the contact between the senses and physical and mental phenomena, as described in the five '' skandhas'' and '' paṭiccasamuppāda''. According to Sayadaw U Pandita, awareness and observation of these sensations is de-coupled from any kind of physical response, which is intended to recondition one's impulsive responses to stimuli, becoming less likely to physically or emotionally overreact to the happenings of the world. The practitioner also becomes aware of the perpetual changes involved in breathing, and the arising and passing away of mindfulness. This noticing is accompanied by reflections on causation and other Buddhist teachings, leading to insight into dukkha, anatta, and
anicca Impermanence, also known as the philosophical problem of change, is a philosophical concept addressed in a variety of religions and philosophies. In Eastern philosophy it is notable for its role in the Buddhist three marks of existence. It i ...
. When the three characteristics have been comprehended, reflection subdues, and the process of noticing accelerates, noting phenomena in general, without necessarily naming them. According to Thai meditation master Ajahn Lee, the practice of both ''samatha'' and ''vipassana'' together allows one to achieve various mental powers and knowledges (Pali: '' abhiññā)'', including the attainment of
Nirvana ( , , ; sa, निर्वाण} ''nirvāṇa'' ; Pali: ''nibbāna''; Prakrit: ''ṇivvāṇa''; literally, "blown out", as in an oil lampRichard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benāres to Modern Colombo.' ...
, whereas the practice of ''vipassana'' alone allows for the achievement of Nirvana, but no other mental powers or knowledges.


''Vipassanā jhanas''

Vipassanā jhanas are stages that describe the development of samatha in ''vipassanā'' meditation practice as described in modern Burmese Vipassana meditation. Mahasi Sayadaw's student
Sayadaw U Pandita Sayadaw U Paṇḍita ( my, ဆရာတော် ဦးပဏ္ဍိတ, ; also ''Ovādācariya Sayādo Ū Paṇḍitābhivaṁsa''; 28 July 1921 – 16 April 2016) was one of the foremost masters of Vipassanā. He trained in the Theravada ...
described the four ''vipassanā jhanas'' as follows: # The meditator first explores the body/mind connection as one, nonduality; discovering three characteristics. The first jhana consists in seeing these points and in the presence of '' vitarka'' and ''vicara''. Phenomena reveal themselves as appearing and ceasing. # In the second ''jhana'', the practice seems effortless. ''Vitarka'' and ''vicara'' both disappear. # In the third ''jhana'', ''
piti Piti may refer to: * Pīti, a mental factor in Buddhism * PITI, the principal, interest, taxes, and insurance sum of a mortgage payment * Piti (food), a soup dish of Central Asia * Piti (footballer) (born 1981), Spanish footballer * Piti, Guam * Pi ...
'', the joy, disappears too: there is only happiness ('' sukha'') and concentration. # The fourth ''jhana'' arises, characterised by purity of mindfulness due to equanimity. The practice leads to direct knowledge. The comfort disappears because the dissolution of all phenomena is clearly visible. The practice will show every phenomenon as unstable, transient, disenchanting. The desire of freedom will take place.


Criticism

''Samatha'' meditation and ''jhana'' ('' dhyana'') are often considered synonymous by modern Theravada, but the four jhanas involve a ''heightened'' awareness, instead of a narrowing of the mind. Vetter notes that ''samadhi'' may refer to the four stages of dhyana meditation, but that only the first stage refers to strong concentration, from which arise the other stages, which include mindfulness. According to Richard Gombrich, the sequence of the four ''rupa-jhanas'' describes two different cognitive states. Gombrich and Wynne note that, while the second ''jhana'' denotes a state of absorption, in the third and fourth ''jhana'' one comes out of this absorption, being mindfully aware of objects while being indifferent to it. According to Gombrich, "the later tradition has falsified the jhana by classifying them as the quintessence of the concentrated, calming kind of meditation, ignoring the other – and indeed higher – element. Alexander Wynne further explains that the ''dhyana''-scheme is poorly understood. According to Wynne, words expressing the inculcation of awareness, such as ''sati'', ''sampajāno'', and ''upekkhā'', are mistranslated or understood as particular factors of meditative states, whereas they refer to a particular way of perceiving the sense objects.


Northern tradition

The north Indian Buddhist traditions like the
Sarvastivada The ''Sarvāstivāda'' (Sanskrit and Pali: 𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺𑀯𑀸𑀤, ) was one of the early Buddhist schools established around the reign of Ashoka (3rd century BCE).Westerhoff, The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy ...
and the
Sautrāntika The Sautrāntika or Sutravadin ( sa, सौत्रान्तिक, Suttavāda in Pali; ; ja, 経量部, Kyou Ryou Bu) were an early Buddhist school generally believed to be descended from the Sthavira nikāya by way of their immediate par ...
practiced meditation as outlined in texts like the '' Abhidharmakośakārikā'' of
Vasubandhu Vasubandhu (; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་ ; fl. 4th to 5th century CE) was an influential Buddhist monk and scholar from ''Puruṣapura'' in ancient India, modern day Peshawar, Pakistan. He was a philosopher who wrote commentary ...
and the '' Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra''. The ''Abhidharmakośakārikā'' states that vipaśyanā is practiced once one has reached
samadhi ''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yoga ...
"absorption" by cultivating the four foundations of mindfulness ('' smṛtyupasthāna''s).De La Vallee Poussin (trans.); Pruden, Leo M. (trans.) ''Abhidharmakosabhasyam of Vasubandhu'' Vol. III page 925 This is achieved, according to
Vasubandhu Vasubandhu (; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་ ; fl. 4th to 5th century CE) was an influential Buddhist monk and scholar from ''Puruṣapura'' in ancient India, modern day Peshawar, Pakistan. He was a philosopher who wrote commentary ...
, Asanga's ''
Abhidharma-samuccaya The Abhidharma-samuccaya (Sanskrit; ; English: "Compendium of Abhidharma") is a Buddhist text composed by Asaṅga. The ''Abhidharma-samuccaya'' is a systematic account of Abhidharma. According to J. W. de Jong it is also "one of the most importa ...
'' states that the practice of śamatha-vipaśyanā is a part of a Bodhisattva's path at the beginning, in the first "path of preparation" (''sambhāramarga''). The Sthavira nikāya, one of the
early Buddhist schools The early Buddhist schools are those schools into which the Buddhist monastic saṅgha split early in the history of Buddhism. The divisions were originally due to differences in Vinaya and later also due to doctrinal differences and geograp ...
from which the Theravada-tradition originates, emphasized sudden insight: "In the Sthaviravada ..progress in understanding comes all at once, 'insight' (''abhisamaya'') does not come 'gradually' (successively - ''anapurva'')." The
Mahāsāṃghika The Mahāsāṃghika ( Brahmi: 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀲𑀸𑀁𑀖𑀺𑀓, "of the Great Sangha", ) was one of the early Buddhist schools. Interest in the origins of the Mahāsāṃghika school lies in the fact that their Vinaya recension appears in ...
, another one of the early Buddhist schools, had the doctrine of ''ekakṣaṇacitta'', "according to which a Buddha knows everything in a single thought-instant". This process however, meant to apply only to the Buddha and Peccaka buddhas. Lay people may have to experience various levels of insights to become fully enlightened.


Mahāyāna

The later Indian Mahayana scholastic tradition, as exemplified by
Shantideva Shantideva (Sanskrit: Śāntideva; ; ; mn, Шантидэва гэгээн; vi, Tịch Thiên) was an 8th-century CE Indian philosopher, Buddhist monk, poet, and scholar at the mahavihara of Nalanda. He was an adherent of the Mādhyamaka phil ...
's ''
Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra The ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' or ''Bodhicaryāvatāra'' ( sa, बोधिसत्त्वाचर्यावतार; Tibetan: བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་སྤྱོད་པ་ལ་འཇུག་པ་ ''b ...
'', saw śamatha as a necessary prerequisite to vipaśyanā, and thus, one needed to first begin with calm abiding meditation, and then proceed to insight. In the Pañjikā commentary of Prajñākaramati () on the ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'', vipaśyanā is defined simply as "wisdom (''prajñā'') that has the nature of thorough knowledge of reality as it is.


''Samatha''

A number of Mahāyāna ''sūtras'' address ''śamatha'', usually in conjunction with ''vipaśyanā''. One of the most prominent, the ''Cloud of Jewels Sutra'' (''Ārya Ratnamegha Sutra'', Tib. phags-pa dkon-mchog sprin-gyi mdo'', Chinese 寶雲經 T658, 大乘寶雲經 T659) divides all forms of meditation into either ''śamatha'' or ''vipaśyanā'', defining ''śamatha'' as "single-pointed consciousness" and ''vipaśyanā'' as "seeing into the nature of things." The ''Sūtra Unlocking the Mysteries'' (''Samdhinirmocana Sūtra''), a ''
yogācāra Yogachara ( sa, योगाचार, IAST: '; literally "yoga practice"; "one whose practice is yoga") is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through t ...
'' ''sūtra'', is also often used as a source for teachings on ''śamatha''. The '' Samādhirāja Sūtra'' is often cited as an important source for ''śamatha'' instructions by the Kagyu tradition, particularly via commentary by
Gampopa Gampopa Sönam Rinchen (, 1079–1153) was the main student of Milarepa, and a Tibetan Buddhist master who codified his own master's ascetic teachings, which form the foundation of the Kagyu educational tradition. Gampopa was also a doctor and ...
, although scholar Andrew Skilton, who has studied the ''Samādhirāja Sūtra'' extensively, reports that the ''sūtra'' itself "contains no significant exposition of either meditational practices or states of mind."


Vipassana - ''prajna'' and ''sunyata''

The
Mahayana ''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing br ...
tradition emphasizes prajñā, insight into
śūnyatā ''Śūnyatā'' ( sa, शून्यता, śūnyatā; pi, suññatā; ), translated most often as ''emptiness'', ''vacuity'', and sometimes ''voidness'', is an Indian philosophical concept. Within Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and other ...
, dharmatā, the
two truths doctrine The Buddhist doctrine of the two truths (Sanskrit: ''dvasatya,'' ) differentiates between two levels of ''satya'' (Sanskrit; Pali: ''sacca''; word meaning "truth" or "reality") in the teaching of the Śākyamuni Buddha: the "conventional" or "p ...
, clarity and emptiness, or bliss and emptiness: The Mahayana '' Akṣayamati-nirdeśa'' refers to vipaśyanā as seeing phenomena as they really are, that is, empty, without self, nonarisen, and without grasping. The
Prajnaparamita A Tibetan painting with a Prajñāpāramitā sūtra at the center of the mandala Prajñāpāramitā ( sa, प्रज्ञापारमिता) means "the Perfection of Wisdom" or "Transcendental Knowledge" in Mahāyāna and Theravāda B ...
sutra in 8,000 lines states that the practice of insight is the non-appropriation of any dharmas, including the
five aggregates (Sanskrit) or (Pāḷi) means "heaps, aggregates, collections, groupings". In Buddhism, it refers to the five aggregates of clinging (), the five material and mental factors that take part in the rise of craving and clinging. They are also ...
: Although Theravada and Mahayana are commonly understood as different streams of Buddhism, their practice however, may reflect emphasis on insight as a common denominator: "In practice and understanding Zen is actually very close to the Theravada Forest Tradition even though its language and teachings are heavily influenced by
Taoism Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' Ta ...
and
Confucianism Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or a ...
."


East Asian Mahāyāna


Chinese Buddhism

In
Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism which has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas including art, politics, literature, philosophy, ...
, the works of Tiantai master
Zhiyi Zhiyi (; 538–597 CE) also Chen De'an (陳德安), is the fourth patriarch of the Tiantai tradition of Buddhism in China. His standard title was Śramaṇa Zhiyi (沙門智顗), linking him to the broad tradition of Indian asceticism. Zhiyi i ...
(such as the ''
Mohe Zhiguan The Móhē zhǐguān ( Chinese: 摩訶止観; Pinyin: ''Móhē Zhǐguān''; Wades-Giles: ''Mo-ho Chih-kuan'', Romanji: ''Makashikan;'' Sanskrit: ''Mahaśamatha-vipaśyanā'') is a major Buddhist doctrinal treatise based on lectures given by the C ...
'', "Great śamatha-vipaśyanā") are some of the most influential texts which discuss vipaśyanā meditation from a Mahayana perspective. In this text, Zhiyi teaches the contemplation of the skandhas, ayatanas, dhātus, the Kleshas, false views and several other elements. Likewise the influential text called the ''
Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana ''Awakening of Faith in the Mahāyāna'' (reconstructed Sanskrit title: ''Mahāyāna śraddhotpādaśāstra''; ) is a text of Mahayana Buddhism. Though attributed to the Indian master Aśvaghoṣa, no Sanskrit version of it exists and it is now ...
'' has a section on calm and insight meditation. It states:


Chan/Zen

The
Zen Zen ( zh, t=禪, p=Chán; ja, text= 禅, translit=zen; ko, text=선, translit=Seon; vi, text=Thiền) is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty, known as the Chan School (''Chánzong'' 禪宗), and ...
tradition advocates the simultaneous practice of śamatha and vipaśyanā, and this is called the practice of silent illumination.Guo Gu, Silent Illuminatio
Guo Gu
, Insight Journal 2014.
The classic Chan text known as the ''
Platform Sutra The ''Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch'' ( or simply: ''Tánjīng'') is a Chan Buddhist scripture that was composed in China during the 8th to 13th century. The "platform" (施法壇) refers to the podium on which a Buddhist teacher spe ...
'' states: The emphasis on insight is discernible in the emphasis in Chan Buddhism on sudden insight ( subitism), though in the Chan tradition, this insight is to be followed by gradual cultivation.


Indo-Tibetan tradition

In
Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in majo ...
, the classical practice of ''śamatha'' and ''vipaśyanā'' is strongly influenced by the Mahāyāna text called the Bhavanakrama of Indian master Kamalaśīla. Kamalaśīla defines ''vipaśyanā'' as "the discernment of reality" (''bhūta-pratyavekṣā'') and "accurately realizing the true nature of dharmas". According to
Thrangu Rinpoche Thrangu Rinpoche ( ) was born in 1933 in Kham, Tibet. He is deemed to be a prominent tulku (reincarnate lama) in the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism, the ninth reincarnation in his particular line. His full name and title is the ''Very Venerabl ...
, when ''shamatha'' and ''vipashyana'' are combined, as in the mainstream
Madhyamaka Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhi ...
approach of
Shantideva Shantideva (Sanskrit: Śāntideva; ; ; mn, Шантидэва гэгээн; vi, Tịch Thiên) was an 8th-century CE Indian philosopher, Buddhist monk, poet, and scholar at the mahavihara of Nalanda. He was an adherent of the Mādhyamaka phil ...
and Kamalashila, through ''samatha'' disturbing emotions are abandoned, which thus facilitates ''vipashyana'', "clear seeing". ''Vipashyana'' is cultivated through reasoning, logic and analysis in conjunction with Shamatha. In contrast, in the siddha tradition of the direct approach of
Mahamudra Mahāmudrā (Sanskrit: महामुद्रा, , contraction of ) literally means "great seal" or "great imprint" and refers to the fact that "all phenomena inevitably are stamped by the fact of wisdom and emptiness inseparable". Mahāmudr ...
and Dzogchen, ''vipashyana'' is ascertained directly through looking into one's own mind. After this initial recognition of ''vipashyana'', the steadiness of ''shamatha'' is developed within that recognition. According to Thrangu Rinpoche, it is however also common in the direct approach to first develop enough ''shamatha'' to serve as a basis for ''vipashyana''.
Dzogchen Ponlop Rinpoche The 7th Dzogchen Ponlop (Karma Sungrap Ngedön Tenpa Gyaltsen, born 1965) is an abbot of Dzogchen Monastery, founder and spiritual director of Nalandabodhi, founder of Nītārtha Institute for Higher Buddhist Studies, a leading Tibetan Buddhis ...
charts the developmental relationship of the practices of ''śamatha'' and ''vipaśyanā'':


''Samatha''

Tibetan writers usually define samatha practice as when one's mind remains fixed on a single object without moving. Dakpo Tashi Namgyal for example, defines samatha as:
by fixing the mind upon any object so as to maintain it without distraction . . . by focusing the mind on an object and maintaining it in that state until finally it is channeled into one stream of attention and evenness.Powers, John. Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism, Revised Edition, p. 86.
According to Geshe Lhundup Sopa, samatha is:
just a one-pointedness of mind (''cittaikagrata'') on a meditative object (''alambana''). Whatever the object may be . . . if the mind can remain upon its object one-pointedly, spontaneously and without effort (''nabhisamskara''), and for as long a period of time as the meditator likes, it is approaching the attainment of meditative stabilization (''samatha'').
Śamatha furthers the right concentration aspect of the
noble eightfold path The Noble Eightfold Path (Pali: ; Sanskrit: ) is an early summary of the path of Buddhist practices leading to liberation from samsara, the painful cycle of rebirth, in the form of nirvana. The Eightfold Path consists of eight practices: ...
. The successful result of ''śamatha'' is also sometimes characterized as meditative absorption (''samādhi, ting nge ’dzin'') and meditative equipoise (''samāhita, mnyam-bzhag''), and freedom from the five obstructions (''āvaraṇa, sgrib-pa''). It may also result in the ''siddhis'' of clairvoyance (''abhijñā, mgon shes'') and magical emanation (''nirmāna, sprul pa'').''Meditative States in Tibetan Buddhism'' By Lati Rinpoche, Denma Locho Rinpoche, Leah Zahler, Jeffrey Hopkins Wisdom Publications: December 25, 1996. pgs 53-85 According to Culadasa (2015), ''"Samatha'' has five characteristics: ''effortlessly'' stable attention (''samādhi''), ''powerful'' mindfulness (''sati''), joy (''pīti),'' tranquility (''passaddhi)'', and equanimity (''upekkhā).'' The complete state of ''samatha'' results from working with stable attention (''samādhi'') and mindfulness (''sati'') until joy emerges. Joy then gradually matures into tranquility, and equanimity arises out of that tranquility. A mind in ''samatha'' is the ideal instrument for achieving Insight and Awakening"


''Vipassana''

Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism employed both deductive investigation (applying ideas ''to'' experience) and inductive investigation (drawing conclusions ''from'' direct experience) in the practice of vipaśyanā. According to Leah Zahler, only the tradition of deductive analysis in vipaśyanā was transmitted to Tibet in the sūtrayāna context. In Tibet direct examination of moment-to-moment experience as a means of generating insight became exclusively associated with vajrayāna.


Mahāmudrā and Dzogchen

''Śamatha'' is approached somewhat differently in the '' mahāmudrā'' tradition as practiced in the Kagyu lineage. As Traleg Kyabgon Rinpoche explains, For the Kagyupa, in the context of mahāmudrā, ''śamatha'' by means of mindfulness of breathing is thought to be the ideal way for the meditator to transition into taking the mind itself as the object of meditation and generating ''vipaśyanā'' on that basis. Quite similar is the approach to ''śamatha'' found in '' dzogchen
semde Semde (; Sanskrit: ) translated as 'mind division', 'mind class' or 'mind series' is the name of one of three scriptural and lineage divisions within Atiyoga, Dzogchen or the Great Perfection which is itself the pinnacle of the ninefold divis ...
'' (Sanskrit: ''mahāsandhi cittavarga''). In the ''semde'' system, ''śamatha'' is the first of the four yogas (Tib. ''naljor'', ), the others being ''vipaśyanā'' (), nonduality (''advaya'', Tib. ''nyime'',), and spontaneous presence (''anābogha'' or ''nirābogha'', Tib. ''lhundrub'', ). These parallel the four yogas of ''mahāmudrā''. Ajahn Amaro, a longtime student in the Thai Forest Theravādin tradition of
Ajahn Chah Chah Subhaddo ( th, ชา สุภัทโท, known in English as Ajahn Chah, occasionally with honorific titles '' Luang Por'' and ''Phra'') also known by his honorific name "Phra Bodhiñāṇathera" ( th, พระโพธิญาณเ� ...
, has also trained in the '' dzogchen
semde Semde (; Sanskrit: ) translated as 'mind division', 'mind class' or 'mind series' is the name of one of three scriptural and lineage divisions within Atiyoga, Dzogchen or the Great Perfection which is itself the pinnacle of the ninefold divis ...
'' ''śamatha'' approach under Tsoknyi Rinpoche. He found similarities in the approaches of the two traditions to ''śamatha''.Ajahn Chah's 'View of the View'", in ''Broad View, Boundless Heart'' by Ajahn Amar

Mahamudra, Mahāmudrā and Dzogchen use vipaśyanā extensively. This includes some methods of the other traditions, but also their own specific approaches. They place a greater emphasis on meditation on symbolic images. Additionally in the Vajrayāna ( tantric) path, the true nature of mind is pointed out by the guru, and this serves as a direct form of insight.


Similar practices in other religions

Meditations from other religious traditions may also be recognized as ''samatha'' meditation, that differ in the focus of concentration. In this sense, ''samatha'' is not a strictly Buddhist meditation. ''Samatha'' in its single-pointed focus and concentration of mind is cognate with the sixth "limb" of '' aṣṭanga yoga', ''
rāja yoga In Sanskrit texts, ''Rāja yoga'' (; राजयोग) was both the goal of yoga and a method to attain it. The term also became a modern name for the practice of yoga in the 19th-century when Swami Vivekananda gave his interpretation of t ...
'' which is
concentration In chemistry, concentration is the abundance of a constituent divided by the total volume of a mixture. Several types of mathematical description can be distinguished: '' mass concentration'', ''molar concentration'', '' number concentration'', ...
(''dhāraṇā''). For further discussion, see ''the Yoga Sūtras'' of Patañjali.


See also


Notes


References


Sources

;Printed sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ;Web-sources


External links

;Samatha
Dharma Fellowship, ''Deepening Calm-Abiding - The Nine Stages of Abiding''



The Samatha Association

The Buddho Foundation
;Vipassana History:
Theravāda Spirituality in the West
Background:

''From'' Buddhanet.net
Mahasi Sayadaw, ''Satipatthana Vipassana: Criticisms and Replies''


* ttps://pariyatti.org/ Publications in the Theravāda tradition/ Pariyatti.org Practice:

Abhidhamma Vipassana
Meditation
''From'' Yellowrobe.com
Vipassana Meditation
as taught by S.N. Goenka and his assistant teachers in the tradition of
Sayagyi U Ba Khin Sayagyi U Ba Khin ( my, ဘခင်, ; 6 March 1899 – 19 January 1971) was the first Accountant General of the Union of Burma. He was the founder of the International Meditation Centre in Yangon, Myanmar and is principally known as a leadin ...
at free centers worldwide
Saddhamma Foundation
Information about practicing Vipassana meditation.

by
Ayya Khema Ayya Khema ( 25, 1923 – November 2, 1997) was a Buddhist teacher noted for providing opportunities for women to practice Buddhism, founding several centers around the world. In 1987, she helped coordinate the first-ever Sakyadhita Internationa ...

Turning to the Source
by V.R. Dhiravamsa
The Middle Path of Life
by V.R. Dhiravamsa
Healing through Pure Mindfulness
by V.R. Dhiravamsa {{Authority control Buddhist meditation Buddhist philosophical concepts Reality Spiritual faculties Mindfulness (Buddhism) Nondualism