A viceroy () is an official who reigns over a
polity in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix ''vice-'', meaning "in the place of" and the French word ''roy'', meaning "king". He has also been styled the king's lieutenant. A viceroy's territory may be called a
viceroyalty
A viceroyalty was an entity headed by a viceroy. It dates back to the Spanish conquest of the Americas in the sixteenth century.
France
* Viceroyalty of New France
Portuguese Empire
In the scope of the Portuguese Empire, the term " Viceroyalt ...
, though this term is not always applied. The
adjective form is ''viceregal'', less often ''viceroyal''. The term ''vicereine'' is sometimes used to indicate a female viceroy ''
suo jure
''Suo jure'' is a Latin phrase, used in English to mean 'in his own right' or 'in her own right'. In most nobility-related contexts, it means 'in her own right', since in those situations the phrase is normally used of women; in practice, especi ...
'', although ''viceroy'' can serve as a gender-neutral term.
Vicereine is more commonly used to indicate a viceroy's wife.
The term has occasionally been applied to the
governors-general
Governor-general (plural ''governors-general''), or governor general (plural ''governors general''), is the title of an office-holder. In the context of governors-general and former British colonies, governors-general are appointed as viceroy t ...
of the
Commonwealth realms
A Commonwealth realm is a sovereign state in the Commonwealth of Nations whose monarch and head of state is shared among the other realms. Each realm functions as an independent state, equal with the other realms and nations of the Commonweal ...
, who are ''viceregal'' representatives of the monarch.
''Viceroy'' is a form of royal appointment rather than noble rank. An individual viceroy often also held a noble title, however, such as
Bernardo de Gálvez, 1st Viscount of Galveston, who was also
Viceroy of New Spain
The following is a list of Viceroys of New Spain.
In addition to viceroys, the following lists the highest Spanish governors of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, before the appointment of the first viceroy or when the office of viceroy was vacant. ...
.
Spanish Empire
The title was originally used by the
Crown of Aragon, where, beginning in the 14th century, it referred to the Spanish governors of
Sardinia
Sardinia ( ; it, Sardegna, label=Italian, Corsican and Tabarchino ; sc, Sardigna , sdc, Sardhigna; french: Sardaigne; sdn, Saldigna; ca, Sardenya, label=Algherese and Catalan) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after ...
and
Corsica. After the unification, at the end of the 15th century, later
kings of Spain came to appoint numerous viceroys to rule over various parts of the increasingly vast
Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire ( es, link=no, Imperio español), also known as the Hispanic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Hispánica) or the Catholic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Católica) was a colonial empire governed by Spain and its prede ...
in Europe, the Americas, and overseas elsewhere.
In Spanish ruled Europe
In Europe, until the 18th century, the Habsburg crown appointed viceroys of
Aragon,
Valencia,
Catalonia,
Navarre,
Portugal
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of ...
during the brief period known as the Iberian Union,
Sardinia
Sardinia ( ; it, Sardegna, label=Italian, Corsican and Tabarchino ; sc, Sardigna , sdc, Sardhigna; french: Sardaigne; sdn, Saldigna; ca, Sardenya, label=Algherese and Catalan) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after ...
,
Sicily
(man) it, Siciliana (woman)
, population_note =
, population_blank1_title =
, population_blank1 =
, demographics_type1 = Ethnicity
, demographics1_footnotes =
, demographi ...
, and
Naples
Naples (; it, Napoli ; nap, Napule ), from grc, Νεάπολις, Neápolis, lit=new city. is the regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 909,048 within the city's adminis ...
. With the ascension of the
House of Bourbon to the Spanish throne, the historic Aragonese viceroyalties were replaced by new
captaincies general. At the end of
War of the Spanish Succession, the Spanish monarchy was shorn of its Italian possessions. These Italian territories, however, continued to have viceroys under their new rulers for some time; Naples until 1734, Sicily until 1816 and Sardinia until 1848.
:See also:
*
List of viceroys of Aragon
This is a list of viceroys (or lieutenants) of the Kingdom of Aragon.
*Alonso de Aragón, bishop of Zaragoza 1517-1520
* Juan de Lanuza y Torrellas 1520-1535
*Beltrán de la Cueva, 3rd Duke of Alburquerque 1535-1539
* Pedro Manrique de Luna y de ...
*
List of viceroys of Valencia
*
List of viceroys of Catalonia
*
List of viceroys of Navarre
This is a list of Spanish Viceroys of Navarre from 1512 to 1840, when the function was abolished.
*1512 : Diego Fernández de Córdoba y Arellano, marqués de Comares
*1515 : Fadrique de Acuña, Conde de Buendía
*1516 : Antonio Manrique de L ...
*
List of viceroys of Sardinia
*
List of viceroys of Sicily This is a list of viceroys of Sicily:
Aragonese direct rule 1409–1516
* John of Aragon, Duke of Peñafiel, later king John II of Aragon, 1458–1479, acted 1409–1416.
* Domingo Ram y Lanaja, Bishop of Lleida 1416–1419
* Antonio de Cardona 1 ...
*
List of viceroys of Naples
This is a list of viceroys of the Kingdom of Naples. Following the conquest of Naples by Louis XII of France in 1501, Naples was subject to the rule of the foreign rulers, the Kings of France, Aragon and Spain and the Habsburg Archdukes of Austria ...
In the Americas
The Americas were incorporated into the
Crown of Castile. With the
Spanish colonization of the Americas, the institution of viceroys was adapted to govern the highly populated and wealthy regions of the north overseas:
New Spain (Mexico and Philippines) and the south overseas:
Peru
, image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg
, image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg
, other_symbol = Great Seal of the State
, other_symbol_type = National seal
, national_motto = "Firm and Happy f ...
and South America. The viceroys of these two areas had oversight over the other provinces, with most of the North American, Central American,
Caribbean and
East Indian areas supervised by the viceroy in
Mexico City
Mexico City ( es, link=no, Ciudad de México, ; abbr.: CDMX; Nahuatl: ''Altepetl Mexico'') is the capital city, capital and primate city, largest city of Mexico, and the List of North American cities by population, most populous city in North Amer ...
and the South American ones by the viceroy in
Lima, (with the exception of most of today's
Venezuela, which was overseen by the high court, or
Audiencia of Santo Domingo on the island of Hispaniola for most of the colonial period). These large administrative territories became known as ''viceroyalties'' (Spanish term: ''virreinatos''). There were only two
New World
The term ''New World'' is often used to mean the majority of Earth's Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: Oxford University Press, p. ...
viceroyalties until the 18th century, when the new
Bourbon dynasty established two additional viceroyalties to promote economic growth and new settlements on South America. New viceroyalties were created for
New Granada in 1717 (capital,
Bogotá) and
the Río de la Plata in 1776 (capital,
Buenos Aires).
The viceroyalties of the Spanish Americas and the Spanish East Indies were subdivided into smaller, autonomous units, the ''
audiencias'' (
tribunal
A tribunal, generally, is any person or institution with authority to judge, adjudicate on, or determine claims or disputes—whether or not it is called a tribunal in its title.
For example, an advocate who appears before a court with a single ...
with the authority to judge), and the
captaincies general (military districts), which in most cases became the bases for the independent countries of modern
Hispanic America
The region known as Hispanic America (in Spanish called ''Hispanoamérica'' or ''América Hispana'') and historically as Spanish America (''América Española'') is the portion of the Americas comprising the Spanish-speaking countries of North, ...
. These units gathered the local provinces which could be governed by either a crown official, a ''
corregidor'' (sometimes ''alcalde mayor'') or by a ''
cabildo'' or town council. Audiencias primarily functioned as superior judicial tribunals, but unlike their European counterparts, the New World audiencias were granted by law both administrative and legislative powers. Captaincies general were primarily military districts set up in areas with a risk of foreign or
Indian attack, but the captains general were usually given political powers over the provinces under their command. Because the long distances to the viceregal capital would hamper effective communication, both audiencias and captains general were authorized to communicate directly with the crown through the
Council of the Indies
The Council of the Indies ( es, Consejo de las Indias), officially the Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies ( es, Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias, link=no, ), was the most important administrative organ of the Spanish Empire for the Amer ...
. The Bourbon Reforms introduced the new office of the
intendant, which was appointed directly by the crown and had broad fiscal and administrative powers in political and military issues.
See also:
*
Viceroyalty of the Indies (1492–1526)
*
Viceroyalty of New Spain
New Spain, officially the Viceroyalty of New Spain ( es, Virreinato de Nueva España, ), or Kingdom of New Spain, was an integral territorial entity of the Spanish Empire, established by Habsburg Spain during the Spanish colonization of the Amer ...
(1535–1821) – ''
List of viceroys of New Spain''
*
Viceroyalty of Peru
The Viceroyalty of Peru ( es, Virreinato del Perú, links=no) was a Spanish imperial provincial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained modern-day Peru and most of the Spanish Empire in South America, governed fro ...
(1542–1824) – ''
List of viceroys of Peru''
*
Viceroyalty of New Granada
The Viceroyalty of New Granada ( es, Virreinato de Nueva Granada, links=no ) also called Viceroyalty of the New Kingdom of Granada or Viceroyalty of Santafé was the name given on 27 May 1717, to the jurisdiction of the Spanish Empire in norther ...
(1717–1819) – ''
List of viceroys of New Granada
Spanish viceroys of the colonial Viceroyalty of New Granada (1717–1819) located in northern South America.
Introduction
The former territory within the Viceroyalty of New Granada corresponds to present day Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Ven ...
''
*
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata ( es, Virreinato del Río de la Plata or es, Virreinato de las Provincias del Río de la Plata) meaning "River of the Silver", also called " Viceroyalty of the River Plate" in some scholarly writings, i ...
(1776–1814) – ''
List of viceroys of the Río de la Plata''
Portuguese
India
The title ''viceroy'' being awarded to members of the nobility, viceroys,
governors and governing commissions were many times interleaved until the last viceroy,
Afonso, Prince Royal of Portugal, in 1896. From 1505 to 1896
Portuguese India – the name ''India'' and the official name ''Estado da India'' (State of India) including all Portuguese possessions in the Indian Ocean, from southern Africa to Southeast Asia and Australasia, until 1752 - was governed either by a viceroy (Portuguese ''vice-rei'') or governor from its headquarters, in
Goa from 1510. The government started seven years after the discovery of sea route to India by
Vasco da Gama, in 1505, under the first viceroy,
Francisco de Almeida
Dom Francisco de Almeida (), also known as the Great Dom Francisco (c. 1450 – 1 March 1510), was a Portuguese nobleman, soldier and explorer. He distinguished himself as a counsellor to King John II of Portugal and later in the wars against ...
(b.1450–d.1510). Initially, King
Manuel I of Portugal
Manuel I (; 31 May 146913 December 1521), known as the Fortunate ( pt, O Venturoso), was King of Portugal from 1495 to 1521. A member of the House of Aviz, Manuel was Duke of Beja and Viseu prior to succeeding his cousin, John II of Portuga ...
tried a power distribution with three governors in different areas of jurisdiction: a government covering the area and possessions in East Africa,
Arabian Peninsula and
Persian Gulf, overseeing up to
Cambay (Gujarat); a second one ruling the possessions in
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
(Hindustan) and
Ceylon; and a third one from
Malacca to the Far East. However, the post was centered by Governor
Afonso de Albuquerque (1509–1515), who became plenipotentiary, and remained so. The duration in office was usually three years, possibly longer, given the power represented: of the thirty-four governors of India in the 16th century, only six had longer mandates.
*
List of governors of Portuguese India
, insignia =
, insigniasize =
, insigniacaption =
, image = Lesser coat of arms of Portuguese India.svg
, imagesize = 120px
, imagecaption = Coat of arms of Portuguese India
, style ...
(1505–1961)
Portugal
During some periods of the
Iberian Union
pt, União Ibérica
, conventional_long_name =Iberian Union
, common_name =
, year_start = 1580
, date_start = 25 August
, life_span = 1580–1640
, event_start = War of the Portuguese Succession
, event_end = Portuguese Restoration War
, ...
, between 1580 and 1640, the
king of Spain, who was also
king of Portugal, appointed
viceroys to govern Portugal itself, as the king had multiple realms throughout Europe and delegated his powers to various viceroys.
Brazil
After the end of the
Iberian Union
pt, União Ibérica
, conventional_long_name =Iberian Union
, common_name =
, year_start = 1580
, date_start = 25 August
, life_span = 1580–1640
, event_start = War of the Portuguese Succession
, event_end = Portuguese Restoration War
, ...
in 1640, the governors of
Brazil
Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...
that were members of the Portuguese high nobility started to use the title of Viceroy. Brazil became a permanent
Viceroyalty
A viceroyalty was an entity headed by a viceroy. It dates back to the Spanish conquest of the Americas in the sixteenth century.
France
* Viceroyalty of New France
Portuguese Empire
In the scope of the Portuguese Empire, the term " Viceroyalt ...
in 1763, when the capital of the
State of Brazil (''Estado do Brasil'') was transferred from
Salvador to
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro ( , , ; literally 'River of January'), or simply Rio, is the capital of the state of the same name, Brazil's third-most populous state, and the second-most populous city in Brazil, after São Paulo. Listed by the GaWC as a ...
.
British Empire
British India
Following adoption of the
Government of India Act 1858, which transferred control of India from the
East India Company to the
British Crown, the governor-general as representing the Crown became known as the viceroy. The designation ''viceroy'', although it was most frequently used in ordinary parlance, had no statutory authority, and was never employed by
Parliament. Although the Proclamation of 1858 announcing the assumption of the government of India by the Crown referred to
Lord Canning as "first viceroy and governor-general", none of the warrants appointing his successors referred to them as ''viceroys'', and the title, which was frequently used in warrants dealing with precedence and in public notifications, was basically one of ceremony used in connection with the state and social functions of the sovereign's representative. The governor-general continued to be the sole representative of the Crown, and the government of India continued to be vested in the Governor-General-in-Council.
The viceroys reported directly to the
secretary of state for India in London and were advised by the
Council of India. They were largely unencumbered in the exercise of their authority and were among the most powerful men on earth in the
Victorian and
Edwardian eras, ruling over an entire
subcontinent
A continent is any of several large landmasses. Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven geographical regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in area to smallest, these seven ...
with a large military force at their disposal in the form of the
British Indian Army. Under the terms of the
Government of India Act 1919
The Government of India Act 1919 (9 & 10 Geo. 5 c. 101) was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It was passed to expand participation of Indians in the government of India. The Act embodied the reforms recommended in the report o ...
, viceroys shared some limited aspects of their authority with the
Central Legislative Assembly
The Central Legislative Assembly was the lower house of the Imperial Legislative Council, the legislature of British India. It was created by the Government of India Act 1919, implementing the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms. It was also sometim ...
, one of the first steps in the establishment of Indian
home rule. This process was accelerated by the
Government of India Act 1935 and ultimately led to the independence of
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
and
Pakistan as
dominions in 1947. Both countries finally severed complete ties with Britain when they became
republics – India as a
secular
Secularity, also the secular or secularness (from Latin ''saeculum'', "worldly" or "of a generation"), is the state of being unrelated or neutral in regards to religion. Anything that does not have an explicit reference to religion, either negativ ...
republic in 1950 and Pakistan as an
Islamic republic in 1956.
Alongside the
Commander-in-Chief, India, the viceroy was the public face of the British presence in India, attending to many ceremonial functions as well as political affairs. As the representative of the
emperors and empresses of India, who were also the kings and queens of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was a sovereign state in the British Isles that existed between 1801 and 1922, when it included all of Ireland. It was established by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the Kingdom of Grea ...
, the viceroy served as the grand master of the two principal
orders of chivalry of British India: the
Order of the Star of India and the
Order of the Indian Empire
The Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire is an order of chivalry founded by Queen Victoria on 1 January 1878. The Order includes members of three classes:
#Knight Grand Commander (GCIE)
#Knight Commander ( KCIE)
#Companion ( CIE)
No appoi ...
.
During the office's history, the governors-general of India were based in two cities:
Calcutta
Kolkata (, or , ; also known as Calcutta , List of renamed places in India#West Bengal, the official name until 2001) is the Capital city, capital of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of West Bengal, on the eastern ba ...
during the 19th century and New Delhi during the 20th century. Additionally, whilst Calcutta was the capital of British India, the viceroys spent the summer months at
Simla
Shimla (; ; also known as Simla, the official name until 1972) is the capital and the largest city of the northern Indian state of Himachal Pradesh. In 1864, Shimla was declared as the summer capital of British India. After independence, th ...
. The two historic residences of the viceroys still stand: the
Viceroy's House
The Rashtrapati Bhavan (, rāsh-truh-puh-ti bha-vun; ; originally Viceroy's House and later Government House) is the official residence of the President of India at the western end of Rajpath, Raisina Hill, New Delhi, India. Rashtrapati Bh ...
in New Delhi and
Government House in Kolkata. They are used today as the official residences of the
president of India
The president of India ( IAST: ) is the head of state of the Republic of India. The president is the nominal head of the executive, the first citizen of the country, as well as the commander-in-chief of the Indian Armed Forces. Droupadi Mur ...
and the
governor of West Bengal
The Governor of West Bengal is the nominal head of state of the Indian state of West Bengal and a representative of the President of India. The governor is appointed by the president for a term of five years. His official residence is the Raj ...
, respectively. The portraits of the governors-general still hang in a room on the ground floor of the Presidential Palace, one of the last vestiges of both the viceroys and the British Raj.
Notable governors-general of India include
Warren Hastings,
Lord Cornwallis
Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis, (31 December 1738 – 5 October 1805), styled Viscount Brome between 1753 and 1762 and known as the Earl Cornwallis between 1762 and 1792, was a British Army general and official. In the United S ...
,
Lord Curzon
George Nathaniel Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston, (11 January 1859 – 20 March 1925), styled Lord Curzon of Kedleston between 1898 and 1911 and then Earl Curzon of Kedleston between 1911 and 1921, was a British Conservative statesman ...
,
The Earl of Minto
Earl of Minto, in the County of Roxburgh, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1813 for Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 1st Baron Minto. The current earl is Gilbert Timothy George Lariston Elliot-Murray-Kynynm ...
,
Lord Chelmsford, and
Lord Mountbatten. Lord Mountbatten served as the last viceroy of British India, but continued on as the first governor-general of the
Dominion of India.
Ireland
The
lords lieutenant of Ireland were often referred to as ''viceroy'' after 1700 until 1922, even though the
Kingdom of Ireland had been merged in 1801 into the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was a sovereign state in the British Isles that existed between 1801 and 1922, when it included all of Ireland. It was established by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the Kingdom of Grea ...
.
Commonwealth realms
The term has occasionally been applied to the
governors-general
Governor-general (plural ''governors-general''), or governor general (plural ''governors general''), is the title of an office-holder. In the context of governors-general and former British colonies, governors-general are appointed as viceroy t ...
of the
Commonwealth realms, for example
Gough Whitlam
Edward Gough Whitlam (11 July 191621 October 2014) was the 21st prime minister of Australia, serving from 1972 to 1975. The longest-serving federal leader of the Australian Labor Party (ALP) from 1967 to 1977, he was notable for being the ...
in 1973 told the
Australian House of Representatives
The House of Representatives is the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of Australia, the upper house being the Senate. Its composition and powers are established in Chapter I of the Constitution of Australia.
The term of members o ...
: "The Governor-General is the viceroy of the Queen of Australia".
The
Australia Act 1986
The Australia Act 1986 is the short title of each of a pair of separate but related pieces of legislation: one an Act of the Commonwealth (i.e. federal) Parliament of Australia, the other an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. In ...
also provide that all royal powers in Australia, except the actual appointment of the governor-general and the governors, are exercisable by the viceregal representatives. The noun ''viceroy'' is rarely used, but the adjective ''viceregal'' is standard usage.
Russian Empire
''Namestnik'' (russian: link=no, наме́стник, ) was an official position in the history of the
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire and the final period of the Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917, ruling across large parts of Eurasia. It succeeded the Tsardom of Russia following the Treaty of Nystad, which ended the Great Northern War. ...
. It can be translated as "viceroy", "deputy", "lieutenant" (in the broadest sense of the word) or ''in place
appointee''. The term has two periods of usage, with different meanings.
*In the 12th–16th centuries, ''namestniks'' (more correctly ''
knyaz namestniks'', or "knyaz deputies") were in charge of local administration. In particular, they ruled
uyezd
An uezd (also spelled uyezd; rus, уе́зд, p=ʊˈjest), or povit in a Ukrainian context ( uk, повіт), or Kreis in Baltic-German context, was a type of administrative subdivision of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, the Russian Empire, and the ea ...
s.
*In the 18th–20th centuries, a ''namestnik'' was a person in charge of namestnichestvo, with
plenipotentiary
A ''plenipotentiary'' (from the Latin ''plenus'' "full" and ''potens'' "powerful") is a diplomat who has full powers—authorization to sign a treaty or convention on behalf of his or her sovereign. When used as a noun more generally, the wor ...
powers. The latter has traditionally been translated as "
viceroyalty
A viceroyalty was an entity headed by a viceroy. It dates back to the Spanish conquest of the Americas in the sixteenth century.
France
* Viceroyalty of New France
Portuguese Empire
In the scope of the Portuguese Empire, the term " Viceroyalt ...
" and ''namestnik'' as "viceroy" or "
vicegerent" (or, as a common blunder, "viceregent"). For example,
Mikhail Vorontsov was ''namestnik'' of
Bessarabia (1823–44) and of the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia (country), Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range ...
(1844–1854). Sometimes the term is confused with ''
governor general'' (генерал-губернатор). For example, during Vorontsov's term of office in Bessarabia, seven governor-generals were in, and at the same time he held the office of governor general of
Novorossiya
Novorossiya, literally "New Russia", is a historical name, used during the era of the Russian Empire for an administrative area that would later become the southern mainland of Ukraine: the region immediately north of the Black Sea and Crimea. ...
. The following ''namestniks'' existed under the
House of Romanov
The House of Romanov (also transcribed Romanoff; rus, Романовы, Románovy, rɐˈmanəvɨ) was the reigning dynasty, imperial house of Russia from 1613 to 1917. They achieved prominence after the Tsarina, Anastacia of Russia, Anastasi ...
emperors of Russia:
**
Congress Kingdom of Poland
Congress Poland, Congress Kingdom of Poland, or Russian Poland, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland, was a polity created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna as a semi-autonomous Polish state, a successor to Napoleon's Duchy of Warsaw. It ...
, while under the emperors of Russia as kings (styled ''tsar''; 20 June 1815 – 5 November 1916), had only one viceroy, 9 December 1815 – 1 December 1830:
Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich Romanov (1779–1831)
[Thomas Mitchell, ''Handbook for Travellers in Russia, Poland, and Finland'', 1888, p. 460. Google Prin]
/ref>
** Caucasus Viceroyalty (1844-1881), Viceroyalty of the Caucasus – Transcaucasia (Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia; first under governors in Tbilisi 1802–1844) had viceroys of Transcaucasia.
**Viceroyalty of the Far East
A viceroyalty was an entity headed by a viceroy. It dates back to the Spanish conquest of the Americas in the sixteenth century.
France
*Viceroyalty of New France
Portuguese Empire
In the scope of the Portuguese Empire, the term " Viceroyalty ...
, lasted from July 30, 1903, to June 8, 1905, with Yevgeni Ivanovich Alekseyev being the sole office holder.
The Tsar Paul I Paul I may refer to:
*Paul of Samosata (200–275), Bishop of Antioch
* Paul I of Constantinople (died c. 350), Archbishop of Constantinople
*Pope Paul I (700–767)
*Paul I Šubić of Bribir (c. 1245–1312), Ban of Croatia and Lord of Bosnia
*Pau ...
's 1799 formation of the Russian-American Company
The Russian-American Company Under the High Patronage of His Imperial Majesty (russian: Под высочайшим Его Императорского Величества покровительством Российская-Американс� ...
obviated viceroys in the colonization of the northwestern New World.
Other viceroyalties
French colonies
New France, in present Canada, had a single governor:
* Jacques Cartier: 24 July 1534 – 15 January 1541
Thereafter it had lieutenants-general and viceroys:
* Jean François de la Rocquet, sieur de Roberval ( 1500 – 1560): 15 January 1541 – September 1543)
* ''interregnum'' September 1543 – 3 January 1578
* Troilus de Mesgouez, marquis de la Roche-Mesgouez (died February 1606): viceroy from 3 January 1578, lieutenant-general from 12 January 1598
* Jean de Biencourt, sieur de Poutrincourt, baron de St. Just (1557–1615): February 1606 – 1614
Next were a series of ''viceroys'' (resident in France) from 8 October 1611 to 1672. Later there were governors and governors-general.
The president of France
The president of France, officially the president of the French Republic (french: Président de la République française), is the executive head of state of France, and the commander-in-chief of the French Armed Forces. As the presidency i ...
retains, '' ex officio'', the title of Co-Prince in the neighboring microstate of Andorra (a post previously occupied by the king of France) and continues to send a personal representative
In common law jurisdictions, a personal representative or legal personal representative is a person appointed by a court to administer the estate of another person. If the estate being administered is that of a deceased person, the personal repres ...
, a ''de facto'' viceroy to rule on their behalf (as does their co-ruler, the Bishop of Urgell
The Diocese of Urgell is a diocese in Catalonia (Spain) and Andorra in the historical County of Urgell, ).
The French position of "adjunct département
In the administrative divisions of France, the department (french: département, ) is one of the three levels of government under the national level (" territorial collectivities"), between the administrative regions and the communes. Ninety ...
director, delegate for the sea and coast of the Atlantic Pyrenees and Landes" carries the title of "viceroy of Pheasant Island
Pheasant Island (french: Île des Faisans/Île de la Conférence, es, Isla de los Faisanes, eu, Konpantzia, ) is an uninhabited river island in the Bidasoa river, located between France and Spain, whose administration alternates between the ...
".
Pheasant Island is a French-Spanish condominium on the river Bidasoa
__NOTOC__
The Bidasoa (, ; french: Bidassoa, ) is a river in the Basque Country of northern Spain and southern France that runs largely south to north. Named as such downstream of the village of Oronoz-Mugairi (municipality of Baztan) in the p ...
.
Italian colonies
In Italian ''viceré'': The highest colonial representatives in the "federation" of Italian East Africa (six provinces, each under a governor; together Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somaliland) were no longer styled ''high commissioner'', but ''viceroy and governor-general'' from 5 May 1936, when Italian forces occupied Ethiopia, until 27 November 1941, when the last Italian administrator surrendered to the Allies.
On 7 April 1939, Italy invaded the Kingdom of Albania (today Albania). As viceré of Albania of Victor Emmanuel III of Italy were the Marchese Francesco Jacomoni
Viceré Marchese Francesco Jacomoni di San Savino (31 August 1893 – 17 February 1973) was an Italian diplomat and minister to Albania before World War II. He was appointed governor of the Italian protectorate of Albania after its Invasion.
Bi ...
di San Savino and after his departure General Alberto Pariani
Alberto is the Romance version of the Latinized form (''Albertus'') of Germanic '' Albert''. It is used in Italian, Portuguese and Spanish. The diminutive forms are ''Albertito'' in Spain or ''Albertico'' in some parts of Latin America, Alber ...
.
Ban of Bosnia
Ban Borić was the first ruler and viceroy of Bosnia, appointed by Géza II of Hungary by 1154. His war affairs are documented as he fought several notable battles. He also maintained ties with knights Templar
, colors = White mantle with a red cross
, colors_label = Attire
, march =
, mascot = Two knights riding a single horse
, equipment ...
and donated lands in Bosnia and Slavonia to their order. His own biological brother Dominic was on record as a Knight Templar
, colors = White mantle with a red cross
, colors_label = Attire
, march =
, mascot = Two knights riding a single horse
, equipment ...
.
Due to his vast powers over Bosnian politics and essential veto
A veto is a legal power to unilaterally stop an official action. In the most typical case, a president or monarch vetoes a bill to stop it from becoming law. In many countries, veto powers are established in the country's constitution. Veto ...
powers, the modern-day position of the high representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina has been compared to that of a viceroy.
Ban of Croatia
From the earliest medieval period in the Kingdom of Croatia, the position of viceroy was held by Ban of Croatia
Ban of Croatia ( hr, Hrvatski ban) was the title of local rulers or office holders and after 1102, viceroys of Croatia. From the earliest periods of the Croatian state, some provinces were ruled by bans as a ruler's representative (viceroy) an ...
who acted as king's representative in Croatian lands and supreme commander of Croatian army. In the 18th century, Croatian bans eventually become chief government officials in Croatia. They were at the head of Ban's Government, effectively the first prime ministers of Croatia. The last ban held his position until 1941 and the collapse of Yugoslavia in World War II.
Sardinia
Ancient antecedents
An equivalent office, called the Exarch, was created in the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire towards the end of the sixth century for governors of important areas too far from the imperial capital of Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya ( Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis ( ...
to receive regular instruction or reinforcement. The chosen governors of these provinces were empowered to act in place of the monarch (hence ''ex-'' "outside", ''arch'' "ruler") with more discretion and autonomy than was granted other categories of governor. This was an extraordinary break from the centralized traditions of the Roman Empire and was an early example of the principle of viceroyalty.
Non-Western counterparts
As with many princely and administrative titles, viceroy is often used, generally unofficially, to render somewhat equivalent titles and offices in non-western cultures.
Africa
In cultures all over the continent of Africa, the role of viceroy has been subsumed into a hereditary noble as opposed to strictly administrative position. In the Arabo-Berber north, for example, the title of Khalifa is often used by individuals who derive their authority to rule from someone else in much the same way as a viceroy would. Elsewhere, subordinate ''inkosi
Inkosi, otherwise appearing as Nkosi, is the Zulu and Xhosa for chieftain in Southern Africa. Inkosikazi is the equivalent term for a chieftess.
An inkosi that has authority over several subordinate inkosis is traditionally referred to as an In ...
s'' under the rule of a paramount chief like the King of the Zulu Nation
This article lists the Zulu monarchs, including chieftains and kings of the Zulu royal family from their earliest known history up to the present time.
Pre-Zulu
The Zulu King lineage stretches to as far as Luzumana, who is believed to have li ...
of Southern Africa
Southern Africa is the southernmost subregion of the African continent, south of the Congo and Tanzania. The physical location is the large part of Africa to the south of the extensive Congo River basin. Southern Africa is home to a number o ...
or subordinate '' baales'' in the realms of the reigning obas of West African Yorubaland
Yorubaland () is the homeland and cultural region of the Yoruba people in West Africa. It spans the modern-day countries of Nigeria, Togo and Benin, and covers a total land area of 142,114 km2 or about 60% of the land area of Ghana. Of this ...
continue to occupy statutorily recognized positions in the contemporary countries of South Africa
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the Atlantic Ocean, South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the ...
and Nigeria
Nigeria ( ), , ig, Naìjíríyà, yo, Nàìjíríà, pcm, Naijá , ff, Naajeeriya, kcg, Naijeriya officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf o ...
as the customary representatives of their respective principals in the various areas that are under their immediate control.
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire had a system of administration which involved both official governors appointed from the capital, and local officials ( zamindars). Subahdars were the former, and can be seen as equivalents of viceroys, governing the provinces ( subahs) by appointment from the capital. Mansabdars were military governors who were also appointed to provincial government, but they were appointed for military rather than civilian government.
Maratha Empire
Marathas from the time of Shivaji sent various empire insiders to run foreign parts such as present day Tamil Nadu, Gujarat
Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, where the Maratha empire extended.
Ottoman Empire
The Khedive of Egypt, especially during the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha (1805–1848). This officer established an almost autonomous regime in Egypt, which officially still was under Ottoman rule. Although Mehemet Ali/Muhammad Ali used different symbols to mark his independence from the Sublime Porte
The Sublime Porte, also known as the Ottoman Porte or High Porte ( ota, باب عالی, Bāb-ı Ālī or ''Babıali'', from ar, باب, bāb, gate and , , ), was a synecdoche for the central government of the Ottoman Empire.
History
The name ...
, he never openly declared himself independent. Adopting the title of viceroy was yet another way to walk the thin line between challenging the Sultan's power explicitly and respecting his jurisdiction. Muhammad Ali Pasha's grandson, Ismail Pasha, subsequently received the title of Khedive which was almost an equivalent to viceroy.
Other titles, such as Sharif
Sharīf ( ar, شريف, 'noble', 'highborn'), also spelled shareef or sherif, feminine sharīfa (), plural ashrāf (), shurafāʾ (), or (in the Maghreb) shurfāʾ, is a title used to designate a person descended, or claiming to be descended, f ...
(as in the Sharifate of Mecca), or Khan (as in the Crimean Khanate
The Crimean Khanate ( crh, , or ), officially the Great Horde and Desht-i Kipchak () and in old European historiography and geography known as Little Tartary ( la, Tartaria Minor), was a Crimean Tatar state existing from 1441 to 1783, the long ...
or the Khanate of Kazan
The Khanate of Kazan ( tt, Казан ханлыгы, Kazan xanlıgı; russian: Казанское ханство, Kazanskoye khanstvo) was a medieval Tatar Turkic state that occupied the territory of former Volga Bulgaria between 1438 and 1552 ...
), denoted hereditary rulers of Ottoman vassal states, under the Sultan's titles of Caliph
A caliphate or khilāfah ( ar, خِلَافَة, ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; ar, خَلِيفَة , ), a person considered a political-religious successor to th ...
and Great Khan
Khagan or Qaghan (Mongolian:; or ''Khagan''; otk, 𐰴𐰍𐰣 ), or , tr, Kağan or ; ug, قاغان, Qaghan, Mongolian Script: ; or ; fa, خاقان ''Khāqān'', alternatively spelled Kağan, Kagan, Khaghan, Kaghan, Khakan, Khakhan ...
, respectively.
Titles such as pasha, beylerbey, bey, and agha denote officials who were, at least nominally, appointed to their positions by the Sublime Porte
The Sublime Porte, also known as the Ottoman Porte or High Porte ( ota, باب عالی, Bāb-ı Ālī or ''Babıali'', from ar, باب, bāb, gate and , , ), was a synecdoche for the central government of the Ottoman Empire.
History
The name ...
rather than hereditary privilege. Pashas
Pasha, Pacha or Paşa ( ota, پاشا; tr, paşa; sq, Pashë; ar, باشا), in older works sometimes anglicized as bashaw, was a higher rank in the Ottoman political and military system, typically granted to governors, generals, dignita ...
and beylerbeys were appointed to govern provinces called eyalets, until the promulgation of the Vilayet Law
The 1864 Vilayet Law ( ota, ولایت نظامنامهسی, ; french: Loi des vilayets, group=note), also known as the Provincial Reform Law, was introduced during the Tanzimat era of the late Ottoman Empire. This era of administration was ma ...
in 1867 ended the eyalet system, replacing it with more centrally-controlled vilayets. the beylerbey of the Rumelia Eyalet
The Eyalet of Rumeli, or Eyalet of Rumelia ( ota, ایالت روم ایلی, ), known as the Beylerbeylik of Rumeli until 1591, was a first-level province ('' beylerbeylik'' or ''eyalet'') of the Ottoman Empire encompassing most of the Balkans (" ...
was the only provincial governor entitled to a seat in the Imperial Council, but only when a matter fell within his jurisdiction.
Vietnamese Empire
The post of Tổng Trấn (''governor of all military provinces'') was a political post in the early period of the Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty (1802–1830). From 1802, under the reign of emperor Gia Long, there were two ''Tổng Trấn'' who administered Vietnam's northern part named Bắc thành with administrative center in Hanoi and the southern part Gia Định thành with administrative center in Gia Định, while Nguyen emperors ruled only the central region Kinh Kỳ from capital Phú Xuân
Phú Xuân (富春) was the historic capital of the Nguyễn lords, the Tây Sơn dynasty, and later became the Nguyễn dynasty's capital (renamed Huế).
History
In 1306, the King of Champa Chế Mân offered Vietnam two Chăm prefectures, Ô a ...
. ''Tổng Trấn'' is sometimes translated to English as viceroy.[Philip Taylor (2004)]
Goddess on the rise: pilgrimage and popular religion in Vietnam
University of Hawaii Press
A university () is an institution of higher (or tertiary) education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines. Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs. In the United States, th ...
, p. 36. In 1830, emperor Minh Mạng abolished the post in order to increase the imperial direct ruling power in all over Vietnam.
Chinese empires
During the Han, Ming and Qing dynasties, there existed positions of viceroys having control over various provinces (e.g., Liangguang
Liangguang (; Chinese postal romanization, Postal romanization: Liangkwang) is a Chinese language, Chinese term for the Provinces of China, province of Guangdong and the former province and present Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region o ...
= Guangdong
Guangdong (, ), alternatively romanized as Canton or Kwangtung, is a coastal province in South China on the north shore of the South China Sea. The capital of the province is Guangzhou. With a population of 126.01 million (as of 2020) ...
and Guangxi, Huguang = Hubei
Hubei (; ; alternately Hupeh) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, and is part of the Central China region. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Dongting Lake. The ...
and Hunan
Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi ...
).
Siam
In Siam before 1885, the title was used for the heir-apparent or heir presumptive (Thai: กรมพระราชวังบวรสถานมงคล) The title was abolished and replaced with that of the Crown Prince of Siam.
See also
*Governor
A governor is an administrative leader and head of a polity or political region, ranking under the head of state and in some cases, such as governors-general, as the head of state's official representative. Depending on the type of political ...
* Governor-General
*Regent
A regent (from Latin : ruling, governing) is a person appointed to govern a state '' pro tempore'' (Latin: 'for the time being') because the monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge the powers and duties of the monarchy ...
* Vicegerent
* Naib
Notes
Sources
*Aznar, Daniel/Hanotin, Guillaume/May, Niels F. (dir.), À la place du roi. Vice-rois, gouverneurs et ambassadeurs dans les monarchies française et espagnole (XVIe-XVIIIe siècles). Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 2014.
*Elliott, J. H., ''Imperial Spain, 1469–1716''. London: Edward Arnold, 1963.
*Fisher, Lillian Estelle. ''Viceregal Administration in the Spanish American Colonies''. Berkeley, University of California Press
The University of California Press, otherwise known as UC Press, is a publishing house associated with the University of California that engages in academic publishing. It was founded in 1893 to publish scholarly and scientific works by facult ...
, 1926.
*Harding, C. H., ''The Spanish Empire in America''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1947.
*
Further reading
* Andrada (undated). ''The Life of Dom John de Castro: The Fourth Vice Roy of India''. Jacinto Freire de Andrada. Translated into English by Peter Wyche. (1664) Henry Herrington, New Exchange, London. Facsimile edition (1994) AES Reprint, New Delhi. .
h''rono.ru'': namestnik
{{Authority control
Gubernatorial titles
Noble titles
Spanish colonization of the Americas
*
Positions of subnational authority
Titles of national or ethnic leadership
Portuguese colonization of the Americas