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A troubadour (, ; oc, trobador ) was a composer and performer of
Old Occitan Old Occitan ( oc, occitan ancian, label= Modern Occitan, ca, occità antic), also called Old Provençal, was the earliest form of the Occitano-Romance languages, as attested in writings dating from the eighth through the fourteenth centuries. Ol ...
lyric poetry during the
High Middle Ages The High Middle Ages, or High Medieval Period, was the periodization, period of European history that lasted from AD 1000 to 1300. The High Middle Ages were preceded by the Early Middle Ages and were followed by the Late Middle Ages, which ended ...
(1100–1350). Since the word ''troubadour'' is etymologically masculine, a female troubadour is usually called a '' trobairitz''. The troubadour school or tradition began in the late 11th century in Occitania, but it subsequently spread to the Italian and Iberian Peninsulas. Under the influence of the troubadours, related movements sprang up throughout Europe: the Minnesang in Germany, '' trovadorismo'' in Galicia and
Portugal Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of th ...
, and that of the trouvères in northern France.
Dante Alighieri Dante Alighieri (; – 14 September 1321), probably baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri and often referred to as Dante (, ), was an Italian poet, writer and philosopher. His '' Divine Comedy'', originally called (modern Italian: ...
in his '' De vulgari eloquentia'' defined the troubadour lyric as ''fictio rethorica musicaque poita'': rhetorical, musical, and poetical fiction. After the "classical" period around the turn of the 13th century and a mid-century resurgence, the art of the troubadours declined in the 14th century and around the time of the Black Death (1348) it died out. The texts of troubadour songs deal mainly with themes of chivalry and courtly love. Most were metaphysical, intellectual, and formulaic. Many were humorous or vulgar satires. Works can be grouped into three styles: the '' trobar leu'' (light), '' trobar ric'' (rich), and '' trobar clus'' (closed). Likewise there were many genres, the most popular being the '' canso'', but '' sirventes'' and '' tensos'' were especially popular in the post-classical period.


Etymology

The English word ''troubadour'' was borrowed from the French word first recorded in 1575 in an historical context to mean "langue d'oc poet at the court in the 12th and 13th century" ( Jean de Nostredame, ''Vies des anciens Poètes provençaux'', p. 14 in Gdf. Compl.). The first use and earliest form of ''troubador'' is ''trobadors'', found in a 12th-century Occitan text by Cercamon. The French word itself is borrowed from the Occitan ''trobador''. It is the
oblique case In grammar, an oblique ( abbreviated ; from la, casus obliquus) or objective case (abbr. ) is a nominal case other than the nominative case, and sometimes, the vocative. A noun or pronoun in the oblique case can generally appear in any role ex ...
of the nominative ''trobaire'' "composer", related to ''trobar'' "to compose, to discuss, to invent" ( Wace, ''Brut'', editions I. Arnold, 3342). ''Trobar'' may come, in turn, from the hypothetical
Late Latin Late Latin ( la, Latinitas serior) is the scholarly name for the form of Literary Latin of late antiquity.Roberts (1996), p. 537. English dictionary definitions of Late Latin date this period from the , and continuing into the 7th century in t ...
*''tropāre'' "to compose, to invent a poem" by regular phonetic change. This reconstructed form is based on the Latin root ''tropus'', meaning a
trope Trope or tropes may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media * Trope (cinema), a cinematic convention for conveying a concept * Trope (literature), a figure of speech or common literary device * Trope (music), any of a variety of different things ...
. In turn, the Latin word derives ultimately from Greek (''trópos''), meaning "turn, manner".Chaytor
Part 1.
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Intervocal In phonetics and phonology, an intervocalic consonant is a consonant that occurs between two vowels. Intervocalic consonants are often associated with lenition, a phonetic process that causes consonants to weaken and eventually disappear entir ...
Latin shifted regularly to in Occitan (cf. Latin ''sapere'' → Occitan ''saber'', French ''savoir'' "to know"). The Latin suffix ''-ātor'', ''-ātōris'' explains the Occitan suffix, according to its
declension In linguistics, declension (verb: ''to decline'') is the changing of the form of a word, generally to express its syntactic function in the sentence, by way of some inflection. Declensions may apply to nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and ...
and accentuation: Gallo-Romance *''tropātor'' → Occitan ''trobaire'' (subject case) and *''tropātōre''Allières 49. → Occitan ''trobador'' (oblique case). There is an alternative theory to explain the meaning of ''trobar'' as "to compose, to discuss, to invent". It has the support of some historians, specialists of literature, and musicologists to justify the troubadours' origins in Arabic Andalusian musical practices. According to them, the Arabic word ''ṭaraba'' "music" (from the triliteral root ''ṭ–r–b'' "provoke emotion, excitement, agitation; make music, entertain by singing" as in , ''ṭarab ʾandalusī'') could partly be the etymon of the verb ''trobar''. Another Arabic root had already been proposed before: ''ḍ–r–b'' () "strike", by extension "play a musical instrument". They entertain the possibility that the nearly homophonous ''ḍ–r–b'' root may have contributed to the sense of the newly coined Romance verb ''trobar''. Some proponents of this theory argue, only on cultural grounds, that both etymologies may well be correct, and that there may have been a conscious poetic exploitation of the phonological coincidence between ''trobar'' and the triliteral Arabic root ''ṭ–r–b'' when Sufi Islamic musical forms with a love theme first spread from
Al-Andalus Al-Andalus translit. ; an, al-Andalus; ast, al-Ándalus; eu, al-Andalus; ber, ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ, label= Berber, translit=Andalus; ca, al-Àndalus; gl, al-Andalus; oc, Al Andalús; pt, al-Ândalus; es, al-Ándalus () was the M ...
to southern France. It has also been pointed out that the concepts of "finding", "music", "love", and "ardour"—the precise semantic field attached to the word troubadour—are allied in Arabic under a single root ''w–j–d'' () that plays a major role in Sufic discussions of music, and that the word troubadour may in part reflect this. Nevertheless, the linguistic facts do not support a hypothetical theory: the word ''trover'' is mentioned in French as early as the 10th century before ''trobar'' in Occitan (see above) and the word ''trovere'' → ''trouvère'' appears almost simultaneously in French as ''trobador'' in Occitan (see above). In archaic and classical troubadour poetry, the word is only used in a mocking sense, having more or less the meaning of "somebody who makes things up". Cercamon writes: :''Ist trobador, entre ver e mentir,'' :''Afollon drutz e molhers et espos,'' :''E van dizen qu'Amors vay en biays'' ::(These troubadours, between truth and lies/corrupt lovers, women and husbands, / and keep saying that Love proceeds obliquely).
Peire d'Alvernha Peire d'Alvernhe or d'Alvernha (''Pèire'' in modern Occitan; b. c. 1130) was an Auvergnat troubadour (active 1149–1170) with twenty-oneGaunt and Kay, 287. or twenty-fourEgan, 72.Aubrey, ''The Music of the Troubadours'', 8. surviving works. ...
also begins his famous mockery of contemporary authors ''cantarai d'aquest trobadors'', after which he proceeds to explain why none of them is worth anything. When referring to themselves seriously, troubadours almost invariably use the word ''chantaire'' ("singer").


Origins

The early study of the troubadours focused intensely on their origins. No academic consensus was ever achieved in the area. Today, one can distinguish at least eleven competing theories (the adjectives used below are a blend from the Grove Dictionary of Music and Roger Boase's ''The Origins and Meaning of Courtly Love''): *''Arabic'' (also ''Arabist'' or ''Hispano-Arabic'')
The sixteenth century Italian historian Giammaria Barbieri was perhaps the first to suggest Arabian influences on the music of the troubadours. Later scholars like J.B. Trend have asserted that the poetry of troubadours is connected to Arabic poetry written in the Iberian Peninsula, while others have attempted to find direct evidence of this influence. In examining the works of William IX of Aquitaine, Évariste Lévi-Provençal and other scholars found three lines that they believed were in some form of Arabic, indicating a potential Andalusian origin for his works. The scholars attempted to translate the lines in question, though the medievalist Istvan Frank contended that the lines were not Arabic at all, but instead the result of the rewriting of the original by a later scribe. Scholars like
Ramón Menéndez Pidal Ramón Menéndez Pidal (; 13 March 1869 – 14 November 1968) was a Spanish philologist and historian."Ramon Menendez Pidal", ''Almanac of Famous People'' (2011) ''Biography in Context'', Gale, Detroit He worked extensively on the history of t ...
stated that the troubadour tradition was created by William, who had been influenced by Moorish music and poetry while fighting with the
Reconquista The ' ( Spanish, Portuguese and Galician for "reconquest") is a historiographical construction describing the 781-year period in the history of the Iberian Peninsula between the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in 711 and the fall of the N ...
. However, George T. Beech states that there is only one documented battle that William fought in the Iberian Peninsula, and it occurred towards the end of his life. Beech adds that while the sources of William's inspirations are uncertain, he and his father did have individuals within their extended family with Iberian origins, and he may have been friendly with some Europeans who could speak the Arabic language. Regardless of William's personal involvement in the tradition's creation,
Magda Bogin Magda Bogin is a New York-based writer and literary translator who has produced a body of work that straddles fiction, poetry, opera and non-fiction. Born in Manhattan, she has lived and worked extensively in Mexico, France, Italy and Russia. The ...
states that Arab poetry was likely one of several influences on European "courtly love poetry", citing Ibn Hazm's " The Ring of the Dove" as an example of a similar Arab tradition. Methods of transmission from Arab Iberia to the rest of Europe did exist, such as the
Toledo School of Translators The Toledo School of Translators ( es, Escuela de Traductores de Toledo) is the group of scholars who worked together in the city of Toledo during the 12th and 13th centuries, to translate many of the Judeo-Islamic philosophies and scientific w ...
, though it only began translating major romances from Arabic into Latin in the second half of the thirteenth century, with objectionable sexual content removed in deference to the
Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwide . It is am ...
. *''Bernardine-Marianist'' or ''Christian''
According to this theory, it was the theology espoused by
Bernard of Clairvaux Bernard of Clairvaux, O. Cist. ( la, Bernardus Claraevallensis; 109020 August 1153), venerated as Saint Bernard, was an abbot, mystic, co-founder of the Knights Templars, and a major leader in the reformation of the Benedictine Order through t ...
and the increasingly important Mariology that most strongly influenced the development of the troubadour genre. Specifically, the emphasis on religious and spiritual love, disinterestedness, mysticism, and devotion to Mary explained "courtly love". The emphasis of the reforming Robert of Arbrissel on "matronage" to achieve his ends can explain the troubadour attitude towards women. Chronologically, however, this hypothesis is hard to sustain (the forces believed to have given rise to the phenomenon arrived later than it). But the influence of Bernardine and Marian theology can be retained without the origins theory. This theory was advanced early by Eduard Wechssler and further by Dmitri Scheludko (who emphasises the
Cluniac Reform The Cluniac Reforms (also called the Benedictine Reform) were a series of changes within medieval monasticism of the Western Church focused on restoring the traditional monastic life, encouraging art, and caring for the poor. The movement began ...
) and Guido Errante. Mario Casella and Leo Spitzer have added " Augustinian" influence to it. *''Celtic'' or ''chivalric-matriarchal''
The survival of pre-Christian sexual ''mores'' and warrior codes from matriarchal societies, be they Celtic, Germanic, or Pictish, among the aristocracy of Europe can account for the idea (fusion) of "courtly love". The existence of pre-Christian matriarchy has usually been treated with scepticism as has the persistence of underlying paganism in high medieval Europe, though the Celts and Germanic tribes were certainly less patriarchal than the Greco-Romans. *''Classical Latin''
The classical Latin theory emphasises parallels between
Ovid Pūblius Ovidius Nāsō (; 20 March 43 BC – 17/18 AD), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Augustan literature (ancient Rome), Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom ...
, especially his ''Amores'' and ''Ars amatoria'', and the lyric of courtly love. The ''aetas ovidiana'' that predominated in the 11th century in and around Orléans, the quasi-
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the esta ...
nian ideology that held sway in the Imperial court, and the scraps of
Plato Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
then available to scholars have all been cited as classical influences on troubadour poetry. *(''Crypto-'')''Cathar''
According to this thesis, troubadour poetry is a reflection of Cathar religious doctrine. While the theory is supported by the traditional and near-universal account of the decline of the troubadours coinciding with the suppression of Catharism during the Albigensian Crusade (first half of the 13th century), support for it has come in waves. The explicitly Catholic meaning of many early troubadour works also works against the theory. *''Liturgical''
The troubadour lyric may be a development of the Christian liturgy and hymnody. The influence of the Song of Songs has even been suggested. There is no preceding Latin poetry resembling that of the troubadours. On those grounds, no theory of the latter's origins in classical or post-classical Latin can be constructed, but that has not deterred some, who believe that a pre-existing Latin corpus must merely be lost to us. That many troubadours received their grammatical training in Latin through the Church (from ''clerici'', clerics) and that many were trained musically by the Church is well-attested. The musical school of Saint Martial's at Limoges has been singled out in this regard. "Para-liturgical"
trope Trope or tropes may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media * Trope (cinema), a cinematic convention for conveying a concept * Trope (literature), a figure of speech or common literary device * Trope (music), any of a variety of different things ...
s were in use there in the era preceding the troubadours' appearance. *''Feudal-social'' or ''-sociological''
This theory or set of related theories has gained ground in the 20th century. It is more a methodological approach to the question than a theory; it asks not from where the content or form of the lyric came but rather in what situation or circumstances did it arise.Menocal, 47. Under Marxist influence,
Erich Köhler Erich Köhler (June 27, 1892 – October 23, 1958) was a German politician. He was the 1st President of the Bundestag from 7 September 1949 to 18 October 1950. Köhler co-founded the Christian Democratic Union (Germany) in 1945. He was elected a ...
, Marc Bloch, and
Georges Duby Georges Duby (7 October 1919 – 3 December 1996) was a French historian who specialised in the social and economic history of the Middle Ages. He ranks among the most influential medieval historians of the twentieth century and was one of Fran ...
have suggested that the "essential hegemony" in the castle of the lord's wife during his absence was a driving force. The use of feudal terminology in troubadour poems is seen as evidence. This theory has been developed away from sociological towards psychological explanation. *''Folklore'' or ''spring folk ritual''
According to María Rosa Menocal, Alfred Jeanroy first suggested that
folklore Folklore is shared by a particular group of people; it encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. This includes oral traditions such as tales, legends, proverbs and jokes. They include material culture, rangin ...
and oral tradition gave rise to troubadour poetry in 1883. According to F. M. Warren, it was Gaston Paris, Jeanroy's reviewer, in 1891 who first located troubadour origins in the festive dances of women hearkening the spring in the Loire Valley. This theory has since been widely discredited, but the discovery of the ''
jarcha A kharja or kharjah ( ar, خرجة tr. ''kharjah'' , meaning "final"; es, jarcha ; pt, carja ; also known as markaz), is the final refrain of a ''muwashshah'', a lyric genre of Al-Andalus (the Islamic Iberian Peninsula) written in Arabic or Mo ...
s'' raises the question of the extent of literature (oral or written) in the 11th century and earlier. *''Medieval Latin'' or ''mediolatin'' (''Goliardic'')
Hans Spanke analysed the intertextual connexion between vernacular and
medieval Latin Medieval Latin was the form of Literary Latin used in Roman Catholic Western Europe during the Middle Ages. In this region it served as the primary written language, though local languages were also written to varying degrees. Latin functioned ...
(such as
Goliardic The goliards were a group of generally young clergy in Europe who wrote satirical Latin poetry in the 12th and 13th centuries of the Middle Ages. They were chiefly clerics who served at or had studied at the universities of France, Germany, Spai ...
) songs. This theory is supported by Reto Bezzola, Peter Dronke, and musicologist Jacques Chailley. According to them, ''trobar'' means "inventing a trope", the trope being a poem where the words are used with a meaning different from their common signification, i.e. metaphor and metonymy. This poem was originally inserted in a serial of modulations ending a liturgic song. Then the trope became an autonomous piece organized in stanza form.Troubadour
''Observatoire de terminologie littéraire'', University of Limoges, France.
The influence of late 11th-century poets of the "Loire school", such as
Marbod of Rennes Marbodus, Marbod or Marbode of Rennes ( 1035 – 11 September 1123) was archdeacon and schoolmaster at Angers, France, then Bishop of Rennes in Brittany. He was a respected poet, hagiographer, and hymnologist. Biography Marbod was born near Angers ...
and Hildebert of Lavardin, is stressed in this connexion by Brinkmann. *''Neoplatonic''
This theory is one of the more intellectualising. The "ennobling effects of love" in specific have been identified as neoplatonic. It is viewed either as a strength or weakness that this theory requires a second theory about how the neoplatonism was transmitted to the troubadours; perhaps it can be coupled with one of the other origins stories or perhaps it is just peripheral. Käte Axhausen has "exploited" this theory and A. J. Denomy has linked it with the Arabist (through Avicenna) and the Cathar (through John Scotus Eriugena).


History


Early period

The earliest troubadour whose work survives is Guilhèm de Peitieus, better known as Duke William IX of Aquitaine (1071–1126). Peter Dronke, author of ''The Medieval Lyric'', however, believes that " issongs represent not the beginnings of a tradition but summits of achievement in that tradition." His name has been preserved because he was the Duke of Aquitaine, but his work plays with already established structures; Eble II of Ventadorn is often credited as a predecessor, though none of his work survives. Orderic Vitalis referred to William composing songs about his experiences on his return from the Crusade of 1101 (c. 1102). This may be the earliest reference to troubadour lyrics. Orderic also provides us (1135) with what may be the first description of a troubadour performance: an eyewitness account of William of Aquitaine.
''Picauensis uero dux ... miserias captiuitatis suae ... coram regibus et magnatis atque Christianis coetibus multotiens retulit rythmicis uersibus cum facetis modulationibus''. (X.21)

Then the Poitevin duke ... the miseries of his captivity ... before kings, magnates, and Christian assemblies many times related with rhythmic verses and witty measures.


Spread

The first half of the 12th century saw relatively few recorded troubadours. Only in the last decades of the century did troubadour activity explode. Almost half of all troubadour works that survive are from the period 1180–1220. In total, moreover, there are over 2,500 troubadour lyrics available to be studied as linguistic artifacts (Akehurst, 23). The troubadour tradition seems to have begun in western Aquitaine ( Poitou and
Saintonge Saintonge may refer to: *County of Saintonge, a historical province of France on the Atlantic coast *Saintonge (region), a region of France corresponding to the historical province Places * Saint-Genis-de-Saintonge, a commune in the Charente-Mar ...
) and Gascony, from there spreading over into eastern Aquitaine ( Limousin and Auvergne) and
Provence Provence (, , , , ; oc, Provença or ''Prouvènço'' , ) is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which extends from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the Italian border to the east; it is bo ...
. At its height it had become popular in Languedoc and the regions of Rouergue,
Toulouse Toulouse ( , ; oc, Tolosa ) is the prefecture of the French department of Haute-Garonne and of the larger region of Occitania. The city is on the banks of the River Garonne, from the Mediterranean Sea, from the Atlantic Ocean and fr ...
, and Quercy (c. 1200). Finally, in the early 13th century it began to spread into first Italy and then
Catalonia Catalonia (; ca, Catalunya ; Aranese Occitan: ''Catalonha'' ; es, Cataluña ) is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a '' nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy. Most of the territory (except the Val d'Aran) lies on the no ...
, whence to the rest of modern Spain and then Portugal. This development has been called the ''rayonnement des troubadours'' ().


Classical period

The classical period of troubadour activity lasted from about 1170 until about 1213. The most famous names among the ranks of troubadours belong to this period. During this period the lyric art of the troubadours reached the height of its popularity and the number of surviving poems is greatest from this period. During this period the '' canso'', or love song, became distinguishable as a genre. The master of the ''canso'' and the troubadour who epitomises the classical period is Bernart de Ventadorn. He was highly regarded by his contemporaries, as were
Giraut de Bornelh Giraut de Bornelh (; c. 1138 – 1215), whose first name is also spelled Guiraut and whose toponym is de Borneil or de Borneyll, was a troubadour connected to the castle of the viscount of Limoges. He is credited with the formalisation, if not the ...
, reputed by his biographer to be the greatest composer of melodies to ever live, and Bertran de Born, the master of the '' sirventes'', or political song, which became increasingly popular in this period. The classical period came to be seen by later generations, especially in the 14th and 15th centuries and outside of Occitania, as representing the high point of lyric poetry and models to be emulated. The language of the classic poets, its grammar and vocabulary, their style and themes, were the ideal to which poets of the troubadour revival in
Toulouse Toulouse ( , ; oc, Tolosa ) is the prefecture of the French department of Haute-Garonne and of the larger region of Occitania. The city is on the banks of the River Garonne, from the Mediterranean Sea, from the Atlantic Ocean and fr ...
(creation of the Consistori del Gay Saber in 1323) and their Catalan and Castilian contemporaries aspired. During the classical period the "rules" of poetic composition had first become standardised and written down, first by
Raimon Vidal Raimon Vidal de Bezaudu(n) (Catalan: ''Ramon Vidal de Besalú'') (flourished early 13th century) was a Catalan troubadour from Besalù. He is notable for authoring the first tract in a Romance language ( Occitan) on the subject of grammar and po ...
and then by Uc Faidit.


Lives

The 450 or so troubadours known to historians came from a variety of backgrounds. They made their living in a variety of ways, lived, and travelled in many different places, and were actors in many types of social context. The troubadours were not wandering entertainers. Typically, they stayed in one place for a lengthy period of time under the patronage of a wealthy nobleman or woman. Many did travel extensively, however, sojourning at one court and then another.


Status

The earliest known troubadour, the Duke of Aquitaine, came from the high nobility. He was followed immediately by two poets of unknown origins, known only by their sobriquets, Cercamon and Marcabru, and by a member of the princely class, Jaufre Rudel. Many troubadours are described in their ''vidas'' as poor knights. It was one of the most common descriptors of status:
Berenguier de Palazol Berenguier de Palazol, Palol, or Palou ( fl. 1160–1209)Aubrey, 10–11. was a Catalan troubadour from Palol in the County of Roussillon. Of his total output twelve ''cansos'' survive, and a relatively high proportion—eight—w ...
,
Gausbert Amiel Gau(s)bert Amiel or Gausbertz Amiels was a 13th-century Gascon troubadour. His only surviving song ('' canso'') is ''Breu vers per tal que meins y poing'', a humorous satire of contemporary courtly poetry. This lone example of Gausbert's work is ...
,
Guilhem Ademar Guilhem Ademar (; also spelled Guillem, Adamar, or Azemar; fl. 1190/1195–1217) was a troubadour from the Gévaudan in France. He travelled between the courts of Albi, Toulouse, Narbonne, and Spain. He achieved fame enough during his life to ...
, Guiraudo lo Ros, Marcabru, Peire de Maensac, Peirol, Raimon de Miraval,
Rigaut de Berbezilh Rigaut de Berbezilh (also Berbezill or Barbesiu; french: Rigaud de Barbezieux, la, Rigaudus de Berbezillo) was a troubadour (fl. 1140–1163Aubrey, 8.Gaunt and Kay, 290.) of the petty nobility of Saintonge. He was a great influence on the Sic ...
, and
Uc de Pena Uc, Uco, or Ugo de Pena or Penna was a troubadour of the late 12th and early 13th centuries. He left behind three ''Canso (song), cansos'' and no music. His origins are found in Penne-d'Agenais, in the Rouergue.Egan, 109. According to his ''Vida ( ...
. Albertet de Sestaro is described as the son of a noble jongleur, presumably a petty noble lineage. Later troubadours especially could belong to lower classes, ranging from the middle class of merchants and "burgers" (persons of urban standing) to tradesmen and others who worked with their hands. Salh d'Escola and Elias de Barjols were described as the sons of merchants and
Elias Fonsalada Elias (de) Fonsalada (fl. late 12th/first quarter of the 13th century) was a troubadour from Bergerac in the Périgord (the Diocese of Périgueux according to his '' vida'').Egan, 32. His entire ''vida'', in original Occitan, goes: ''N'Elias Fons ...
was the son of a burger and jongleur.
Perdigon Perdigon or Perdigo (fl. 1190–1220Aubrey, p. 18.) was a troubadour from Lespéron in the Gévaudan.Egan, p. 83. Fourteen of his works survive, including three '' cansos'' with melodies.Aubrey, p. 19. He was respected and admired by contempo ...
was the son of a "poor fisherman" and
Elias Cairel Elias Cairel (or Cayrel; fl. 1204–1222) was a troubadour of international fame. Born in Sarlat in the Périgord, he first travelled with the Fourth Crusade and settled down in the Kingdom of Thessalonica at the court of Boniface of Montfer ...
of a blacksmith. Arnaut de Mareuil is specified in his ''vida'' as coming from a poor family, but whether this family was poor by noble standards or materially is not apparent. Many troubadours also possessed a clerical education. For some this was their springboard to composition, since their clerical education equipped them with an understanding of musical and poetic forms as well as vocal training. The ''vidas'' of the following troubadours note their clerical status:
Aimeric de Belenoi Aimeric de Belenoi (fl. 1215–1242 22.) was a Gascon troubadour. At least fifteen of his songs survived. Seven others were attributed to him in some medieval manuscripts. Early life Aimeric was born in the castle of Lesparra in the Bordel ...
,
Folquet de Marselha Folquet de Marselha, alternatively Folquet de Marseille, Foulques de Toulouse, Fulk of Toulouse (c. 1150 – 25 December 1231) came from a Genoese merchant family who lived in Marseille. He is known as a trobadour, and then as a fiercely anti ...
(who became a bishop),
Gui d'Ussel Gui d'Ussel, d'Ussèl, or d'Uisel (fl. 1195–1209Aubrey, 16.) was a troubadour from the Limousin. Twenty of his poems survive: eight '' cansos'', two ''pastorelas'', two ''coblas'', and eight ''tensos'', several with his relatives and includi ...
,
Guillem Ramon de Gironella Guillem Ramon de Gironella was a late thirteenth-century Catalan troubadour. His poetry, while difficult, is highly original and praised for its beauty. Guillem Ramon was from Gironella in the Berguedà. There are many persons carrying the name "R ...
,
Jofre de Foixà Jofre de Foixà (or Jaufre de Foixa) (died c. 1300) was a troubadour from Foixà in the Empordà, the second son of Bernard of Foixà. At a young age Jofre became a Franciscan and appears in that position when mentioned for the first time at M ...
(who became an abbot), Peire de Bussignac, Peire Rogier,
Raimon de Cornet Raimon de Cornet (, also spelled ''Ramon de Cornet''; fl. 1324–1340) was a fourteenth-century Toulousain priest, friar, grammarian, poet, and troubadour. He was a prolific author of verse; more than forty of his poems survive, most in Occit ...
, Uc Brunet, and Uc de Saint Circ.


''Trobadors'' and ''joglars''

The Occitan words ''trobador'' and ''trobaire'' are relatively rare compared with the verb ''trobar'' (compose, invent), which was usually applied to the writing of poetry. It signified that a poem was original to an author (''trobador'') and was not merely sung or played by one. The term was used mostly for poetry only and in more careful works, like the ''vidas'', is not generally applied to the composition of music or to singing, though the troubadour's poetry itself is not so careful. Sometime in the middle of the 12th century, however, a distinction was definitely being made between an inventor of original verse and the performers of others'. The latter were called ''joglars'' in both Occitan and Catalan, from the Latin ''ioculatores'', giving rise also to the French ''jongleur'', Castilian ''juglar'', and English juggler, which has come to refer to a more specific breed of performer. The medieval ''jongleur/joglar'' is really a minstrel. At the height of troubadour poetry (the "classical period"), troubadours are often found attacking ''jongleurs'' and at least two small genres arose around the theme: the ''ensenhamen joglaresc'' and the ''sirventes joglaresc''. These terms are debated, however, since the adjective ''joglaresc'' seems to imply "in the manner of the ''jongleurs''". Inevitably, however, pieces of these genres are verbal attacks at ''jongleurs'', in general and in specific, with named individuals being called out. It is clear, for example from the poetry of Bertran de Born, that ''jongleurs'' were performers who did not usually compose. They often performed the troubadours' songs: singing, playing instruments, dancing, and even doing acrobatics. In the late 13th century Guiraut Riquier bemoaned the inexactness of his contemporaries and wrote a letter to Alfonso X of Castile, a noted patron of literature and learning of all kinds, for clarification on the proper reference of the terms ''trobador'' and ''joglar''. According to Riquier, every vocation deserved a name of its own and the sloppy usage of ''joglar'' assured that it covered a multitude of activities, some, no doubt, with which Riquier did not wish to be associated. In the end Riquier argued—and Alfonso X seems to agree, though his "response" was probably penned by Riquier—that a ''joglar'' was a courtly entertainer (as opposed to popular or low-class one) and a troubadour was a poet and composer. Despite the distinctions noted, many troubadours were also known as jongleurs, either before they began composing or alongside.
Aimeric de Belenoi Aimeric de Belenoi (fl. 1215–1242 22.) was a Gascon troubadour. At least fifteen of his songs survived. Seven others were attributed to him in some medieval manuscripts. Early life Aimeric was born in the castle of Lesparra in the Bordel ...
, Aimeric de Sarlat, Albertet Cailla, Arnaut de Mareuil, Elias de Barjols,
Elias Fonsalada Elias (de) Fonsalada (fl. late 12th/first quarter of the 13th century) was a troubadour from Bergerac in the Périgord (the Diocese of Périgueux according to his '' vida'').Egan, 32. His entire ''vida'', in original Occitan, goes: ''N'Elias Fons ...
,
Falquet de Romans Falquet (or Folquet) de RomansFalquet always appears in Latin documents as ''Falquetus de Rotmanis'' and his Occitan name is sometimes spelled ''Falqet'', ''Falqetz'', or ''Falkez'' and ''Rotmans'' or ''Roman''. His Italian name is ''Falchetto d ...
, Guillem Magret,
Guiraut de Calanso Giraut or Guiraut de Calanso or Calanson (fl. 1202–1212)Gaunt and Kay, 286. was a Gascon troubadour in the Occitan language. Of his lyric works that remain five are '' cansos'', two '' descorts'', a '' congé'', a ''planh'', and a ''vers'' ...
, Nicoletto da Torino,
Peire Raimon de Tolosa Peire Raimon de Tolosa (or Toloza; fl. 1180–1220)Aubrey, 17. was a troubadour from the merchant class of Toulouse. He is variously referred to as ''lo Viellz'' ("the Old") and ''lo Gros'' ("the Fat"), though these are thought by some to ref ...
, Peire Rogier,
Peire de Valeira Peire de Valeira, Valeria, or Valera (fl. early–mid twelfth century) was a Gascon troubadour. Since troubadour poetry probably originated in northwest Aquitaine ( Poitou and Saintonge) and first spread—within a generation—south ...
, Peirol,
Pistoleta Pistoleta (; fl. 1185–1228) was a Provençal troubadour. His name (actually a nickname) means "little letter (epistle)" in Occitan. He left behind eleven songs, comprising nine '' cansos'' and two ''tensos''. Some of his pieces are assigned ...
,
Perdigon Perdigon or Perdigo (fl. 1190–1220Aubrey, p. 18.) was a troubadour from Lespéron in the Gévaudan.Egan, p. 83. Fourteen of his works survive, including three '' cansos'' with melodies.Aubrey, p. 19. He was respected and admired by contempo ...
, Salh d'Escola,
Uc de la Bacalaria Uc de la Bacalaria (fl. 1206) was a Limousin troubadour from La Bachellerie near Uzerche, the home town of Gaucelm Faidit. According to his '' vida'', he was a jongleur who travelled infrequently and was hardly known. He composed '' cansos'', ''ten ...
, Uc Brunet, and Uc de Saint Circ were jongleur-troubadours.


''Vidas'' and ''razos''

A ''vida'' is a brief prose biography, written in Occitan, of a troubadour. The word ''vida'' means "life" in Occitan. In the
chansonnier A chansonnier ( ca, cançoner, oc, cançonièr, Galician and pt, cancioneiro, it, canzoniere or ''canzoniéro'', es, cancionero) is a manuscript or printed book which contains a collection of chansons, or polyphonic and monophonic settings ...
s, the manuscript collections of medieval troubadour poetry, the works of a particular author are often accompanied by a short prose biography. The ''vidas'' are important early works of vernacular prose nonfiction. Nevertheless, it appears that many of them derive their facts from literal readings of their objects' poems, which leaves their historical reliability in doubt. Most of the ''vidas'' were composed in Italy in the 1220s, many by Uc de Saint Circ. A ''razo'' (from Occitan for "reason") was a similar short piece of Occitan prose detailing the circumstances of a particular composition. A ''razo'' normally introduced the poem it explained; it might, however, share some of the characteristics of a ''vida''. The ''razos'' suffer from the same problems as the ''vidas'' in terms of reliability. Many are likewise the work of Uc de Saint Circ.


''Podestà''-troubadours

A phenomenon arose in Italy, recognised around the turn of the 20th century by Giulio Bertoni, of men serving in several cities as '' podestàs'' on behalf of either the Guelph or Ghibelline party and writing political verse in Occitan rhyme. These figures generally came from the urban middle class. They aspired to high culture and though, unlike the nobility, they were not patrons of literature, they were its disseminators and its readers. The first ''podestà''-troubadour was
Rambertino Buvalelli Rambertino di Guido Buvalelli (1170 or 1180 – September 1221), a Bolognese judge, statesman, diplomat, and poet, was the earliest of the ''podestà''-troubadours of thirteenth-century Lombardy. He served at one time or other as ''podestà ...
, possibly the first troubadour native to the Italian Peninsula, who was ''podestà'' of Genoa between 1218 and 1221. Rambertino, a Guelph, served at one time or another as ''podestà'' of
Brescia Brescia (, locally ; lmo, link=no, label= Lombard, Brèsa ; lat, Brixia; vec, Bressa) is a city and '' comune'' in the region of Lombardy, Northern Italy. It is situated at the foot of the Alps, a few kilometers from the lakes Garda and Iseo ...
,
Milan Milan ( , , Lombard: ; it, Milano ) is a city in northern Italy, capital of Lombardy, and the second-most populous city proper in Italy after Rome. The city proper has a population of about 1.4 million, while its metropolitan city ...
,
Parma Parma (; egl, Pärma, ) is a city in the northern Italian region of Emilia-Romagna known for its architecture, music, art, prosciutto (ham), cheese and surrounding countryside. With a population of 198,292 inhabitants, Parma is the second m ...
,
Mantua Mantua ( ; it, Mantova ; Lombard and la, Mantua) is a city and '' comune'' in Lombardy, Italy, and capital of the province of the same name. In 2016, Mantua was designated as the Italian Capital of Culture. In 2017, it was named as the Eur ...
, and Verona. It was probably during his three-year tenure there that he introduced Occitan lyric poetry to the city, which was later to develop a flourishing Occitan literary culture. Among the ''podestà''-troubadours to follow Rambertino, four were from Genoa: the Guelphs
Luca Grimaldi Luca Grimaldi (fl. 1240–1275) was a Genoese troubadour and Guelph politician and diplomat. None of his poetic work survives. Jean de Nostredame listed one ''Luco ou Lucas de Grymaud, natif de Grymauld en Provence'' as a Provençal troub ...
, who also served in Florence, Milan, and Ventimiglia, and Luchetto Gattilusio, who served in Milan, Cremona, and Bologna, and the Ghibellines Perceval Doria, who served in
Arles Arles (, , ; oc, label= Provençal, Arle ; Classical la, Arelate) is a coastal city and commune in the South of France, a subprefecture in the Bouches-du-Rhône department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, in the former province ...
, Avignon, Asti, and
Parma Parma (; egl, Pärma, ) is a city in the northern Italian region of Emilia-Romagna known for its architecture, music, art, prosciutto (ham), cheese and surrounding countryside. With a population of 198,292 inhabitants, Parma is the second m ...
, and
Simon Doria Simon Doria ( it, Simone, oc, Symon; fl. 1250–1293) was a Genoese statesman and man of letters, of the important Doria family. As a troubadour he wrote six surviving ''tensos'', four with Lanfranc Cigala, one incomplete with Jacme Grils, ...
, sometime ''podestà'' of Savona and Albenga. Among the non-Genoese ''podestà''-troubadours was Alberico da Romano, a nobleman of high rank who governed Vicenza and Treviso as variously a Ghibelline and a Guelph. He was a patron as well as a composer of Occitan lyric. Mention should be made of the Provençal troubadour
Isnart d'Entrevenas Isnart or Iznart d'Entrevenas or d'Antravenas (floruit, fl. 1203–1225) was a Provence, Provençal troubadour, the son of Raimon d'Agout, a patron of troubadours, and husband of Beatrice, daughter of Jaufre Reforzat de Trets. Isnart held land ...
, who was ''podestà'' of Arles in 1220, though he does not fit the phenomenon Giulio Bertoni first identified in Italy.


Trobairitz

The ''trobairitz'' were the female troubadours, the first female composers of secular music in the Western tradition. The word ''trobairitz'' was first used in the 13th-century '' Romance of Flamenca'' and its derivation is the same as that of ''trobaire'' but in feminine form. There were also female counterparts to the ''joglars'': the '' joglaresas''. The number of trobairitz varies between sources: there were twenty or twenty-one named trobairitz, plus an additional poet known only as Domna H. There are several anonymous texts ascribed to women; the total number of trobairitz texts varies from twenty-three (Schultz-Gora), twenty-five ( Bec), thirty-six (Bruckner, White, and Shepard), and forty-six (Rieger). Only one melody composed by a trobairitz (the Comtessa de Dia) survives. Out of a total of about 450 troubadours and 2,500 troubadour works, the trobairitz and their corpus form a minor but interesting and informative portion. They are, therefore, quite well studied. The trobairitz were in most respects as varied a lot as their male counterparts, with the general exceptions of their poetic style and their provenance. They wrote predominantly ''
cansos The ''canso'' or ''canson'' or ''canzo'' () was a song style used by the troubadours. It was, by far, the most common genre used, especially by early troubadours, and only in the second half of the 13th century was its dominance challenged by ...
'' and '' tensos''; only one ''sirventes'' by a named woman, Gormonda de Monpeslier, survives (though two anonymous ones are attributed to women). One '' salut d'amor'', by a woman ( Azalais d'Altier) to a woman ( Clara d'Anduza) is also extant and one anonymous ''
planh A genre of the troubadours, the or (; "lament") is a funeral lament for "a great personage, a protector, a friend or relative, or a lady."Elisabeth Schulze-Busacker, "Topoi", in F. R. P. Akehurst and Judith M. Davis, eds., ''A Handbook of the T ...
'' is usually assigned a female authorship. They wrote almost entirely within the '' trobar leu'' style; only two poems, one by Lombarda and another Alais, Yselda, and Carenza, are usually considered to belong to the more demanding '' trobar clus''. None of the trobairitz were prolific, or if they were their work has not survived. Only two have left us more than one piece: the Comtessa de Dia, with four, and Castelloza, with three or four. One of the known trobairitz, Gaudairença, wrote a song entitled ''Coblas e dansas'', which has not survived; no other piece of hers has either. The trobairitz came almost to a woman from Occitania. There are representatives from the Auvergne,
Provence Provence (, , , , ; oc, Provença or ''Prouvènço'' , ) is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which extends from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the Italian border to the east; it is bo ...
, Languedoc, the Dauphiné,
Toulousain Toulouse ( , ; oc, Tolosa ) is the prefecture of the French department of Haute-Garonne and of the larger region of Occitania. The city is on the banks of the River Garonne, from the Mediterranean Sea, from the Atlantic Ocean and from Pari ...
, and the Limousin. One trobairitz, Ysabella, may have been born in Périgord, Northern Italy,
Greece Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders wi ...
, or Palestine. All the trobairitz whose families we know were high-born ladies; only one, Lombarda, was probably of the merchant class. All the trobairitz known by name lived around the same time: the late 12th and the early 13th century (c. 1170 – c. 1260). The earliest was probably Tibors de Sarenom, who was active in the 1150s (the date of her known composition is uncertain). The latest was either
Garsenda of Forcalquier Garsenda (french: Garsende; c. 1180 – c. 1242/1257) was the Countess of Provence as the wife of Alfonso II from 1193 and the Countess of Forcalquier in her own right from 1209 and subsequently united with Provence. She was also a patron of Occi ...
, who died in 1242, though her period of poetic patronage and composition probably occurred a quarter century earlier, or Guilleuma de Rosers, who composed a ''tenso'' with
Lanfranc Cigala Lanfranc Cigala (or Cicala) ( it, Lanfranco, oc, Lafranc; fl. 1235–1257) was a Genoese nobleman, knight, judge, and man of letters of the mid thirteenth century. He remains one of the most famous Occitan troubadours of Lombardy. Thirty-two of ...
, known between 1235 and 1257. There exist brief prose biographies—'' vidas''—for eight trobairitz: Almucs de Castelnau (actually a '' razo''), Azalais de Porcairagues, the Comtessa de Dia, Castelloza, Iseut de Capio (also a ''razo''), Lombarda, Maria de Ventadorn, and Tibors de Sarenom.


Works


Schools and styles

Three main styles of Occitan lyric poetry have been identified: the '' trobar leu'' (light), '' trobar ric'' (rich), and '' trobar clus'' (closed, hermetic). The first was by far the most common: the wording is straightforward and relatively simple compared to the ''ric'' and literary devices are less common than in the ''clus''. This style was the most accessible and it was immensely popular. The most famous poet of the ''trobar leu'' was Bernart de Ventadorn. The ''trobar clus'' regularly escapes modern scholarly interpretation. Words are commonly used metaphorically and symbolically and what a poem appears to be about on its surface is rarely what is intended by the poet or understood by audiences "in the know". The ''clus'' style was invented early by Marcabru but only favoured by a few masters thereafter. The ''trobar ric'' style is not as opaque as the ''clus'', rather it employs a rich vocabulary, using many words, rare words, invented words, and unusual, colourful wordings. Modern scholars recognise several "schools" in the troubadour tradition. Among the earliest is a school of followers of Marcabru, sometimes called the "Marcabrunian school":
Bernart Marti Bernart Marti was a troubadour, composing poems and satires in Occitan, in the mid-twelfth century. They show that he was influenced by his contemporaries Marcabru and knew Peire d'Alvernha, who, in one poem, he accused of abandoning holy orders. ...
,
Bernart de Venzac Bernart de Venzac ( fl. 1180–1210) was an obscure troubadour from Venzac near Rodez in the Rouergue. He wrote in the Marcabrunian style, leaving behind five moralising pieces (two ''cansos'' and three '' sirventes'') and one religious ' ...
,
Gavaudan GavaudanHis Occitan name is also found as ''Gavaudas'' in the accusative and, by extension, ''Gavauda'' in the nominative. Eighteenth- and nineteenth-century French scholarship used to call him ''le Vieux'' (the Old), but there is no basis for ...
, and Peire d'Alvernhe. These poets favoured the ''trobar clus'' or ''ric'' or a hybrid of the two. They were often moralising in tone and critical of contemporary courtly society. Another early school, whose style seems to have fallen out of favour, was the "Gascon school" of Cercamon,
Peire de Valeira Peire de Valeira, Valeria, or Valera (fl. early–mid twelfth century) was a Gascon troubadour. Since troubadour poetry probably originated in northwest Aquitaine ( Poitou and Saintonge) and first spread—within a generation—south ...
, and
Guiraut de Calanso Giraut or Guiraut de Calanso or Calanson (fl. 1202–1212)Gaunt and Kay, 286. was a Gascon troubadour in the Occitan language. Of his lyric works that remain five are '' cansos'', two '' descorts'', a '' congé'', a ''planh'', and a ''vers'' ...
. Cercamon was said by his biographer to have composed in the "old style" (''la uzansa antiga'') and Guiraut's songs were ''d'aquella saison'' ("of that time"). This style of poetry seems to be attached to early troubadours from Gascony and was characterised by references to nature: leaves, flowers, birds, and their songs. This Gascon "literary fad" was unpopular in
Provence Provence (, , , , ; oc, Provença or ''Prouvènço'' , ) is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which extends from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the Italian border to the east; it is bo ...
in the early 13th century, harming the reputation of the poets associated with it. In the late 13th century a school arose at Béziers, once the centre of pre-Albigensian Languedoc and of the Trencavel lordships, in the 1260s–80s. Three poets epitomise this "school": Bernart d'Auriac,
Joan Esteve En Johan Esteve de Bezers, in modern orthography Joan Esteve (fl. 1270–1288), was a troubadour from Béziers. The only chansonnier which contains his eleven works, also calls him Olier de Bezers, implying that he was perhaps a potter. All hi ...
,
Joan Miralhas Joan Miralhas was troubadour of Béziers in the late 13th century. Nothing is known of him besides this and that he wrote a ''partimen The ''partimen'' (; ca, partiment ; also known as ''partia'' or ''joc partit'') is a cognate form of the French ...
, and Raimon Gaucelm. All three were natives of Béziers and lived there. All three were members of the urban middle class and no courtesans: Miralhas was possibly a potter and Bernart was a ''mayestre'' (teacher). All three were supporters of the French king Louis IX and the French aristocracy against the native Occitan nobility. They have been described as "Gallicised". Raimon Gaucelm supported the
Eighth Crusade The Eighth Crusade was the second Crusade launched by Louis IX of France, this one against the Hafsid dynasty in Tunisia in 1270. It is also known as the Crusade of Louis IX against Tunis or the Second Crusade of Louis. The Crusade did not see an ...
and even wrote a ''planh'', the only known one of its kind, to a burgher of Béziers. Joan Esteve and Bernart both composed in support of the French in the
Aragonese Crusade The Aragonese Crusade or Crusade of Aragon, a part of the larger War of the Sicilian Vespers, was declared by Pope Martin IV against King Peter III of Aragon in 1284 and 1285. Because of the recent conquest of Sicily by Peter, Martin declar ...
. The Béziers are a shining example of the transformation of Occitania in the aftermath of the Albigensian Crusade, but also of the ability of troubadours to survive it.


Genres

Troubadours, at least after their style became established, usually followed some set of "rules", like those of the '' Leys d'amors'' (compiled between 1328 and 1337). Initially all troubadour verses were called simply ''vers'', yet this soon came to be reserved for only love songs and was later replaced by ''canso'', though the term lived on as an antique expression for the troubadours' early works and was even employed with a more technically meaning by the last generation of troubadours (mid-14th century), when it was thought to derive from the Latin word ''verus'' (truth) and was thus used to describe moralising or didactic pieces. The early troubadours developed many genres and these only proliferated as rules of composition came to be put in writing. The known genres are: *''
Alba ''Alba'' ( , ) is the Scottish Gaelic name for Scotland. It is also, in English language historiography, used to refer to the polity of Picts and Scots united in the ninth century as the Kingdom of Alba, until it developed into the Kin ...
'' (morning song) – the song of a lover as dawn approaches, often with a watchman warning of the approach of a lady's jealous husband *'' Arlabecca'' – a song defined by poetic metre, but perhaps once related to the rebec *'' Canso'', originally ''vers'', also ''chanso'' or ''canço'' – the love song, usually consisting of five or six stanzas with an
envoi Envoi or envoy in poetry is used to describe: * A short stanza at the end of a poem such as a ballad, used either to address an imagined or actual person or to comment on the preceding body of the poem. * A dedicatory poem about sending the book ...
*''
Cobla esparsa A ''cobla esparsa'' ( literally meaning "scattered stanza") in Old Occitan is the name used for a single-stanza poem in troubadour poetry. They constitute about 15% of the troubadour output, and they are the dominant form among late (after 1220) au ...
'' – a stand-alone stanza *'' Comiat'' – a song renouncing a lover * Crusade song (''canso de crozada'') – a song about the
Crusades The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were ...
, usually encouraging them *'' Dansa'' or ''balada'' – a lively dance song with a refrain *''
Descort The ''descort'' () was a form and genre of Old Occitan lyric poetry used by troubadours. It was heavily discordant in verse form and/or feeling and often used to express disagreement. It was possibly invented by Garin d'Apchier when he wrote ''Qua ...
'' – a song heavily discordant in verse form and/or feeling *'' Desdansa'' – a dance designed for sad occasions *'' Devinalh'' – a riddle or cryptogram *''
Ensenhamen An ''ensenhamen'' (; meaning "instruction" or "teaching") was an Old Occitan didactic (often lyric) poem associated with the troubadours. As a genre of Occitan literature, its limits have been open to debate since it was first defined in the 19t ...
'' – a long didactic poem, usually not divided into stanzas, teaching a moral or practical lesson *''
Enuig The , or (; "complaint, vexation") is a genre of lyric poetry practised by the troubadours. Somewhat similar to the , the was generally a litany of complaints, few of them connect topically to the others. The word "" appears frequently in suc ...
'' – a poem expressing indignation or feelings of insult *'' Escondig'' – a lover's apology *''
Estampida The estampie (french: estampie, Occitan language, Occitan and ca, estampida, it, istanpitta) is a medieval dance and Music genre, musical form which was a popular instrumental and vocal form in the 13th and 14th centuries. The name was also app ...
'' – a dance-like song *'' Gap'' – a boasting song, often presented as a challenge, often similar to modern sports chants *'' Maldit'' – a song complaining about a lady's behaviour and character *'' Partimen'' – a poetical exchange between two or more poets in which one is presented with a dilemma by another and responds *'' Pastorela'' – the tale of the love request of a
knight A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a head of state (including the Pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the Christian denomination, church or the country, especially in a military capacity. Knighthood ...
to a shepherdess *''
Planh A genre of the troubadours, the or (; "lament") is a funeral lament for "a great personage, a protector, a friend or relative, or a lady."Elisabeth Schulze-Busacker, "Topoi", in F. R. P. Akehurst and Judith M. Davis, eds., ''A Handbook of the T ...
'' – a lament, especially on the death of some important figure *'' Plazer'' – a poem expressing pleasure *'' Salut d'amor'' – a love letter addressed to another, not always one's lover *'' Serena'' – the song of a lover waiting impatiently for the evening (to consummate his love) *'' Sestina'' – highly structured verse form *'' Sirventes'' – a political poem or satire, originally put in the mouth of a paid soldier (''sirvens'') * Sonnet (''sonet'') – an Italian genre imported into Occitan verse in the 13th century *'' Tenso'' – a poetical debate which was usually an exchange between two poets, but could be fictional *'' Torneyamen'' – a poetical debate between three or more persons, often with a judge (like a tournament) *'' Viadeira'' – a traveller's complaint All these genres were highly fluid. A cross between a ''sirventes'' and a ''canso'' was a ''meg-sirventes'' (half-''sirventes''). A ''tenso'' could be "invented" by a single poet; an ''alba'' or ''canso'' could be written with religious significance, addressed to God or the Virgin; and a ''sirventes'' may be nothing more than a political attack. The ''maldit'' and the ''comiat'' were often connected as a ''maldit-comiat'' and they could be used to attack and renounce a figure other than a lady or a lover, like a commanding officer (when combined, in a way, with the ''sirventes'').
Peire Bremon Ricas Novas Peire Bremon Ricas Novas (fl. 1230–1242) was a Provençal troubadour who left behind twenty works: thirteen '' cansos'', six ''sirventes'', and one ''tenso''. His treatment of courtly love was somewhat original. Peire's ''senhal'' or nickn ...
uses the term ''mieja chanso'' (half song) and Cerverí de Girona uses a similar phrase, ''miga canço'', both to refer to a short ''canso'' and not a mixture of genres as sometimes supposed. Cerverí's ''mig'' (or ''meig'') ''vers e miga canço'' was a ''vers'' in the new sense (a moralising song) that was also highly critical and thus combined the ''canso'' and the ''sirventes''. Among the more than one hundred works of Cerverí de Girona are many songs with unique labels, which may correspond more to "titles" than "genres", but that is debatable: ''peguesca'' (nonsense), ''espingadura'' ( flageolet song), ''libel'' (legal petition), ''esdemessa'' (leap), ''somni'' (dream), ''acuyndamen'' (challenge), ''desirança'' (nostalgia), ''aniversari'' (anniversary), ''serena'' (serene). Most "Crusading songs" are classified either as ''cansos'' or ''sirventes'' but sometimes separately. Some styles became popular in other languages and in other literary or musical traditions. In
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
, the ''alba'' became the ''
aubade An aubade is a morning love song (as opposed to a serenade, intended for performance in the evening), or a song or poem about lovers separating at dawn. It has also been defined as "a song or instrumental composition concerning, accompanying, or e ...
'', the ''pastorela'' the ''
pastourelle The pastourelle (; also ''pastorelle'', ''pastorella'', or ''pastorita'' is a typically Old French lyric form concerning the romance of a shepherdess. In most of the early pastourelles, the poet knight meets a shepherdess who bests him in a bat ...
'', and the ''partimen'' the ''
jeu parti ''Jeu'' is a 2006 animated short by Georges Schwizgebel. Described as a film about the frenetic pace of modern life, ''Jeu'' is set to the scherzo of Prokofiev's Concerto for Piano No. 2, Opus 16. The film has received 12 international awards, i ...
''. The ''sestina'' became popular in
Italian literature Italian literature is written in the Italian language, particularly within Italy. It may also refer to literature written by Italians or in other languages spoken in Italy, often languages that are closely related to modern Italian, includin ...
. The troubadours were not averse to borrowing either. The ''planh'' developed out of the Latin ''
planctus A ''planctus'' (" plaint") is a lament or dirge, a song or poem expressing grief or mourning. It became a popular literary form in the Middle Ages, when they were written in Latin and in the vernacular (e.g., the '' planh'' of the troubadours). ...
'' and the sonnet was stolen from the Sicilian School. The basse danse (''bassa dansa'') was first mentioned in the troubadour tradition (c. 1324), but only as being performed by jongleurs.


Performance

Troubadours performed their own songs. Jongleurs (performers) and ''cantaires'' (singers) also performed troubadours' songs. They could work from
chansonnier A chansonnier ( ca, cançoner, oc, cançonièr, Galician and pt, cancioneiro, it, canzoniere or ''canzoniéro'', es, cancionero) is a manuscript or printed book which contains a collection of chansons, or polyphonic and monophonic settings ...
s, many of which have survived, or possibly from more rudimentary (and temporary) songbooks, none of which have survived, if they even existed. Some troubadours, like
Arnaut de Maruelh Arnaut de Mareuil (''fl.'' late 12th century) was a troubadour, composing lyric poetry in the Occitan language. Twenty-five, perhaps twenty-nine, of his songs, all '' cansos'', survive, six with music. According to Hermann Oelsner's contribution ...
, had their own jongleurs who were dedicated to singing their patron's work. Arnaut's ''joglar et cantaire'', probably both a singer and a messenger, who carried his love songs to his lady, was
Pistoleta Pistoleta (; fl. 1185–1228) was a Provençal troubadour. His name (actually a nickname) means "little letter (epistle)" in Occitan. He left behind eleven songs, comprising nine '' cansos'' and two ''tensos''. Some of his pieces are assigned ...
. The messenger was commonplace in troubadour poetry; many songs reference a messenger who will bring it to its intended ear. A troubadour often stayed with a noble patron of his own and entertained his court with his songs. Court songs could be used not only as entertainment but also as propaganda, praising the patron, mocking his enemies, encouraging his wars, teaching ethics and etiquette, and maintaining religious unity. The court was not the only venue for troubadour performance. Competitions were held from an early date. According to the ''vida'' of the
Monge de Montaudon The (Lo) Monge de Montaudon (meaning "monk of Montaudon") ( fl. 1193–1210Gaunt and Kay, Appendix I, 287.), born Pèire de Vic, was a nobleman, monk, and troubadour from the Auvergne, born at the castle of Vic-sur-Cère near Aurillac, where ...
, he received a sparrow hawk, a prized hunting bird, for his poetry from the ''cour du Puy'', some sort of poetry society associated with the court of Alfonso II of Aragon. The most famous contests were held in the twilight of the troubadours in the 14th and 15th centuries. The '' jocs florals'' held by the Consistori del Gay Saber at
Toulouse Toulouse ( , ; oc, Tolosa ) is the prefecture of the French department of Haute-Garonne and of the larger region of Occitania. The city is on the banks of the River Garonne, from the Mediterranean Sea, from the Atlantic Ocean and fr ...
, by Peter IV of Aragon at Lleida, and the Consistori de la Gaya Sciència at
Barcelona Barcelona ( , , ) is a city on the coast of northeastern Spain. It is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Catalonia, as well as the second most populous municipality of Spain. With a population of 1.6 million within c ...
awarded floral prizes to the best poetry in various categories, judging it by its accordance with a code called the '' Leys d'amors''. Troubadour songs are still performed and recorded today, albeit rarely.


Music

Troubadour songs were usually
monophonic Monaural or monophonic sound reproduction (often shortened to mono) is sound intended to be heard as if it were emanating from one position. This contrasts with stereophonic sound or ''stereo'', which uses two separate audio channels to reproduc ...
. Fewer than 300 melodies out of an estimated 2500 survive. Most were composed by the troubadours themselves. Some were set to pre-existing pieces of music.
Raimbaut de Vaqueyras __NOTOC__ Raimbaut de Vaqueiras or Vaqueyras (fl. 1180 – 1207) was a Provençal troubadour and, later in his life, knight. His life was spent mainly in Italian courtsAmelia E. Van Vleck, ''The Lyric Texts'' p. 33, in ''Handbook of the Troub ...
wrote his ''Kalenda maya'' ("The Calends of May") to music composed by jongleurs at Montferrat.


Grammars and dictionaries

Beginning in the early 13th century, the spread of Occitan verse demanded grammars and dictionaries, especially for those whose native tongue was not Occitan, such as the Catalan and Italian troubadours, and their imitators. The production of such works only increased with the academisation of the troubadour lyric in the 14th century.


Legacy


Transmission

Some 2,600 poems or fragments of poems have survived from around 450 identifiable troubadours. They are largely preserved in songbooks called ''
chansonnier A chansonnier ( ca, cançoner, oc, cançonièr, Galician and pt, cancioneiro, it, canzoniere or ''canzoniéro'', es, cancionero) is a manuscript or printed book which contains a collection of chansons, or polyphonic and monophonic settings ...
s'' made for wealthy patrons. Troubadour songs are generally referred to by their incipits, that is, their opening lines. If this is long, or after it has already been mentioned, an abbreviation of the incipit may be used for convenience. A few troubadour songs are known by "nicknames", thus ''D'un sirventes far'' by
Guilhem Figueira Guillem or Guilhem Figueira or Figera was a Languedocian jongleur and troubadour from Toulouse active at the court of the Emperor Frederick II in the 1230s.Graham-Leigh, 30. He was a close associate of both Aimery de Pégulhan and Guillem Augier ...
is commonly called the ''Sirventes contra Roma''. When a writer seeks to avoid using unglossed Occitan, the incipit of the song may be given in translation instead or a title may even be invented to reflect the theme of the work. Especially in translations designed for a popular audience, such as Ezra Pound's, English titles are commonly invented by the translator/editor. There are examples, however, of troubadour songs given Occitan titles in the manuscripts, such as an anonymous ''pastorela'' that begins ''Mentre per una ribeira'', which is entitled ''Porquieira''.


Table of chansonniers

The number of Occitan parchment chansonniers given as extant varies between authors, depending on how they treat fragmentary and multilingual manuscripts. Conventionally, fragments are classified as fragments of the surviving chansonnier they most closely resemble and not as chansonniers in their own right. Some chansonniers have received both Occitan and French letters: troubadour D is trouvère H, W is M and X is U. The lettering (''siglas'') was introduced by
Karl Bartsch Karl Friedrich Adolf Konrad Bartsch (25 February 1832, in Sprottau – 19 February 1888, in Heidelberg) was a German medievalist. He studied philology at the universities of Breslau (from 1848) and Berlin (1851/52), where he was a pupil of Wil ...
, who placed sources he considered more reliable higher in the alphabet. This system is imperfect, however, since many of the chansonniers produced for an Italian audience are heavily edited and do not necessarily more closely resemble the original compositions. While parchment chansonniers are more durable, paper ones also exist and have received lower-case ''siglas''.Paden, "Manuscripts", in Akehurst and Davis, 329.


Notes


References

*Abraham, Mary C. (2012
"The Rhetoric of the Troubadours"
Musical Offerings: Vol. 1: No. 1, Article 1. *Akehurst, F. R. P., and Davis, Judith M., edd. (1995). ''A Handbook of the Troubadours''. Berkeley: University of California Press. . *Aubrey, Elizabeth (1989). "References to Music in Old Occitan Literature." ''Acta Musicologica'', 61:2 (May–August), pp. 110–149. *Boase, Roger (1977). ''The Origin and Meaning of Courtly Love: A Critical Study of European Scholarship''. Manchester: Manchester University Press. . *Chaytor, Henry John (1912)

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. *Gaunt, Simon, and Kay, Sarah, edd. (1999) ''The Troubadours: An Introduction''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . * *Jones, W. Powell (1931). "The Jongleur Troubadours of Provence." ''PMLA'', 46:2 (June), pp. 307–311. * Menocal, María Rosa (1981)
"Close Encounters in Medieval Provence: Spain's Role in the Birth of Troubadour Poetry."
''Hispanic Review'', 49:1 (Williams Memorial Issue, Winter), pp. 43–64. *Paden, William D. (2005) "Troubadours and History" (pp. 157–182). ''The world of Eleanor of Aquitaine : literature and society in southern France between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries'', edd. Marcus Bull and Catherine Léglu. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. . * Riquer, Martín de. ''Los trovadores: historia literaria y textos''. 3 vol. Barcelona: Planeta, 1975. *Silverstein, Theodore (1949)
"Andreas, Plato, and the Arabs: Remarks on Some Recent Accounts of Courtly Love."
''Modern Philology'', 47:2 (November), pp. 117–126. *Smythe, Barbara (1966). ''Trobador Poets: Selections from the Poems of Eight Trobadors, Translated from the Provençal with Introduction & Notes.'' New York: Cooper Square Publishers. *Warren, F. M. (1912)
"The Troubadour ''Canso'' and Latin Lyric Poetry."
''Modern Philology'', 9:4 (April), pp. 469–487.


External links


Database of extant Troubadour melodiesLiterary Encyclopedia: Troubadour.The University of Naples' troubadours' text collectionComplete works of the major troubadoursBooks about Troubadours
*Said I. Abdelwahed
Courtly Site
- site on courtly love, literature, troubadours * {{Authority control Medieval performers High Middle Ages Medieval literature Occitan literature Occitan music Galician literature Galician music Occupations in music Obsolete occupations Medieval occupations