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Transpersonal psychology, or spiritual psychology, is a sub-field or school of psychology that integrates the spiritual and transcendent aspects of the human experience with the framework of
modern psychology Psychology is defined as "the scientific study of behavior and mental processes". Philosophical interest in the human mind and behavior dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Persia, Greece, China, and India. Psychology as a field of ...
. The '' transpersonal'' is defined as "experiences in which the sense of
identity Identity may refer to: * Identity document * Identity (philosophy) * Identity (social science) * Identity (mathematics) Arts and entertainment Film and television * ''Identity'' (1987 film), an Iranian film * ''Identity'' (2003 film), an ...
or
self The self is an individual as the object of that individual’s own reflective consciousness. Since the ''self'' is a reference by a subject to the same subject, this reference is necessarily subjective. The sense of having a self—or ''selfhoo ...
extends beyond (trans) the individual or personal to encompass wider aspects of humankind, life, psyche or cosmos".Walsh, R. & Vaughan, F. "On transpersonal definitions". ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 25 (2) 125-182, 1993 It has also been defined as "development beyond conventional, personal or individual levels". Issues considered in transpersonal psychology include spiritual self-development, self beyond the ego, peak experiences,
mystical experiences Scholarly approaches to mysticism include typologies of mysticism and the explanation of mystical states. Since the 19th century, mystical experience has evolved as a distinctive concept. It is closely related to " mysticism" but lays sole emphas ...
, systemic trance, spiritual crises, spiritual evolution,
religious conversion Religious conversion is the adoption of a set of beliefs identified with one particular religious denomination to the exclusion of others. Thus "religious conversion" would describe the abandoning of adherence to one denomination and affiliatin ...
,
altered states of consciousness An altered state of consciousness (ASC), also called altered state of mind or mind alteration, is any condition which is significantly different from a normal waking state. By 1892, the expression was in use in relation to hypnosis, though there ...
, spiritual practices, and other sublime and/or unusually expanded experiences of living. The discipline attempts to describe and integrate spiritual experience within modern psychological theory and to formulate new theory to encompass such experience. The Transpersonal Psychology Day is celebrated on February 27th.


Definition

Lajoie and ShapiroLajoie, D. H. & Shapiro, S. I. "Definitions of transpersonal psychology: The first twenty-three years". ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', Vol. 24, 1992 reviewed forty definitions of transpersonal psychology that had appeared in academic literature over the period from 1968 to 1991. They found that five key themes in particular featured prominently in these definitions: ''states of consciousness''; ''higher or ultimate potential''; ''beyond the ego or personal self''; ''transcendence''; and ''the spiritual''. Based upon this study the authors proposed the following definition of transpersonal psychology: "Transpersonal Psychology is concerned with the study of humanity's highest potential, and with the recognition, understanding, and realization of unitive, spiritual, and transcendent states of consciousness." In a review of previous definitions Walsh and Vaughan suggested that transpersonal psychology is an "area of psychology that focuses on the study of transpersonal experiences and related phenomena. These phenomena include the causes, effects and correlates of transpersonal experiences and development, as well as the disciplines and practices inspired by them." They have also criticised many definitions of transpersonal psychology for carrying implicit assumptions, or presuppositions, that may not necessarily define the field as a whole. Hartelius, Caplan and RardinHartelius, Glenn; Caplan, Mariana; Rardin, Mary Anne. "Transpersonal Psychology: Defining the Past, Divining the Future". ''The Humanistic Psychologist'', 35(2), 1–26, 2007 conducted a retrospective analysis of definitions of transpersonal psychology. They found three dominant themes that define the field: ''beyond-ego psychology'', ''integrative/holistic psychology'', and ''psychology of transformation''. Analysis suggested that the field has moved from the study of alternative states of consciousness to a more expanded view of human wholeness and transformation. Caplan (2009: p. 231) conveys the genesis of the discipline, states its mandate and ventures a definition: Authors close to the field has defined Transpersonal psychology as the fourth force in psychology, emerging from the third force of Humanistic psychology. The perspectives of
holism Holism () is the idea that various systems (e.g. physical, biological, social) should be viewed as wholes, not merely as a collection of parts. The term "holism" was coined by Jan Smuts in his 1926 book '' Holism and Evolution''."holism, n." OED O ...
and unity are central to the worldview of transpersonal psychology.Davis, John. "An overview of transpersonal psychology." ''The Humanistic Psychologist'', 31:2-3, 6-21, 2003


Development of the field


Origins

The thinkers who have set the stage for transpersonal studies are
William James William James (January 11, 1842 – August 26, 1910) was an American philosopher, historian, and psychologist, and the first educator to offer a psychology course in the United States. James is considered to be a leading thinker of the lat ...
,
Carl Jung Carl Gustav Jung ( ; ; 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. Jung's work has been influential in the fields of psychiatry, anthropology, archaeology, literature, ph ...
, Roberto Assagioli,
Abraham Maslow Abraham Harold Maslow (; April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist who was best known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority, cul ...
and
Stanislav Grof Stanislav "Stan" Grof is a Czech-born psychiatrist who has been living in the United States since the 1960s. Grof is one of the principal developers of transpersonal psychology and research into the use of non-ordinary states of consciousness ...
.Miller, John J. "Book review: Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology." ''Psychiatric Services'' April 01, 1998Scotton, Bruce W. "The Contribution of C.G. Jung to Transpersonal Psychiatry". In Scotton, Bruce W., Chinen, Allan B. and Battista, John R., Eds. (1996) ''Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology''. New York: Basic BooksBattista, John. "Abraham Maslow and Roberto Assagioli: Pioneers of Transpersonal Psychology". In Scotton, Bruce W., Chinen, Allan B. and Battista, John R., Eds. (1996) ''Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology''. New York: Basic BooksParsons, William B. Book Reviews: Revisioning Transpersonal Theory. A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality (Book). ''Journal of Religion'', 00224189, Oct. 2003, Vol.83, Issue 4. More recent attention has brought to light transpersonal aspects of
Jean Piaget Jean William Fritz Piaget (, , ; 9 August 1896 – 16 September 1980) was a Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development. Piaget's theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemolo ...
's untranslated French works, and argued that Piaget's transpersonal experiences and theoretical interests were a major motivation for Piaget's psychological research.Dale, E. (2014) "Spiritual consciousness in the age of quantity: The strange case of Jean Piaget's mysticism". ''Journal of Consciousness Studies'', 21 (5-6) 97-117 A review by VichVich, M.A. (1988) "Some historical sources of the term "transpersonal". ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 20 (2) 107-110 suggests that the earliest usage of the term "transpersonal" can be found in lecture notes which William James had prepared for a semester at
Harvard University Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1636 as Harvard College and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of highe ...
in 1905–06. The meaning then, different from today's usage, was in the context of James'
radical empiricism Radical empiricism is a philosophical doctrine put forth by William James. It asserts that experience includes both particulars and relations between those particulars, and that therefore both deserve a place in our explanations. In concrete terms: ...
, in which there exists an intimate relation between a perceiving subject and a perceived object, recognizing that all objects are dependent on being perceived by someone. CommentatorsElmer, Lori D., MacDonald, Douglas A. & Friedman, Harris L. "Transpersonal psychology, physical health, and mental health: Theory, research, and practice". ''The Humanistic Psychologist'', 31:2-3, 159-181, 2003 also mention the
psychedelic Psychedelics are a subclass of hallucinogenic drugs whose primary effect is to trigger non-ordinary states of consciousness (known as psychedelic experiences or "trips").Pollan, Michael (2018). ''How to Change Your Mind: What the New Science o ...
movement, the psychological study of religion,
parapsychology Parapsychology is the study of alleged psychic phenomena ( extrasensory perception, telepathy, precognition, clairvoyance, psychokinesis (also called telekinesis), and psychometry) and other paranormal claims, for example, those related t ...
, and the interest in Eastern spiritual systems and practices, as influences that shaped the early field of transpersonal psychology. Another important figure in the establishment of transpersonal psychology was
Abraham Maslow Abraham Harold Maslow (; April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist who was best known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority, cul ...
, who had already published work regarding human peak experiences. Maslow is credited for having presented the outline of a fourth-force psychology, named transhumanistic psychology, in a lecture entitled "The Farther Reaches of Human Nature" in 1967.Judy, Dwight. "Transpersonal psychology: Coming of age." ''ReVision''. Winter 94, Vol. 16 Issue 3, p99. 2p. In 1968 Maslow was among the people who announced transpersonal psychology as a "fourth force" in psychology,Chinen, Allan B. ''The emergence of Transpersonal psychiatry''. In Scotton, Bruce W., Chinen, Allan B. and Battista, John R., Eds. (1996) Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology. New York: Basic Books in order to separate it from Humanistic psychology. Early use of the term "transpersonal" can also be credited to
Stanislav Grof Stanislav "Stan" Grof is a Czech-born psychiatrist who has been living in the United States since the 1960s. Grof is one of the principal developers of transpersonal psychology and research into the use of non-ordinary states of consciousness ...
and
Anthony Sutich Anthony or Antony is a masculine given name, derived from the ''Antonii'', a '' gens'' ( Roman family name) to which Mark Antony (''Marcus Antonius'') belonged. According to Plutarch, the Antonii gens were Heracleidae, being descendants of Anto ...
. At this time, in 1967–68, Maslow was in close dialogue with both Grof and Sutich regarding the name and orientation of the new field. According to PowersPowers, Robin. Counseling and Spirituality: A Historical Review. ''Counseling and Values'', Apr 2005, Vol.49(3), pp.217-225 the term "transpersonal" starts to show up in academic journals from 1970 and onwards. Both Humanistic and Transpersonal psychology have been associated with the
Human Potential Movement The Human Potential Movement (HPM) arose out of the counterculture of the 1960s and formed around the concept of an extraordinary potential that its advocates believed to lie largely untapped in all people. The movement takes as its premise the be ...
, a growth center for alternative therapies and philosophies that grew out of the counter-culture of the 1960s at places like Esalen, California.Aanstoos, C., Serlin, I., & Greening, T. (2000). ''History of Division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) of the American Psychological Association''. In D. Dewsbury (Ed.), "Unification through Division: Histories of the divisions of the American Psychological Association", Vol. V. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.Leonard, G. How to Have an Extraordinary Life. ''Psychology Today'', May 01, 1992 (reviewed June 20, 2012)Tarnas, Richard. A New Birth In Freedom. A Review of Jorge Ferrer's Revisioning Transpersonal Theory: A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality. ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2001, Vol. 33, No. ITaylor, Eugene. An Intellectual Renaissance of Humanistic Psychology. ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'', Vol. 39, No. 2, Spring 1999 p.p 7-25Greyson, Bruce. (Book review) The Future of the Body: Explorations into the Further Evolution of Human Nature. ''The New England Journal of Medicine'', Volume 328:216, Number 3, 1993


Formative period

Gradually, during the 1960s, the term "transpersonal" was associated with a distinct school of psychology within the humanistic psychology movement. In 1969, Abraham Maslow, Stanislav Grof and Anthony Sutich were among the initiators behind the publication of the first issue of the ''
Journal of Transpersonal Psychology The ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'' (JTP) is a semi-annual, peer-reviewed academic journal which is published by the Association for Transpersonal Psychology (ATP). The journal is a seminal publication in the field of transpersonal psychol ...
'', the leading academic journal in the field. During the next decade significant establishments took place under the banner of transpersonal psychology. The Association for Transpersonal Psychology was established in 1972. An international initiative, The International Transpersonal Psychology Association, was founded by Stanislav Grof, and held its first conference in Iceland in 1973. This was soon to be followed by the founding of the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology, a graduate training center, in 1975 .PRWeb (Press release). Founder Bob Frager Returns to Sofia University. ''San Francisco Chronicle'', published online Tuesday, July 15, 2014. The institute was founded by
Robert Frager Robert Frager is an American social psychologist. He is the founder of the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology, now called Sofia University, in Palo Alto, California, where he is director of the low residency Master of Arts in Spiritual Guidance p ...
and James FadimanPRWEB Press release. ''Sofia University Announces Inauguration of First President, Neal King Ph.D.'' Palo Alto, CA (PRWEB) September 18, 2012 in response to the academic climate of the 1970s, and included transpersonal and spiritual approaches to psychology. Soon other institutions, with transpersonal psychology programs, followed. Among these were Saybrook Graduate School, the California Institute of Asian Studies (now California Institute of Integral Studies), JFK University, and Naropa.Lukoff, David; Lu, Francis. ''A transpersonal-integrative approach to spiritually oriented psychotherapy''. In Sperry, Len (Ed); Shafranske, Edward P. (Ed), (2005). Spiritually oriented psychotherapy., (pp. 177-205). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association, ix, 368 pp. The period of the 1960's and 1970s introduced the collective of individuals known as the founders of the field of Transpersonal psychology. Among the founders we find: Ram Dass, James Fadiman, Robert Frager, Stanislav Grof, Stanley Krippner, Ralph Metzner, Claudio Naranjo, Huston Smith, Charles Tart, Frances Vaughan, Miles Vich, Roger Walsh, Michael Washburn, John Welwood and Ken Wilber. In this period the field developed through the contributions of these profiles, and other names such as, Alyce Green, Elmer Green and Daniel Goleman.Ruzek, Nicole. Transpersonal Psychology in Context: Perspectives from its founders and Historians of American Psychology. ''The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2007, Vol. 39, No. 2Taylor, Eugene. Transpersonal Psychology: Its several Virtues. ''The Humanistic Psychologist'', Vol. 20, Nos. 2 and 3, pp. 285-300, 1992.Braud, William & Anderson, Rosemarie (2011). Transforming Self and Others through Research. Albany: State University of New York Press The new profiles gradually emerged at the center of activity. Frances Vaughan and John Wellwood had their background in psychotherapy, Roger Walsh was a physician, Huston Smith and Charles Tart had their background in the university system, Daniel Goleman was a science writer for the New York Times, Ram Dass was a popular Guru, and Elmer and Alyce Green were affiliated with the Menninger Foundation. Another early profile, Ken Wilber, surfaced as a leading figure and a major theoretician of the field.Adams, George (2002) A Theistic Perspective on Ken Wilber's Transpersonal Psychology, ''Journal of Contemporary Religion'', 17:2, 165-179, DOI:10.1080/13537900220125163 A different contributor to the field, Michael Washburn, was drawing on the insights of Jungian depth psychology.Sharma, Pulkit; Charak, Ruby & Sharma, Vibha. "Contemporary Perspectives on Spirituality and Mental Health". ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine''. 2009 Jan-Jun; 31(1): 16–23. According to Smith,Smith, Elizabeth D. Addressing the Psychospiritual Distress of Death as Reality: A Transpersonal Approach. ''Social Work''. May95, Vol. 40 Issue 3, p402-413. Wilber and Washburn delivered the main transpersonal models of development of this period, Wilber in 1977 and Washburn in 1988. An early preoccupation of the field was with the study of meditation. Among the authors that brought attention to this topic was Ram Dass, Daniel Goleman and Roger Walsh.Fadiman, James; Judy, Dwight; Lukoff, David and Sovatsky, Stuart. 50TH Anniversary Reflections From (a few) of the Past Presidents of the Association for Transpersonal Psychology. ''The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2018, Vol. 50, No. 1 Another early interest for Transpersonal psychology was the topic of altered states of consciousness. Among the authors who brought attention to this topic was Charles Tart.Freeman, Anthony. A Daniel Come To Judgement? Dennett and the Revisioning of Transpersonal Theory. ''Journal of Consciousness Studies'', 13, No. 3, 2006, pp. 95–109 The 1980s were characterized by the work of Stanislav and Christina Grof, and their concept of ''spiritual emergence'' and ''spiritual emergencies''.Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu Francis G. "Religious or spiritual problem. A culturally sensitive diagnostic category in the DSM-IV". ''Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease'', Jul;183(7):435-44, 1995Grof, Stanislav & Grof, Christina (Eds.) (1989) ''Spiritual emergency: When personal transformation becomes a crisis''. Los Angeles: Tarcher.Horrigan, Bonnie. David Lukoff, The importance of spirituality in mental health. ''Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine'', 6.6 (Nov 2000): 80-7. The period also reflected initiatives at the organizational level. In the early 1980s a group within APA division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) argued in favor of establishing transpersonal psychology as a separate division within the framework of the ''American Psychological Association''. A petition was presented to the APA Council in 1984, but was turned down. A new initiative was made in 1985, but it failed to win the majority of votes in the council. In 1986 the petition was presented for a third and final time, but was withdrawn by the executive board of Division 32. The interest group later re-formed as the Transpersonal Psychology Interest Group (TPIG), and continued to promote transpersonal issues in collaboration with Division 32. The 1990s introduced new profiles who contributed insights to the field. Among these authors we find Brant Cortright, Stuart Sovatsky, David Lukoff, Robert P. Turner and Francis Lu. CortrightCortright, Brant. (1997) ''Psychotherapy and spirit: Theory and practice in transpersonal psychotherapy''. Albany, NY, US: State University of New York Press. xii 257 pp. (SUNY series in the philosophy of psychology.) and SovatskySovatsky, Stuart (1998) ''Words from the Soul : Time, East/West Spirituality, and Psychotherapeutic Narrative''. New York: State University of New York Press (SUNY Series in Transpersonal and Humanistic Psychology) made contributions to transpersonal psychotherapy. Both authors published their primary work as part of the SUNY-series. Lukoff, Turner and Lu, writers in the clinical field, were the authors behind the proposal for a new diagnostic category to be included in the DSM-manual of the
American Psychiatric Association The American Psychiatric Association (APA) is the main professional organization of psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the United States, and the largest psychiatric organization in the world. It has more than 37,000 members are invo ...
. The category was called "Psychoreligious or psychospiritual problem" and was approved by the Task Force on
DSM-IV The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM; latest edition: DSM-5-TR, published in March 2022) is a publication by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for the classification of mental disorders using a common langu ...
in 1993, after changing its name to ''Religious or spiritual problem''.Lukoff D, Lu F, Turner R. Toward a more culturally sensitive DSM-IV. Psychoreligious and psychospiritual problems. ''Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease'', 1992;180(11):673–682. While Wilber has been considered an influential writer and theoretician in the field of transpersonal psychology, his departure from the field was becoming more obvious during the decade of the 1990s. Although the date of his departure is unclear, Freeman notes that Wilber had been distancing himself from the label of "transpersonal", in favour of the label of "integral", since the mid-1990s. In 1998 he formed Integral Institute. On the organizational side the decade was marked by a steady increase in membership for the ''Association for Transpersonal Psychology'', stabilizing at approximately 3000 members in the early nineties. In 1996 the ''British Psychological Society'' (the UK professional body equivalent to the APA) established a Transpersonal Psychology Section. It was co-founded by David Fontana, Ingrid Slack and Martin Treacy and was, according to Fontana, "the first Section of its kind in a Western scientific society".Fontana, David; Slack, Ingrid & Treacy, Martin, Eds. (2005) ''Transpersonal Psychology: Meaning and Developments''. ''Transpersonal Psychology Review'' (Special Issue). Leicester: British Psychological SocietyDaniels, Michael & McNutt, Brendan. "Questioning the Role of Transpersonal Psychology". ''Transpersonal Psychology Review'', Vol. 1, No. 4, 4-9. (1997) reprint Version/ref> In the second half of the decade commentators remarked that the field of transpersonal psychology had grown steadily and rapidly.


Later developments

The beginning of the 2000s was marked by the revisionary project of
Jorge Ferrer Jorge N. Ferrer (born October 30, 1968) is a US-based Spanish psychologist who wrote about the applications of participatory theory to transpersonal psychology, religious studies, integral education, and sexuality and intimate relationships. F ...
, which is considered to be an important contribution to the field.Rowan, John. "The transpersonal in psychology, psychotherapy and counselling" (book review). ''Therapy Today'', June 2008, Vol. 19 Issue 5, p46-46. 3/5p. 1 His main publication from this era, ''Revisioning Transpersonal Theory - A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality'' (2001),Ferrer, Jorge N. (2001) ''Revisioning Transpersonal Theory. A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality''. New York: State University of New York Press (SUNY Series in Transpersonal and Humanistic Psychology) was part of the ''SUNY Series in Transpersonal and Humanistic Psychology''. In 2007 the ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'' and the ''International Journal of Transpersonal Studies'' were accepted for indexing in
PsycINFO PsycINFO is a database of abstracts of literature in the field of psychology. It is produced by the American Psychological Association and distributed on the association's APA PsycNET and through third-party vendors. It is the electronic versio ...
, the journal database of the American Psychological Association. However, that same year, Ruzek, who conducted interviews with founders of Transpersonal Psychology, as well as historians of American psychology, noted that the "American Psychological Association (APA) and most academic institutions have not yet recognized transpersonal psychology as an approved area of study; transpersonal psychology is rarely mentioned in mainstream academic journals or textbooks; and relatively few American academicians identify themselves as practitioners of transpersonal psychology. Furthermore, transpersonal psychology is scarcely mentioned, if at all, in history or introductory psychology texts". In 2012 the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology announced that it was changing its name to
Sofia University Sofia University, "St. Kliment Ohridski" at the University of Sofia, ( bg, Софийски университет „Св. Климент Охридски“, ''Sofijski universitet „Sv. Kliment Ohridski“'') is the oldest higher education i ...
, a change that included a new profile in the academic landscape, with an expanded graduate program featuring computer science and business.Press release: "Institute of Transpersonal Psychology Becomes Sofia University. New Name Brings Broader Mission, Expanded Campus and New Programs". Palo Alto, CA (PRWEB), published online July 16, 2012 In 2016, the California Institute of Integral Studies launched an online PhD degree in Integral and Transpersonal Psychology, founded and chaired by Glenn Hartelius, including
Jorge Ferrer Jorge N. Ferrer (born October 30, 1968) is a US-based Spanish psychologist who wrote about the applications of participatory theory to transpersonal psychology, religious studies, integral education, and sexuality and intimate relationships. F ...
on its faculty, and sponsoring publication of the
International Journal of Transpersonal Studies The ''International Journal of Transpersonal Studies'' is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal covering theory, research, practice, and discourse in the area of transpersonal studies. It is the official journal of the International Transper ...
.


Branches and related fields

Several psychological schools, or branches, have influenced the field of transpersonal psychology. Among these schools we find the
Analytical psychology Analytical psychology ( de , Analytische Psychologie, sometimes translated as analytic psychology and referred to as Jungian analysis) is a term coined by Carl Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, to describe research into his new "empirical science" ...
of
Carl Jung Carl Gustav Jung ( ; ; 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. Jung's work has been influential in the fields of psychiatry, anthropology, archaeology, literature, ph ...
, the psychosynthesis of Roberto Assagioli, and the humanistic psychology of
Abraham Maslow Abraham Harold Maslow (; April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist who was best known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority, cul ...
. There is a strong connection between the transpersonal and the humanistic approaches to psychology, as indicated by the sourcebook of Donald Moss.Travis, Terry A. Book Forum: Humanistic and Transpersonal Psychology: A Historical and Biographical Sourcebook. ''Am J Psychiatry'' 2001;158:667-a-668.DeCarvalho, Roy J. "Book Reviews: Donald Moss (Ed.). Humanistic and Transpersonal Psychology: A Historical and Biographical Sourcebook". ''Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences'', Vol. 39(1), 93–94 Winter 2003 Although transpersonal psychology is considered to have started off within, or developed from humanistic psychology, many of its interests, such as spirituality and modes of consciousness, extend beyond the areas of interest discussed by humanistic theory. According to writers in the field transpersonal psychology advocates for an expanded, spiritual, view of physical and mental health that is not necessarily addressed by humanistic psychology. Other transpersonal disciplines, such as
transpersonal anthropology Transpersonal anthropology is a subdiscipline of cultural anthropology and transpersonal studies. It studies the relationship between altered states of consciousness and culture. Definition and context According to Walsh and Vaughan,Walsh, R. an ...
and transpersonal business studies, are listed as
transpersonal disciplines Transpersonal disciplines are academic fields of interest that study the transpersonal. Definition and context According to Walsh & Vaughan,Walsh, R. & Vaughan, F. "On transpersonal definitions". ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 25 (2) 12 ...
. Transpersonal art is one of the disciplines considered by Boucovolas, in listing how transpersonal psychology may relate to other areas of transpersonal study. In writing about transpersonal art, Boucovolas begins by noting how, according to Breccia and also to the definitions employed by the International Transpersonal Association in 1971, transpersonal art may be understood as art work which draws upon important themes beyond the individual self, such as the transpersonal consciousness. This makes transpersonal art criticism germane to mystical approaches to
creativity Creativity is a phenomenon whereby something new and valuable is formed. The created item may be intangible (such as an idea, a scientific theory, a musical composition, or a joke) or a physical object (such as an invention, a printed lit ...
. Transpersonal art criticism, as Boucovolas notes, can be considered that which claims conventional art criticism has been too committed to stressing rational dimensions of art and has subsequently said little on art's spiritual dimensions, or as that which holds art work has a meaning beyond the individual person. Certain aspects of the psychology of
Carl Jung Carl Gustav Jung ( ; ; 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. Jung's work has been influential in the fields of psychiatry, anthropology, archaeology, literature, ph ...
, as well as movements such as
music therapy Music therapy, an allied health profession, "is the clinical and evidence-based use of music interventions to accomplish individualized goals within a therapeutic relationship by a credentialed professional who has completed an approved music t ...
and
art therapy Art therapy (not to be confused with ''arts therapy'', which includes other creative therapies such as drama therapy and music therapy) is a distinct discipline that incorporates creative methods of expression through visual art media. Art the ...
, may also relate to the field. Boucovolas' paper cites Breccia (1971) as an early example of transpersonal art, and claims that at the time his article appeared, integral theorist Ken Wilber had made recent contributions to the field. More recently, the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, in 2005, Volume 37, launched a special edition devoted to the media, which contained articles on film criticism that can be related to this field. Other fields of study, that are related to transpersonal psychology, include near-death studies and
parapsychology Parapsychology is the study of alleged psychic phenomena ( extrasensory perception, telepathy, precognition, clairvoyance, psychokinesis (also called telekinesis), and psychometry) and other paranormal claims, for example, those related t ...
. The major findings of near-death studies are represented in the ''Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology'',Scotton, Bruce W., Chinen, Allan B. and Battista, John R., Eds. (1996) ''Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology''. New York: Basic Books and in ''The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology''.Rowan, John. "The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology" (Book Review). ''ACPNL Magazine'', Issue 75 March 2014. The Association of Counsellors and Psychotherapists in North London The near-death experience is also discussed in relation to other transpersonal and spiritual categories. The major findings of
parapsychology Parapsychology is the study of alleged psychic phenomena ( extrasensory perception, telepathy, precognition, clairvoyance, psychokinesis (also called telekinesis), and psychometry) and other paranormal claims, for example, those related t ...
are also represented in the ''Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology'', and in ''The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology''. Dr. William J. Barry established transpersonal psychology as a valid action research method in the field of education through his Ph.D. thesis and development of Transformational Quality (TQ) Theory. Applications to the areas of business studies and management have been developed. A few commentatorsFriedman, Harris (2000) Toward Developing Transpersonal Psychology as a Scientific Field. Paper presented at Old Saybrook 2 conference, May 11–14, 2000, State University of West GeorgiaFriedman, Harris. Transpersonal Psychology as a Scientific Field. ''The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies'', 2002, Vol. 21, 175-187. have suggested that there is a difference between transpersonal psychology and a broader category of transpersonal theories, sometimes called transpersonal studies. According to Friedman this category might include several approaches to the transpersonal that lie outside the frames of science. However, according to Ferrer the field of transpersonal psychology is "situated within the wider umbrella of transpersonal studies". Transpersonal psychology may also be associated with
New Age New Age is a range of spiritual or religious practices and beliefs which rapidly grew in Western society during the early 1970s. Its highly eclectic and unsystematic structure makes a precise definition difficult. Although many scholars consi ...
beliefs and pop psychology.Sutcliffe, Steven (2003). Category Formation and the History of 'New Age'. ''Culture and Religion: An Interdisciplinary Journal'', 4:1, 5-29Casey retiring from Burlington College. ''Vermont Business Magazine'' 29.14 (Dec 01, 2001): 27. However, leading authors in the field, among those Sovatsky, Rowan,Rowan, John (1993) The transpersonal: psychotherapy and counselling. London: Routledge (Second edition) and Hartelius have criticized the nature of "New Age"-philosophy and discourse. Rowan even states that "The Transpersonal is not the New Age".Evans, Joan. "The Transpersonal - Psychotherapy and Counselling" (Book review). ''International Journal of Psychotherapy'' 2.2 (Nov 1997): 237-240. Other commentators, such as Wade, Wade, Jenny. Transcending "Transpersonal": Time to join the world. ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2019, Vol. 51, No. 1 notes that the field remains part of the New Age, despite the fact that transpersonal psychologists may want no such association. Although some consider that the distinction between transpersonal psychology and the
psychology of religion Psychology of religion consists of the application of psychological methods and interpretive frameworks to the diverse contents of religious traditions as well as to both religious and irreligious individuals. The various methods and frameworks c ...
, is fading (e.g. The Oxford Handbook of Psychology and Spirituality), there is still generally considered to be a clear distinction between the two. Much of the focus of psychology of religion is concerned with issues that would not be considered 'transcendent' within transpersonal psychology, so the two disciplines do have quite a distinct focus.


Research, theory and clinical aspects


Research interests and methodology

The transpersonal perspective spans many research interests. The following list is adapted from the ''
Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology A textbook is a book containing a comprehensive compilation of content in a branch of Study skills, study with the intention of explaining it. Textbooks are produced to meet the needs of educators, usually at educational institutions. Schoolbook ...
'' and includes: the contributions of spiritual traditions such as
Taoism Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' Ta ...
,
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
(
Yoga Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciou ...
),
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
,
Kabbalah Kabbalah ( he, קַבָּלָה ''Qabbālā'', literally "reception, tradition") is an esoteric method, discipline and Jewish theology, school of thought in Jewish mysticism. A traditional Kabbalist is called a Mekubbal ( ''Məqūbbāl'' "rece ...
,
Christian mysticism Christian mysticism is the tradition of mystical practices and mystical theology within Christianity which "concerns the preparation f the personfor, the consciousness of, and the effect of ..a direct and transformative presence of God" ...
,
Shamanism Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiri ...
, and Native American healing to psychiatry and psychology;
meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique – such as mindfulness, or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity – to train attention and awareness, and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally calm ...
research and clinical aspects of meditation; psychedelics;
parapsychology Parapsychology is the study of alleged psychic phenomena ( extrasensory perception, telepathy, precognition, clairvoyance, psychokinesis (also called telekinesis), and psychometry) and other paranormal claims, for example, those related t ...
;
anthropology Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including past human species. Social anthropology studies patterns of be ...
; diagnosis of religious and spiritual problem; offensive spirituality and spiritual defenses; phenomenology and treatment of
Kundalini In Hinduism, Kundalini ( sa, कुण्डलिनी, translit=kuṇḍalinī, translit-std=IAST, lit=coiled snake, ) is a form of divine feminine energy (or ''Shakti'') believed to be located at the base of the spine, in the ''muladhara'' ...
;
psychotherapy Psychotherapy (also psychological therapy, talk therapy, or talking therapy) is the use of psychological methods, particularly when based on regular personal interaction, to help a person change behavior, increase happiness, and overcome pro ...
;
near-death experience A near-death experience (NDE) is a profound personal experience associated with death or impending death which researchers claim share similar characteristics. When positive, such experiences may encompass a variety of sensations including detac ...
; religious cults;
psychopharmacology Psychopharmacology (from Greek grc, ψῡχή, psȳkhē, breath, life, soul, label=none; grc, φάρμακον, pharmakon, drug, label=none; and grc, -λογία, -logia, label=none) is the scientific study of the effects drugs have on mo ...
; guided imagery;
breathwork Breathwork is a New Age term for various breathing practices in which the conscious control of breathing is said to influence a person's mental, emotional or physical state, with a claimed therapeutic effect. There is limited evidence that breathw ...
; past life therapy; ecological survival and
social change Social change is the alteration of the social order of a society which may include changes in social institutions, social behaviours or social relations. Definition Social change may not refer to the notion of social progress or soci ...
; aging and adult spiritual development. The research of transpersonal psychology is based upon both quantitative and qualitative methods, but some commentators have suggested that the main contribution of transpersonal psychology has been to provide alternatives to the quantitative methods of mainstream psychology. Although the field has not been a significant contributor of empirical knowledge on clinical issues, it has contributed important quantitative research to areas such as the study of meditation.


Theories on human development

One of the demarcations in transpersonal theory is between authors who are associated with hierarchical/holarchical, sequential, or stage-like models of human development, such as Ken Wilber and John Battista, and authors who are associated with Jungian perspectives, or models that include the principle of regression, such as Michael Washburn and Stanislav Grof.


Ken Wilber and John Battista

The transpersonal psychology of Ken Wilber is often mentioned as an influential theoretical framework for the field. Wilber is often regarded as a leading theorist and pioneer of the transpersonal movement, but he has not been actively associated with the label for quite some time. Several commentatorsAdams, George. "Book Reviews: Revisioning Transpersonal Theory: A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality." ''Journal of Contemporary Religion'', Vol. 18, No. 3, 2003 pp. 403–435 note that he has distanced himself from the transpersonal field in favour of a new model that he calls
integral In mathematics, an integral assigns numbers to functions in a way that describes displacement, area, volume, and other concepts that arise by combining infinitesimal data. The process of finding integrals is called integration. Along with ...
. However, his psychological model still remains influential to the practice and development of transpersonal psychology, and transpersonal themes remain a central part of his own work. Central to his theory of consciousness is a synthesis of eastern and western psychologies and models of human development.Walsh, Roger. "Developmental and evolutionary synthesis in the recent writings of Ken Wilber." ''Revision'' 18 (4): 7-1 8, 1996 Wilber's model of consciousness consists of three broad developmental categories: the prepersonal or pre-egoic, the personal or egoic, and the transpersonal or trans-egoic. A more detailed version of this model includes nine different levels of human development, in which levels 1–3 are pre-personal levels, levels 4–6 are personal levels and levels 7–9 are transpersonal levels.Cowley, Au-Deane S. & Derezotes, David. Transpersonal Psychology and Social Work Education. ''Journal of Social Work Education'', 10437797, Winter, Vol. 30, Issue 1, 1994 Later versions also include a tenth level. The transpersonal stages, or the upper levels of the model, are the home of spiritual events and developments. The framework proposed by Wilber suggests that human development is a progressive movement through these stages of consciousness.Jerry, Paul A. Challenges in Transpersonal Diagnosis. ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2003, Vol. 35, No. 1 The theory implies that different schools of psychology are associated with different levels of the model,Walsh, R. & Vaughan, F. The worldview of Ken Wilber. In Scotton, Bruce W., Chinen, Allan B. and Battista, John R., Eds. (1996) Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology. New York: Basic Books and that each level of organization, or self-development, includes a vulnerability to certain pathologies associated with that particular level. Each level also represents developmental challenges that must be worked through, or they might lead to developmental arrest. A basic tenet of Wilber's transpersonal psychology is a concept called the "pre/trans fallacy". That is, a confusion of transpersonal progression with prepersonal regression. According to writers in the field western schools of psychology have had a tendency to regard transpersonal levels as pathological, equating them with regressive pathological conditions belonging to a lower level on the model. The pre/trans fallacy describes a lack of differentiation between these two categories. Wilber's understanding of the levels of consciousness, or reality, ranging from matter to body to mind to soul to spirit, or from prepersonal to personal to transpersonal,Kelly, Sean M. Revisioning the mandala of consciousness. ''ReVision'', 02756935, Spring96, Vol. 18, Issue 4Bidwell, Duane R. Ken Wilber's Transpersonal Psychology: An Introduction and Preliminary Critique. ''Pastoral Psychology'', November 1999, Volume 48, Issue 2, pp 81-90 is often referred to as the "Great Chain of Being". This overarching framework, that is adapted from the "
perennial philosophy The perennial philosophy ( la, philosophia perennis), also referred to as perennialism and perennial wisdom, is a perspective in philosophy and spirituality that views all of the world's religious traditions as sharing a single, metaphysical trut ...
" of the worlds great spiritual traditions, is later reformulated by Wilber as the "Great Nest of Being". That is, not just a simple linear hierarchy, but a kind of nested hierarchy, or holarchy. Human development, and evolution, is considered to move up this holarchy. The 1990s marked a move into the world of integral ideas for Wilber. According to commentators he stopped referring to his work as transpersonal, in favor of the term ''integral'', by the mid-1990s. Literature now confirms that he has moved on from transpersonal psychology to integral psychology. According to Brys & Bokor Wilber presented major parts of his integral approach in the years 1997–2000.Brys, Zoltan & Bokor, Petra (2013) Evaluation of Ken Wilber's Integral Psychology From a Scientific Perspective, ''Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health'', 15:1, 19-33 The integral theory included a four quadrant model of consciousness and its development, whose dimensions were said to unfold in a sequence of stages or levels. The combination of quadrants and levels resulting in an all-quadrant, all-level approach. The theory also included the concept of holon, "a whole that is simultaneously part of some other whole", and holarchy, "hierarchical holons within holons".Wilber, Ken. "An Integral Theory of Consciousness." ''Journal of Consciousness Studies'', 4 (1), February 1997, pp. 71–92. Imprint Academic According to reviewers,Publishers Weekly. "The Integral Vision: A Very Short Introduction to the Revolutionary Integral Approach to Life, God, the Universe and Everything". Reviewed on: 05/28/2007Publishers Weekly. ''Integral Psychology''. Reviewed on: 05/15/2000 the spiritual dimension was central to Wilber's integral vision. Similar to the model presented by Wilber is the information theory of consciousness presented by John Battista. Battista suggests that the development of the self-system, and of human psychology, consists of a series of transitions in the direction of enhanced maturity and psychological stability, and in the direction of transpersonal and spiritual categories. His model presents a series of developmental tasks with corresponding levels of consciousness and psychopathology, and discusses therapeutic interventions in relation to the different levels and transitions.Battista, John. A Transpersonal View of Human Development, Psychopathology and Psychotherapy. ''Journal of Transpersonal Research'', 2011, Vol. 3 (2), 85–96


Michael Washburn and Stanislav Grof

Michael Washburn presents a model of human development that is informed by psychoanalysis, object-relations theory, and the depth psychology of the Jungian perspective.Anderson, Rosemarie. "Book Review: Washburn, Michael. (2003). Embodied spirituality in a sacred world." ''The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2005, Vol. 37, No. 2 In the context of transpersonal psychotherapy Washburn's approach has been described as a «revision of Jung's analytical psychology».Matthews, Charles O. "Psychotherapy and Spirit (Book)". ''Counseling & Values''. Oct99, Vol. 44 Issue 1, p75. 3p. According to Washburn transpersonal development follows the principles of a spiraling path. Central to his model is the understanding of a dynamic ground; a deep aspect of the unconscious, with spiritual qualities, Coward, Harold. The Ego and the Dynamic Ground by Michael Washburn (book review). ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 39, No. 4 (Oct., 1989), pp. 505-507 that the person is in contact with in the prepersonal stage of development. According to commentators Washburn describes three stages of human development; the pre-personal, the personal and the transpersonal, also described as; pre-egoic, egoic and trans-egoic. In the pre-stage (up to age 5) the child is integrated with the dynamic ground. Later in life this contact is weakened, and the prepersonal stage is followed by a new stage of development where the ego is dissociated from the dynamic ground. This happens through the process of repression,Lev, Shoshana. Regression in the Service of Transcendence: Reading Michael Washburn. ''Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge'', Volume 4, Issue 1 Scholarships of Learning, Article 23 and marks the stage of adulthood, and of the mental ego (egoic stage). However, later in life there is the possibility of a re-integration with the dynamic ground, a trans-egoic stage. According to Washburn this transpersonal development requires a kind of U-turn, or a return to the dynamic ground, in order for the ego to become integrated with its unconscious dynamics.Walsh, R. and Vaughan F. The Worldview of Ken Wilber. ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'', 34(2):6-21, 1994 This aspect of Wasburn's model is described by commentators as «a going back before a higher going forth». A regression that paves the way for transcendence, and a fully embodied life. Washburn's approach to transpersonal development is often summed up as «regression in the service of transcendence» which, according to Lev, is a "twist of the phrase, regression in the service of the ego". Washburn has contrasted his own perspective, which he calls spiral-dynamic, to the developmental theory of Ken Wilber, which he calls structural-hierarchical.Washburn, Michael. Transpersonal Dialogue : A New Direction. ''The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2003, Vol. 35, No. 1 The differing views of Washburn and Wilber are mentioned by several commentators. Stanislav Grof, on the other hand, operates with a cartography consisting of three kinds of territories: the realm of the sensory barrier and the personal unconscious (described by psychoanalysis), the perinatal or birth-related realm (organizing principles for the psyche), and the transpersonal realm.Reich, Helmut K. Review Article: Spritual Development: Han F. De Wit's and Stanislav Grofs differing approaches. ''Zygon'', vol. 36, no. 3 (September 2001)Bray, Peter. A broader framework for exploring the influence of spiritual experience in the wake of stressful life events: examining connections between posttraumatic growth and psycho-spiritual transformation. ''Mental Health, Religion & Culture'', Vol. 13, No. 3, April 2010, 293–308 According to this view proper engagement with the first two realms sets the stage for an ascent to the third, transpersonal, realm. His early therapy, and research, was carried out with the aid of psychedelic substances.McConnell, James V. "Special Section: The Rediscovery of Human Nature". ''TIME magazine'', Monday, Apr. 02, 1973Paulson, Daryl S. "Book Review: Grof, Stan. The cosmic game: Explorations of the frontiers of human consciousness". ''The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2006, Vol. 38, No. 1 According to commentatorsStrom, Elliott D. Book review: Grof, Stanislav M.D. LSD-therapy. The principles of LSD therapy. ''Library Journal'', April 15, 1980Humphrey, Caroline. Shadows Along the Spiritual Pathway. ''Journal of Religion and Health'',Vol. 54, No. 6 (December 2015), pp. 2376-2388 Grof's LSD-therapy was controversial. Later, when LSD was prohibited,Allday, Erin. LSD's long, strange trip back into the lab. ''San Francisco Chronicle'', Sunday, September 27, 2009. Retrieved August 8, 2022 Grof developed other methods of therapy, such as holotropic breathwork,Taylor, Eugene. "Desperately seeking spirituality". ''Psychology Today'', Nov/Dec 94 (Document ID: 1413) which also attracted some controversy. Boston, Richard. "Findhorn: If only the spirit could move them - The Findhorn community in Scotland is known as the Vatican of the New Age, famous for its esoteric values and outsize cauliflowers. But now the manure has really hit its windmills." ''The Guardian'' ondon, England 11 Nov. 1992, p. 10. Gale OneFile: News, Accessed 28 Jan. 2022. His early findings,Grof, Stanislav. "Theoretical and empirical basis of transpersonal psychology and psychotherapy: Observations from LSD research". ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', Vol. 5, 1973 which were based on observations from LSD research, uncovered four major types of experiences that, according to Grof, correspond to levels in the human unconscious: (1) Abstract and aesthetic experiences; (2) Psychodynamic experiences; (3) Perinatal experiences; (4) Transpersonal experiences. Psychodynamic levels, which correspond to the theory of Sigmund Freud, is the area of biographical memories, emotional problems, unresolved conflicts and fantasies. Perinatal levels, which correspond to the theories of Otto Rank, is the area of physical pain and agony, dying and death, biological birth, aging, disease and decrepitude. Transpersonal levels, corresponding to the theories of C.G. Jung, is the area of a number of spiritual, paranormal and transcendental experiences, including ESP phenomena, ego transcendence and other states of expanded consciousness. In order to bring structure to the psychodynamic and perinatal levels Grof introduces two governing systems, or organizing principles: The COEX-system, which is the governing system for the psychodynamic level, and the Basic Perinatal Matrices, which represent the birthing stages and is the governing system for the perinatal level.Roberts, Thomas B. Consciousness Criticism. ''CEA Critic'' , November, 1981, Vol. 44, No. 1, The Academy and the Mind: I, pp. 25-32 Grof applies regressional modes of therapy (originally with the use of psychedelic substances, later with other methods) in order to seek greater psychological integration. This has led to the confrontation of constructive and deconstructive models of the process leading to genuine mental health: what Wilber sees as a pre/trans fallacy does not exist for Washburn and Grof, for pre-rational states may be genuinely transpersonal, and re-living them may be essential in the process of achieving genuine sanity.


Stuart Sovatsky

The idea of development is also featured in the spiritual psychotherapy and psychology of Stuart Sovatsky. His understanding of human development, which is largely informed by east/west psychology and the tradition and hermeneutics of Yoga, places the human being in the midst of spiritual energies and processes outlined in yogic philosophy. According to Sovatsky these are maturational processes, affecting body and soul.Gaur, Sunil D. Review of Words from the soul: Time, east/west spirituality, and psychotherapeutic narrative. ''Psychological Studies'', Vol 50(1), Jan 2005, 101. Sovatsky adapts the concept of Kundalini as the maturational force of human development. According to his model a number of advanced yogic processes are said to assist in "maturation of the ensouled body".Sovatsky, Stuart. Kundalini and the complete maturation of the ensouled body. ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', Vol 41(1), 2009, 1-21.


Transpersonal theory of Jorge Ferrer

The scholarship of
Jorge Ferrer Jorge N. Ferrer (born October 30, 1968) is a US-based Spanish psychologist who wrote about the applications of participatory theory to transpersonal psychology, religious studies, integral education, and sexuality and intimate relationships. F ...
introduces a more pluralistic and participatory perspective on spiritual and ontological dimensions. In his revision of transpersonal theory Ferrer questions three major presuppositions, or frameworks for interpretation, that have been dominant in transpersonal studies. These are the frameworks of Experientalism (the transpersonal understood as an inner individual experience); Inner empiricism (the study of transpersonal phenomena according to the criteria of empiricist science); and perennialism (the legacy of the perennial philosophy in transpersonal studies).Kripal, Jeffrey J. "In the Spirit of Hermes; Reflections on the Work of Jorge N. Ferrer; Revisioning Transpersonal Theory: A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality." ''Tikkun'', March 1, 2003Jaenke, Karen. The Participatory Turn. Review of Jorge N. Ferrer, Revisioning Transpersonal Theory: A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality. ''ReVision'', Vol. 26, No. 4, Spring 2004 Although representing important frames of reference for the initial study of transpersonal phenomena, Ferrer believes that these assumptions have become limiting and problematic for the development of the field. As an alternative to these major epistemological and philosophical trends Ferrer focuses upon the great variety, or pluralism, of spiritual insights and spiritual worlds that can be disclosed by transpersonal inquiry. In contrast to the transpersonal models that are informed by the "perennial philosophy" he introduces the idea of a "dynamic and indeterminate spiritual power". Along these lines he also introduces the metaphor of the "ocean of emancipation". According to Ferrer "the ocean of emancipation has many shores". That is, different spiritual truths can be reached by arriving at different spiritual shores. The second aspect of his revision, "the participatory turn", introduces the idea that transpersonal phenomena are participatory and co-creative events. He defines these events as "emergences of transpersonal being that can occur not only in the locus of an individual, but also in a relationship, a community, a collective identity or a place." This "participatory knowing" is multidimensional, and includes all the capacities of the human being (body/heart/soul), as understood from a transpersonal framework. According to Jaenke Ferrer's vision includes a spiritual reality that is "plural and multiple", and a spiritual power that may produce a wide range of revelations, insights which in turn may be overlapping, or even incompatible. Ferrer's approach to participatory thinking has been taken-up in the context of psychoanalysis. Drawing from Ferrer's criticisms of perennialism, Robin S. BrownBrown, R.S. (2020).
Groundwork for a Transpersonal Psychoanalysis: Spirituality, Relationship, and Participation
'. London & New York: Routledge.
adopts the participatory paradigm as a means to fostering clinical pluralism.


Transpersonal psychotherapy

The major transpersonal models of psychotherapy, as reviewed by Cortright, are the models of Ken Wilber, C.G Jung, Michael Washburn, Stanislav Grof, and Hameed Ali. Early contributions to the field of transpersonal psychotherapy includes the approach of Walsh & Vaughan. In their outline of transpersonal therapy they emphasize that the goals of therapy includes both regular results, such as symptom relief and behaviour change, as well as work at the transpersonal level, which may go beyond the level of psychotherapy. Both Karma Yoga and altered states of consciousness are part of the transpersonal approach to therapy. According to Walsh & Vaughan the context of karma yoga, and service, should also facilitate a process whereby the psychological growth of the therapist could provide a supporting framework for the growth of the client.Keutzer, Carolin S. "Transpersonal Psychotherapy: Reflections on the Genre". ''Professional Psychology: Research and Practice'', 1984, Vol. 15, No. 6,868-883, The American Psychological Association Several authors in the field have presented an integration of western psychotherapy with spiritual psychology, among these Stuart Sovatsky and Brant Cortright. In his reformulation of western psychotherapy Sovatsky addresses the questions of time, temporality and soteriology from the perspectives of east/west psychology and spirituality. Besides drawing on the insights of post-freudians, such as D.W. Winnicott, Sovatsky integrates his approach to psychotherapy with an expanded understanding of body and mind, informed by the philosophy of Yoga. Cortright, on the other hand, has reviewed the field of transpersonal psychotherapy and the major transpersonal models of psychotherapy, including Wilber, Jung, Washburn, Grof and Ali, as well as existential, psychoanalytic, and body-centered approaches. He presents a unifying theoretical framework for the field of transpersonal psychotherapy, and places the concept of human consciousness at the center of the transpersonal domain. He also addresses clinical matters related to meditation, spiritual emergency, and altered states of consciousness. He also addresses clinical issues related to meditation, spiritual emergency, and altered states of consciousness. According to commentators Cortright does not agree with the conventional view of transpersonal psychology that a working through of psychological issues is necessary for spiritual development. Instead he suggests that these two lines of development intersect, and that they come to the foreground with shifting emphasis. A transpersonal approach to clinical practice has been outlined by psychoanalyst Robin S. Brown who draws from relational psychoanalysis,
analytical psychology Analytical psychology ( de , Analytische Psychologie, sometimes translated as analytic psychology and referred to as Jungian analysis) is a term coined by Carl Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, to describe research into his new "empirical science" ...
, and participatory theory. Within contemporary psychoanalysis it has been suggested that, from a clinical point of view, postulating a transcendent dimension to human experience is theoretically necessary in promoting non-reductive approaches to therapy. The first book to survey the field of spiritually oriented psychotherapy, published by the ''
American Psychological Association The American Psychological Association (APA) is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States, with over 133,000 members, including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants, and students. It ha ...
'' in 2005, included a chapter on the Transpersonal–Integrative Approach to therapy.Sperry, Len (Ed); Shafranske, Edward P. (Ed), (2005). Spiritually oriented psychotherapy. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association, ix, 368 pp.


Clinical and diagnostic issues

Transpersonal psychology has also brought clinical attention to the topic of spiritual crisis, or spiritual emergency, a category that is not ordinarily recognized by mainstream psychology. The terms "spiritual emergence" and "spiritual emergency" were coined by Stanislav and Christina GrofLukoff, David. "Visionary Spiritual Experiences". ''Southern Medical Journal'', Volume 100, Number 6, June 2007 (Special Section: Spirituality/Medicine Interface Project) in order to describe the appearance of spiritual phenomena, and spiritual processes, in a persons life. Among the clinical problems associated with this category, according to transpersonal theory, are: psychiatric complications related to mystical experience;
near-death experience A near-death experience (NDE) is a profound personal experience associated with death or impending death which researchers claim share similar characteristics. When positive, such experiences may encompass a variety of sensations including detac ...
;
Kundalini In Hinduism, Kundalini ( sa, कुण्डलिनी, translit=kuṇḍalinī, translit-std=IAST, lit=coiled snake, ) is a form of divine feminine energy (or ''Shakti'') believed to be located at the base of the spine, in the ''muladhara'' ...
awakening; shamanic crisis (also called shamanic illness); psychic opening; intensive meditation; separation from a spiritual teacher; medical or terminal illness; addiction.Lukoff, David, Lu, Francis G. & Turner, Robert P. ''Diagnosis. A clinical approach to religious and spiritual problems''. In Scotton, Bruce W., Chinen, Allan B. and Battista, John R., Eds. (1996) Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology. New York: Basic BooksGollnick, James. Religion, Spirituality and Implicit Religion in Psychotherapy. ''Implicit Religion'', 7.2 (2004) 120-141 According to writers in the field the term "spiritual emergence" describes a "gradual unfoldment of spiritual potential with no disruption in psychological, social and occupational functioning". In cases where the emergence of spiritual phenomena is intensified beyond the control of the individual it may lead to a state of "spiritual emergency". A spiritual emergency may cause "significant disruption in psychological, social and occupational functioning".Yang, C. Paul; Lukoff, David; Lu, Francis. "Working with Spiritual Issues". ''Psychiatric Annals'', 36:3, March 2006 At the beginning of the 1990s a group of psychologists and psychiatrists, affiliated with the field of transpersonal psychology, saw the need for a new psychiatric category involving religious and spiritual problems.Hartelius, Friedman, Pappas (2013) - The Calling to a Spiritual Psychology. Chapter 3 in Friedman and Hartelius (editors), the Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology, West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons Their concern was the possibility of misdiagnosis of these problems. Based on an extensive literature review, and networking with the American Psychiatric Association ''Committee on Religion and Psychiatry'', the group made a proposal for a new diagnostic category entitled "Psychoreligious or Psychospiritual Problem". The proposal was submitted to the Task Force on
DSM-IV The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM; latest edition: DSM-5-TR, published in March 2022) is a publication by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for the classification of mental disorders using a common langu ...
in 1991. The category was approved by the Task Force in 1993, after changing the title to "Religious or Spiritual Problem".Steinfels, P. "Psychiatrists' Manual Shifts Stance On Religious and Spiritual Problems". ''New York Times'', February 10, 1994. It is included in the fourth edition of the ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (
DSM-IV The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM; latest edition: DSM-5-TR, published in March 2022) is a publication by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for the classification of mental disorders using a common langu ...
), as a minor category. American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.Dein, S. Working with patients with religious beliefs. ''Advances in Psychiatric Treatment'' (2004) 10: 287-294. The text of the new category did not mention the particular spiritual problems, or psychiatric complications, listed above. According to the authors of the proposal the new category "addressed problems of a religious or spiritual nature that are the focus of clinical attention and not attributable to a mental disorder". In their view there exist criteria for differentiating between spiritual problems and mental disorders such as psychosis.Lukoff D, Lu FG, Turner R. Cultural considerations in the assessment and treatment of religious and spiritual problems. ''Psychiatric Clinics of North America'', 1995 Sep;18(3):467-85. This concern is also addressed in the DSM-IV Sourcebook.Lu FG, Lukoff D, Turner R (1997) ''Religious or Spiritual Problems''. In: DSM-IV Sourcebook, Vol. 3. Widiger TA, Frances AJ, Pincus HA et al., eds. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, pp1001–1016.Milstein, G; Midlarsky, E; Link, B.G.; Raue, P.J. & Bruce, M. "Assessing Problems with Religious Content: A Comparison of Rabbis and Psychologists". ''Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease''. 188(9):608-615, September, 2000Milstein, G. "Clergy and Psychiatrists: Opportunities for Expert Dialogue". ''Psychiatric Times'', March 2003, Vol. XX, Issue 3, pp 36-39. According to Lukoff and Lu,Bender, E. Clinical & Research News: Psychiatrists Urge More Direct Focus On Patients' Spirituality. ''Psychiatric News'' June 18, 2004, Volume 39 Number 12, p. 30. American Psychiatric Association. co-authors of the category, religious or spiritual problems are not classified as mental disorders. FoulksFoulks, E.F. Cultural Variables in Psychiatry. ''Psychiatric Times'', April 2004, Vol. XXI, 5 . also notes that the new diagnosis is included in the DSM-IV-TR nonillness category (Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention). The category ''Religious or Spiritual problem'' is maintained in the current
DSM-5 The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition'' (DSM-5), is the 2013 update to the '' Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'', the taxonomic and diagnostic tool published by the American Psychiatri ...
. Addition of the new category to the DSM-system was noticed by a few psychiatric publications,Curlin et al. - Religion, Spirituality, and Medicine: Psychiatrists and Other Physicians Differing Observations, Interpretations, and Clinical Approaches. ''The American Journal of Psychiatry'', Volume 164 Issue 12, December, 2007, pp. 1825-1831 and the ''New York Times''. Several commentators have also offered their viewpoints. Chinen noted that the inclusion marks "increasing professional acceptance of transpersonal issues", while Sovatsky saw the addition as an admittance of "spiritually oriented narratives" into the mainstream clinical context. Smart and SmartSmart, D.W & Smart, J.F. DSM-IV and culturally sensitive diagnosis: Some observations for counselors. ''The Journal of Counseling and Development'', May/06/1997, Vol. 75 No. 5; p. 392. recognized the addition of the category, and similar improvements in the fourth version, as a step forward for the cultural sensitivity of the DSM manual. Greyson,Greyson, Bruce. The Near-Death Experience as a Focus of Clinical Attention. ''The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease'', Volume 185(5) May 1997 pp 327-334. representing the field of Near-death studies, concluded that the diagnostic category of ''Religious or spiritual problem'' "permits differentiation of
near-death experience A near-death experience (NDE) is a profound personal experience associated with death or impending death which researchers claim share similar characteristics. When positive, such experiences may encompass a variety of sensations including detac ...
s and similar experiences from mental disorders". Gollnick noted that the new category was an important signal to therapists and the general population, and observed that there "are crucial experiences and struggles involving religious and spiritual issues which are not in themselves pathological, but which must be dealt with in order to avoid their degenerating into pathology". In a study from 2000 Milstein and colleagues discussed the construct validity of the new DSM-IV category religious or spiritual problem (V62.89). According to commentators transpersonal psychology recognizes that spiritual development might have both negative and positive effects on human functioning. Health-promoting expressions of spirituality include development and growth, but there also exist "health-compromising expressions of spirituality".


Organizations, publications and locations

A leading institution within the field of transpersonal psychology is the Association for Transpersonal Psychology, which was founded in 1972.Friedman, Harris L. (Editor); Hartelius, Glenn (Editor) (2013) The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology, 738 pages, Wiley-Blackwell Past presidents of the association include Alyce Green, James Fadiman, Frances Vaughan, Arthur Hastings, Daniel Goleman, Robert Frager, Ronald Jue, Jeanne Achterberg and Dwight Judy. An international organization, ''The International Transpersonal Psychology Association'', was founded in the 1970s, and has more recently been revived by Harris Friedman. Also, a European counterpart to the American institution, the European Transpersonal Psychology Association (ETPA), was founded much later. The leading graduate school is
Sofia University Sofia University, "St. Kliment Ohridski" at the University of Sofia, ( bg, Софийски университет „Св. Климент Охридски“, ''Sofijski universitet „Sv. Kliment Ohridski“'') is the oldest higher education i ...
, formerly the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology.Life Science Weekly Staff (2008-01-29) Studies from Institute of Transpersonal Psychology reveal new findings on life sciences (Sacred moments: implications on well-being and stress), ''Life Science Weekly'', 4572, , Pubz ID: 000878904Otterman, Sharon. "Merging Spirituality and Clinical Psychology at Columbia". ''New York Times'', published online August 9, 2012 According to sources the university is private, non-sectarian, and accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. Leading academic publications within the field include the ''
Journal of Transpersonal Psychology The ''Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'' (JTP) is a semi-annual, peer-reviewed academic journal which is published by the Association for Transpersonal Psychology (ATP). The journal is a seminal publication in the field of transpersonal psychol ...
'' and the ''
International Journal of Transpersonal Studies The ''International Journal of Transpersonal Studies'' is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal covering theory, research, practice, and discourse in the area of transpersonal studies. It is the official journal of the International Transper ...
''. Smaller publications include the ''Transpersonal Psychology Review'', the journal of the Transpersonal Psychology Section of the
British Psychological Society The British Psychological Society (BPS) is a representative body for psychologists and psychology in the United Kingdom. History It was founded on 24 October 1901 at University College London (UCL) as ''The Psychological Society'', the org ...
. In 1996
Basic Books Basic Books is a book publisher founded in 1950 and located in New York, now an imprint of Hachette Book Group. It publishes books in the fields of psychology, philosophy, economics, science, politics, sociology, current affairs, and history. H ...
published the ''Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology'', a standard text that included a thorough overview of the field. The book was edited by Bruce W. Scotton, Allan B. Chinen and John Battista. In 1998 Sage Publications released ''Transpersonal research methods for the social sciences: Honouring human experience'', by William Braud and Rosemarie Anderson.Braud, W., & Anderson, R. (1998). Transpersonal research methods for the social sciences: Honouring human experience. London: Sage Publications. Pp. 321. ISBN 0-7619-1013-1Publications received. ''The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology'', 1998, 51A (4), 944 In 1999
Greenwood Press Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. (GPG), also known as ABC-Clio/Greenwood (stylized ABC-CLIO/Greenwood), is an educational and academic publisher (middle school through university level) which is today part of ABC-Clio. Established in 1967 as Gr ...
published a title called ''Humanistic and transpersonal psychology: A historical and biographical sourcebook'',Boone, Lucille M. "Humanistic and Transpersonal Psychology: A Historical and Biographical Sourcebook". ''Library Journal''; Dec 1998; 123, 20; pg. 136Moss, Donald, ed. ''Humanistic and transpersonal psychology: A historical and biographical sourcebook''. Greenwood press, 1999.Clay, Rebecca A. "A renaissance for humanistic psychology. The field explores new niches while building on its past". ''APA Monitor on Psychology'', Volume 33, No. 8 September 2002. which includes biographical and critical essays on central figures in humanistic and transpersonal psychology. The book was edited by Donald Moss. A recent publication, ''The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology'',Team JIAAP. Review of The Wiley Blackwell handbook of transpersonal psychology. '' Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology'', Vol 40(1), Jan 2014, 160-162. is one of the latest and most updated introductions to the field of transpersonal psychology.Leitner, Larry M.; Guthrie, Leland. "Transpersonal psychology: The big picture." (Book Review). ''PsycCRITIQUES'', Vol 59(25), 2014, American Psychological Association Editors were Harris Friedmann and Glenn Hartelius. Although the perspectives of transpersonal psychology has spread to a number of interest groups across the US and Europe, its origins were in California, and the field has always been strongly associated with institutions on the west coast of the US. Both the Association for Transpersonal Psychology and the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology were founded in the state of California, and a number of the fields leading theorists come from this area of the US.


Reception, recognition and criticism


Reception

Reception of Transpersonal psychology, in the surrounding culture, reflects a wide range of views and opinions, including both recognition and skepticism. Several commentators have expressed their views on the field of transpersonal psychology and its contribution to the academic landscape. Ernest Hilgard,Hilgard, Ernest R. Consciousness in Contemporary Psychology. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 1980, 31:1-26 representing the contemporary psychology of the early 1980s, regarded transpersonal psychology as a fringe-movement that attracted the more extreme followers of Humanistic psychology. He did however remark that such movements might enrich the topics that psychologists study, even though most psychologists choose not to join the movement. Adams also regarded Transpersonal psychology as a fringe discipline. He also observed its status as a controversial field of study. Cowley and Derezotes, representing the Social Work theory of the 1990s, regarded transpersonal psychology as relevant for the development of spiritual sensitivity in the helping disciplines. Bidwell, representing the field of pastoral psychology, saw transpersonal psychology as a developing field that had largely been ignored by his own profession. He did however believe that transpersonal psychology could contribute to the areas of pastoral theology and pastoral counseling. Elkins,Elkins, David. "A Humanistic Approach to Spiritually oriented Psychotherapy", in Spiritually Oriented Psychotherapy, edited by L. Sperry and E. P. Shafranske, 2005, American Psychological Association writing for the field of spiritually oriented psychotherapy, considered that transpersonal psychology had grown away from its roots in the humanistic movement and that it had established its "own theories and perspectives". Bowers,Bowers, Victoria L. Transpersonal psychology and mature happiness in the context of counseling.''Counselling Psychology Quarterly'', 2020, Vol. 33, No. 4, 572-582 https://doi.org/10.1080/09515070.2019.1634518 representing the field of Counselling psychology, suggested that Transpersonal Psychology represented an expanded view of Psychotherapy in the direction of spiritual qualities and mature happiness. Eugene Taylor, representing the field of Humanistic Psychology, presented a balanced review of transpersonal psychology in the early nineties. On the negative side he mentioned transpersonal Psychology's tendency toward being "philosophically naive, poorly financed, at times almost anti-intellectual, and frequently overrated as far as its influences". On the positive side he noted the fields "integrated approach to understanding the phenomenology of scientific method"; the "centrality of qualitative research"; and the "importance of interdisciplinary communication". In conclusion he suggested that the virtues of transpersonal psychology may, in the end, "outweigh its defects". In a later article Taylor regarded transpersonal psychology as a visionary American folk-psychology with little historical relation to American academic psychology, except through its association with Humanistic psychology and the categories of transcendence and consciousness. Ruzek,Ruzek, Nicole Amity. Transpersonal Psychology's Historical Relationship to Mainstream American Psychology. Cited in ''Diss. Abstr. Int.'' B 65/04 (2004): 2081. UMI pub. no. 3129589.2 who interviewed founders of transpersonal psychology, as well as historians of American psychology, found that the field had made little impact on the larger field of psychology in America. Among the factors that contributed to this situation was mainstream psychology's "resistance to spiritual and philosophical ideas", and the tendency of Transpersonal psychologists to isolate themselves from the larger context. Nardini‑Bubols and colleagues,Nardini‑Bubols et al. The Altered States of Consciousness in Transpersonal Approach Psychotherapy: Systematic Review and Guidelines for Research and Clinical Practice. ''Journal of Religion and Health'' (2019) 58:2175–2194 who reviewed 14 studies in the field of Transpersonal psychotherapy tecniques, noted that the field was controversial, and that there was a lack of scientific information within the field. The review found a few health benefits of, as well as contraindications for, transpersonal psychotherapy, but observed that future studies also should uncover risks associated with the techniques. In addition, future studies should «have rigorous experimental designs; define concepts clearly; detail the method used; present clear guidelines for the ethical boundaries». The researchers concluded by noting that Transpersonal psychology represents an opening towards altered states of consciousness and the spiritual dimension of the psyche. A few small attempts have been made to introduce Transpersonal psychology to the classroom setting. Perspectives from transpersonal psychology are represented in a widely used college textbook on personality theories,Engler, Barbara (2009) ''Personality Theories: An Introduction'', 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. , Daily Record Staff. "Drew psych professor explores spirit, religion". The (Morristown) ''Daily Record'', published online Dec. 12, 2008 marking the entrance of transpersonal themes into mainstream academic settings. In this book author Barbara Engler asks the question, "Is spirituality an appropriate topic for psychological study?" She offers a brief account of the history of transpersonal psychology and a peek into its possible future. The classroom dimension is also present in a book on personality theories by authors Robert Frager and James Fadiman. In this publication they provide an account of the contributions of many of the key historic figures who have shaped and developed transpersonal psychology (in addition to discussing and explaining important concepts and theories germane to it), which serves to promote an understanding of the discipline in classroom settings. Transpersonal issues are rarely represented in the academic programs of mainstream universities. Nonetheless, graduate programs in humanistic and transpersonal psychology have been made available at a few North-American Universities.Arons, M. (1996). ''Directory of graduate programs in humanistic and transpersonal Psychology in North America''. Catalogue sponsored by Division 32 of the American Psychological Association, published and distributed by the Psychology Department at State University of West Georgia. Among these we find
Sofia University Sofia University, "St. Kliment Ohridski" at the University of Sofia, ( bg, Софийски университет „Св. Климент Охридски“, ''Sofijski universitet „Sv. Kliment Ohridski“'') is the oldest higher education i ...
(formerly Institute of Transpersonal Psychology), Saybrook Graduate School,
Naropa University Naropa University is a private university in Boulder, Colorado. Founded in 1974 by Tibetan Buddhist teacher Chögyam Trungpa, it is named for the 11th-century Indian Buddhist sage Naropa, an abbot of Nalanda. The university describes itself a ...
, California Institute of Integral Studies, State University of West Georgia,
John F. Kennedy University John F. Kennedy University was a private university based in California with offices in Pleasant Hill, San Jose in California; Natick, Massachusetts; and Willemstad, Curaçao. The university was founded in 1965 to offer degrees and certifica ...
and
Burlington College Burlington College was a private college in Burlington, Vermont. It offered associate, bachelor's, and master's degrees, as well as several professional certificates. Although regionally accredited by the New England Association of Schools and ...
McManis, Sam. University with a Vision. JFK's holistic studies program attracts devoted students - and strong critics. ''San Francisco Chronicle'', Friday, October 9, 1998In 2012
Columbia University Columbia University (also known as Columbia, and officially as Columbia University in the City of New York) is a private research university in New York City. Established in 1754 as King's College on the grounds of Trinity Church in Manhatt ...
announced that they were integrating spiritual psychology, similar to the perspectives taught at Sofia University (California), into their clinical psychology program. However, although transpersonal psychology has experienced some minor recognition from the surrounding culture, it has also faced a fair amount of skepticism and criticism from the same surroundings. Freeman mentions that the early field of transpersonal psychology was aware of the possibility that it would be rejected by the scientific community. Its method of inner empiricism, "based on disciplined introspection", was to be a target of skepticism from outsiders in the years to come. Several commentators have mentioned the controversial aspects of transpersonal psychology. Zdenek,Zdenek, Marilee. "Transformations of Consciousness" (Book review). ''L.A Times,'' September 14, 1986 representing a moderate criticism from the 1980s, noted that the field was regarded as "controversial since its inception". Other commentators, such as Friedman, and Adams, also mention the controversial status of the field. Adams also remarked that the field has struggled for "recognition as a legitimate field of study" in academia. This aspect was also noticed by Parsons, who observed that Transpersonal psychology's "naive perennialism, misreading of religious texts, lack of methodological sophistication, weak epistemology, and, some would claim, promotion of narcissistic self-absorption" had not been well received by the majority of academics. Commenting on the state of the field in the mid-nineties Chinen noted that professional publications, until then, had been hesitant to publish articles that dealt with transpersonal subjects. In 1998 the ''
San Francisco Chronicle The ''San Francisco Chronicle'' is a newspaper serving primarily the San Francisco Bay Area of Northern California. It was founded in 1865 as ''The Daily Dramatic Chronicle'' by teenage brothers Charles de Young and Michael H. de Young. The pa ...
'' reported on the holistic studies program at the ''
John F. Kennedy University John F. Kennedy University was a private university based in California with offices in Pleasant Hill, San Jose in California; Natick, Massachusetts; and Willemstad, Curaçao. The university was founded in 1965 to offer degrees and certifica ...
'' in Orinda, which included a transpersonal psychology department. The program was considered to be unique at the time, but also controversial. Commentators presented their skepticism towards the program. Another contentious aspect concerns the topic of psychedelic substances. Commenting upon the controversial status of psychedelic and entheogenic substances in contemporary culture, authors Elmer, MacDonald & Friedman observe that these drugs have been used for therapeutic effect in the transpersonal movement, but - the authors add - this is not the most "common form of transpersonal intervention" in contemporary therapy. However, Bravo and GrobBravo, Gary and Grob, Charles. Psychedelics and Transpersonal psychiatry. In Scotton, Bruce W., Chinen, Allan B. and Battista, John R., Eds. (1996) Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology. New York: Basic Books note that "the place of psychedelics in spiritual practice remains controversial".


Criticism, skepticism and response

Criticism and skepticism towards the field of transpersonal psychology has been presented by a wide assortment of commentators, and includes both writers from within its own ranks, as well as writers representing other fields of psychology or philosophy. Critical remarks from within the field include the observations of Lukoff and Lu, and the criticism of Walach. In their contribution to the field of spiritually oriented psychotherapy Lukoff and Lu discuss the strengths and weaknesses of transpersonal psychotherapy and transpersonal psychology. Among the strengths is its "basis of theory and practice" that can establish communication and dialogue with other cultures, and native healers. Among the weaknesses is a lack of theoretical agreement, which has led to internal debates, and attention from critics who question the validity of the transpersonal approach. Another source, close to the field, is ''The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology''. In a chapter from this bookWalach, Harald. Criticisms of Transpersonal Psychology and Beyond — The Future of Transpersonal Psychology: A Science and Culture of Consciousness, in The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (2013), 738 pages, Wiley-Blackwell Walach brings attention to unsolved problems within the field. According to the editors of the book the criticism represents "the sort of self-criticism that is mandatory within a responsible discipline". Criticism from other profiles, close to the field, also include the observations of Ken Wilber and
Jorge Ferrer Jorge N. Ferrer (born October 30, 1968) is a US-based Spanish psychologist who wrote about the applications of participatory theory to transpersonal psychology, religious studies, integral education, and sexuality and intimate relationships. F ...
. Wilber, one of the early profiles within the transpersonal field, has repeatedly announced the demise of transpersonal psychology.Wilber, Ken. A more integral approach. A Response to the ReVision Authors. ''ReVision'', Fall96, Vol. 19 Issue 2, p10. 25p. However, the early transpersonal theory of Wilber was itself subject to criticism, most notably from humanistic psychologists Rollo May and Kirk Schneider.Schroll, Mark A; Rowan, John; Robinson, Oliver. "Clearing up Rollo May’s views of transpersonal psychology and acknowledging May as an early supporter of ecopsychology." ''International Journal of Transpersonal Studies'', 30(1), 2011, pp. 120-136 Even though Wilber has distanced himself from transpersonal psychology in favour of integral philosophy, his transpersonal model has continued to attract both recognitionFisher, Robert M. A guide to Wilberland: some common misunderstandings of the critics of Ken Wilber and his work on transpersonal theory prior to 1995. ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'', 1997 (Vol. 37, Issue 4) and criticism. Among the critics of Wilber we also find Ferrer, who in 2001 published a revision of transpersonal theory. In this revision he criticized transpersonal psychology for being too loyal to the perennial philosophy, for introducing a subtle Cartesianism, and for being too preoccupied with intrasubjective spiritual states (inner empiricism). As an alternative to these trends he suggests a participatory vision of human spirituality that honors a wide assortment of spiritual insights, spiritual worlds and places.


Criticism from humanistic and existential psychology

One of the earliest criticisms of the field was issued by the humanistic psychologist Rollo May, who "disputed the conceptual foundations of transpersonal psychology". According to commentators May also criticized the field for neglecting the personal dimension of the psyche by elevating the pursuit of the transcendental, and for neglecting the "dark side of human nature".Abzug, Robert H (2021) Psyche and Soul in America : The Spiritual Odyssey of Rollo May. Oxford University Press. Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: December 2020 Commentators note that these reservations, expressed by May, might reflect what later theorists have referred to as " spiritual bypassing". Other commentators have suggested that May only focused on "New Age popularizations of transpersonal approaches". However, criticism has also come from other profiles in the fields of humanistic psychology and
existential psychology Existential psychotherapy is a form of psychotherapy based on the model of human nature and experience developed by the existential tradition of European philosophy. It focuses on concepts that are universally applicable to human existence incl ...
. Eugene Taylor and Kirk Schneider have raised objections to several aspects of transpersonal psychology. Schneider, representing the field of existential psychology, got involved at the end of the 1980's. According to Schroll, Rowan and Robinson Schneider presented 4 main points in his critique of Transpersonal psychology and Wilber's transpersonal model. First of all he doubted that anyone could reach "true transpersonal awareness", or "divine consciousness—a totally unrestricted, transcendent oneness with all time and space". He also doubted that anyone who experienced the transpersonal would be able verify the "attainment of this state of consciousness in themselves or others". He argued that this transpersonal development would be "irrelevant and unnecessary". Finally, he added that a "society of transpersonally enlightened individuals would be boring". Wilber responded to Schneider's critique by questioning if Schneider had "understood his definition of ultimate transpersonal consciousness", and suggested that Schneider had a "outside looking in view of transpersonal experience". In a later commentary SchneiderSchneider, Kirk J. Existentialism and the Transpersonal. A Rejoinder. ''Existential Analysis: Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis'', 23.1: January 2012 took issue with Wilbers description of transpersonal levels of consciousness and found it to have "some disturbing presumptions» that «go to the heart of what it means to be a human being».


Relationship to science and scientific criteria

According to Lukoff and Lu the ''American Psychological Association'' expressed some concerns about the "unscientific" nature of transpersonal psychology at the time of the petition to the APA (see above). Rowan notes that the Association had serious reservations about opening up a Transpersonal Psychology Division. The petitions for divisional status failed to win the majority of votes in the APA council, and the division was never established. Commentators also mention that transpersonal psychology's association with the ideas of religion was one of the concerns that prohibited it from becoming a separate division of the APA at the time of the petition in 1984. The field of transpersonal psychology has been criticized for lacking conceptual, evidentiary, and scientific rigor. In a review of criticisms of the field, Cunningham writes, "philosophers have criticized transpersonal psychology because its metaphysics is naive and epistemology is undeveloped. Multiplicity of definitions and lack of operationalization of many of its concepts has led to a conceptual confusion about the nature of transpersonal psychology itself (i.e., the concept is used differently by different theorists and means different things to different people). Biologists have criticized transpersonal psychology for its lack of attention to biological foundations of behavior and experience. Physicists have criticized transpersonal psychology for inappropriately accommodating physic concepts as explanations of consciousness." Others, such as Friedman, has suggested that the field is underdeveloped as a field of science and that it has, consequently, not produced a good scientific understanding of transpersonal matters. In his proposal for a new division of labour within the transpersonal field he suggests a distinction between transpersonal studies, a broad category that might include non-scientific approaches, and transpersonal psychology, a more narrow discipline that should align itself more closely with the principles of scientific psychology. However, this criticism has been answered by FerrerFerrer, Jorge. Transpersonal psychology, science, and the supernatural. ''The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'', 2014, Vol.46, No.2 who argues that Friedmans proposal attaches transpersonal psychology to a naturalistic metaphysical worldview that is unsuitable for the domain of spirituality. Albert Ellis, a cognitive psychologist and humanist, has questioned the results of transpersonal psychotherapy. In 1989 he cooperated with Raymond Yeager for the relsease of ''Why some therapies don't work: The dangers of transpersonal psychology'', where the authors compared the results of transpersonal psychology with the effects of Rational-Emotive Therapy, noting the dangers of the transpersonal appraoch. Ellis has also questioned the scientific status of transpersonal psychology, and its relationship to religion, mysticism and authoritarian belief systems. This criticism has been answered by WilberWilber, Ken. Let's Nuke the Transpersonalists: A response to Albert Ellis. ''Journal of Counseling and Development''; Feb 1989, Vol. 67, p332-335 who questioned Ellis' understanding of the domain of religion, and the field of Transpersonal Psychology; and WalshWalsh, Roger. Psychological Chauvinism and Nuclear Holocaust: A response to Albert Ellis and Defense of Non-Rational Emotive Therapies. ''Journal of Counseling and Development''; Feb 1989, Vol. 67, p338-340 who questioned Ellis' critique of nonrational-emotive therapies. Other commentators, such as Matthews, are more supportive of the field, but remarks that a weakness of transpersonal psychology, and transpersonal psychotherapy, has been its reliance on anecdotal clinical experiences rather than research. Adams,Adams, William. Transpersonal Heterophenomenology? ''Journal of Consciousness Studies'', Volume 13, Number 4, 2006, pp. 89-93(5) writing from the perspective of Consciousness Studies, has problematized the concept of introspective 'data' that appears to make up the "database" of transpersonal psychology. Walach and RunehovWalach, Harald; Runehov, A.L.C. "The Epistemological Status of Transpersonal Psychology. The Data-Base Argument Revisited". ''Journal of Consciousness Studies'', 1 January 2010, vol. 17, no. 1-1, pp. 145-165(21) have responded to this issue. O'Reilly O’Reilly, Patrick. Transpersonal Psychology. ''The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine'', Vol.10 (2006). examined several key components of Transpersonal psychology and found that it had features of a faith-based belief system, removed from scientific evaluation. Transpersonal psychology has been noted for undervaluing quantitative methods as a tool for improving our knowledge of spiritual and transpersonal categories. This is, according to commentators, a consequence of a general orientation within the field that regards spiritual and transpersonal experience to be categories that "defy conceptualization and quantification", and are thereby not well suited for "conventional scientific inquiry".


Other criticism

In his criticism of Wilber's transpersonal model Adams identified an ambiguous and inconsistent definition of 'God'; a flawed epistemology that privileged non-dualism; faulty and selective use of textual sources; contradictory positions regarding the presence of a personal element in the divine nature; de-valuation of the individual self; and inadequate emphasis on the moral component of spiritual development. Commentators have also made observations about the work of Stanislav Grof. Both Stromand Humphrey described Grof's early LSD-therapy as controversial. Other aspects of Grof's therapies have also come under scrutiny. In 1992 ''
The Guardian ''The Guardian'' is a British daily newspaper. It was founded in 1821 as ''The Manchester Guardian'', and changed its name in 1959. Along with its sister papers '' The Observer'' and '' The Guardian Weekly'', ''The Guardian'' is part of the ...
'' was reporting from the activities of the
Findhorn Foundation The Findhorn Foundation is a Scottish charitable trust registered in 1972, formed by the spiritual community at the Findhorn Ecovillage, one of the largest intentional communities in Britain.''The Dictionary of Alternatives: Utopianism and Org ...
. One of the therapies offered by the foundation was Grof's Holotropic
Breathwork Breathwork is a New Age term for various breathing practices in which the conscious control of breathing is said to influence a person's mental, emotional or physical state, with a claimed therapeutic effect. There is limited evidence that breathw ...
, which was causing concern and attracting considerable opposition. From the standpoint of
Dzogchen Dzogchen (, "Great Perfection" or "Great Completion"), also known as ''atiyoga'' ( utmost yoga), is a tradition of teachings in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism and Yungdrung Bon aimed at discovering and continuing in the ultimate ground of existence. ...
, the teachings from Tibetan Buddhism, and Buddhism generally, Elías Capriles has objected that transpersonal psychology fails to distinguish between the transpersonal condition of ''nirvana'', which is inherently liberating, and those transpersonal conditions which are within ''samsara''. In the process of elaborating what he calls a meta-transpersonal psychology, Capriles has carried out refutations of Wilber, Grof and Washburn. Although the ideas of
William James William James (January 11, 1842 – August 26, 1910) was an American philosopher, historian, and psychologist, and the first educator to offer a psychology course in the United States. James is considered to be a leading thinker of the lat ...
are considered central to the transpersonal field, Gary Alexander suggested that transpersonal psychology did not have a clear understanding of the negative dimensions of consciousness (such as evil) expressed in James' philosophy.Alexander, Gary T. (1980) "William James, the Sick Soul, and the Negative Dimensions of Consciousness: A Partial Critique of Transpersonal Psychology". ''Journal of the American Academy of Religion'', XLVIII(2):191-206 He argued that Transpersonal psychology lacked the philosophical dimension of William James which took into consideration the concept of once- and twice-born individuals. This criticism has been absorbed by later transpersonal theory, which has been more willing to reflect on these important dimensions of human existence.Daniels, M. (2005). ''Shadow, Self, Spirit: Essays in Transpersonal Psychology''. Exeter: Imprint Academic. . Skepticism towards the concept of spiritual emergencies, and the transpersonal dimension in psychiatry, has been expressed by Alison J. Gray,Gray, Alison J. "Reviews: In Case of Spiritual Emergency: Moving Successfully Through Your Awakening". ''Psychiatric Bulletin'' (2012) 36: 360 who stated that "this is not an approach I personally find internally consistent, helpful or believable". According to Cunningham, transpersonal psychology has been criticized by some Christian authors for being "a mishmash of 'New Age' ideas that offer an alternative faith system to vulnerable youths who turn their backs on organized religion (Adeney, 1988)". Transpersonal psychology has also been criticized for emphasizing oneness and holism at the expense of diversity. According to John V. Davis "this criticism should be heard".


See also

*
Claudio Naranjo Claudio Benjamín Naranjo Cohen (24 November 1932 – 12 July 2019) was a Chilean-born psychiatrist who is considered a pioneer in integrating psychotherapy and the spiritual traditions. He was one of the three successors named by Fritz Perls ( ...
* Indian psychology * Near-death studies * Neurotheology *
Transpersonal anthropology Transpersonal anthropology is a subdiscipline of cultural anthropology and transpersonal studies. It studies the relationship between altered states of consciousness and culture. Definition and context According to Walsh and Vaughan,Walsh, R. an ...


Notes

:a. Walsh & Vaughan (1993: 202), trying to improve on other definitions, have proposed a definition which, in their view, entail fewer presuppositions, is less theoryladen, and more closely tied to experience. :b. The
State University of New York Press The State University of New York (SUNY, , ) is a system of public colleges and universities in the State of New York. It is one of the largest comprehensive system of universities, colleges, and community colleges in the United States. Led by ...
(Albany, NY) divides their publications into categories, or series, representing different academic fields. Among the fields represented as a category we find the ''SUNY Series in Transpersonal and Humanistic Psychology''. Another category, the ''SUNY series in the philosophy of psychology'', also includes work from Transpersonal writers. :c. Among the universities and colleges that are associated with transpersonal theory, as part of their research or curriculum, we find: Sofia University (California) (US), California Institute of Integral Studies (US),
Notre Dame de Namur University Notre Dame de Namur University (NDNU) is a private Catholic university in Belmont, California. It is the third oldest college in California and the first college in the state authorized to grant the baccalaureate degree to women. In 2021, the ...
(US),
Saybrook University Saybrook University is a private university in Pasadena, California. It was founded in 1971 by Eleanor Camp Criswell and others. It offers postgraduate education with a focus on humanistic psychology. It features low residency, master's, and ...
(US), Liverpool John Moores University (UK),
Naropa University Naropa University is a private university in Boulder, Colorado. Founded in 1974 by Tibetan Buddhist teacher Chögyam Trungpa, it is named for the 11th-century Indian Buddhist sage Naropa, an abbot of Nalanda. The university describes itself a ...
(US),
John F. Kennedy University (California) John F. Kennedy University was a private university based in California with offices in Pleasant Hill, California, Pleasant Hill, San Jose, California, San Jose in California; Natick, Massachusetts; and Willemstad, Curaçao. The university was ...
(US), University of West Georgia (US),
Atlantic University Atlantic University is an American private non-profit distance education institution of higher and continuing education in Virginia Beach, Virginia. The university is associated with Edgar Cayce's Association for Research and Enlightenment (A.R. ...
(US), Burlington College (US), the
University of Northampton , mottoeng = Let us not be ignorant , established = 2005 (gained University status) 1975 (Nene College established) , type = Public , endowment = £0.95 m (2015) , chancellor = Richard Coles , vice_chancellor ...
(UK), Leeds Metropolitan University (UK) and Pacifica Graduate Institute (US). :d. Transpersonal psychology often differentiates between the concepts of religion and spirituality. Commentators note that religion, in a transpersonal context, has to do with the individuals involvement in a social institution and its doctrines, while spirituality has to do with the individuals experience of a transcendent dimension. The authors of the DSM-proposal make the same differentiation: Religious problems may be caused by a change in denominational membership; conversion to a new religion; intensification of religious belief or practice; loss or questioning of faith; guilt; joining or leaving a new religious movement or cult. Spiritual problems may result from the variables mentioned above: mystical experience; near-death experience;
Kundalini In Hinduism, Kundalini ( sa, कुण्डलिनी, translit=kuṇḍalinī, translit-std=IAST, lit=coiled snake, ) is a form of divine feminine energy (or ''Shakti'') believed to be located at the base of the spine, in the ''muladhara'' ...
awakening; shamanic crisis; psychic opening; intensive meditation; separation from a spiritual teacher; medical or terminal illness; addiction. :e. Precedents of Grof's approach in this regard are found in Jung, Perry, Dabrowski, Bateson, Laing, Cooper and antipsychiatry in the widest sense of the term. :f. In addition to this, Whitney (1998) has also made an argument in favor of understanding mania as a form of spiritual emergency.Whitney, Edward (1998) "Personal Accounts : Mania as Spiritual Emergency". ''Psychiatric Services'' 49:1547-1548, December. American Psychiatric Association. :g. See DSM-IV: "Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention", Religious or Spiritual Problem, Code V62.89.


References


Further reading

* Davis, John V. (2003). ''Transpersonal psychology'' in Taylor, B. and Kaplan, J., Eds. The Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature. Bristol, England: Thoemmes Continuum. * Gripentrog, Stephanie (2018). Mapping the Boundaries between Science and Religion: Psychology, Psychiatry, and Near-Death Experiences. In: Lüddeckens, D., & Schrimpf, M. (2018)
Medicine - religion - spirituality: Global perspectives on traditional, complementary, and alternative healing
Bielefeld: transcript Verlag. , pp. 241–272. * Rowan, John. (1993) ''The Transpersonal: Psychotherapy and Counselling''. London: Routledge * * Taylor, Steve. (2015, September 15).
Transpersonal Psychology: Exploring the Farther Reaches of Human Nature
. ''Psychology Today''.


External links


The Association for Transpersonal Psychology (ATP)

European Transpersonal Association

International Journal of Transpersonal Studies
Organ of the International Transpersonal Association
Sofia University (formerly the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology)

Journal of Transpersonal Research
Organ of the European Transpersonal Association
International Journal for Transformative Research
{{DEFAULTSORT:Transpersonal Psychology Psychological schools Clinical psychology Transpersonal studies Meditation New Age practices