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Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of
organs In biology, an organ is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function. In the hierarchy of life, an organ lies between tissue and an organ system. Tissues are formed from same type cells to act together in a ...
, joints, limbs, and specific sections of the body. The terminology used describes this motion according to its direction relative to the anatomical position of the body parts involved. Anatomists and others use a unified set of terms to describe most of the movements, although other, more specialized terms are necessary for describing unique movements such as those of the hands, feet, and eyes. In general, motion is classified according to the
anatomical plane An anatomical plane is a hypothetical plane used to transect the body, in order to describe the location of structures or the direction of movements. In human and animal anatomy, three principal planes are used: * The sagittal plane or latera ...
it occurs in. ''Flexion'' and ''extension'' are examples of ''angular'' motions, in which two axes of a joint are brought closer together or moved further apart. ''Rotational'' motion may occur at other joints, for example the shoulder, and are described as ''internal'' or ''external''. Other terms, such as ''elevation'' and ''depression'', describe movement above or below the horizontal plane. Many anatomical terms derive from Latin terms with the same meaning.


Classification

Motions are classified after the
anatomical plane An anatomical plane is a hypothetical plane used to transect the body, in order to describe the location of structures or the direction of movements. In human and animal anatomy, three principal planes are used: * The sagittal plane or latera ...
s they occur in, although movement is more often than not a combination of different motions occurring simultaneously in several planes. Motions can be split into categories relating to the nature of the joints involved: * ''Gliding'' motions occur between flat surfaces, such as in the intervertebral discs or between the
carpal bones The carpal bones are the eight small bones that make up the wrist (or carpus) that connects the hand to the forearm. The term "carpus" is derived from the Latin carpus and the Greek καρπός (karpós), meaning "wrist". In human anatomy, the ...
of the
wrist In human anatomy, the wrist is variously defined as (1) the carpus or carpal bones, the complex of eight bones forming the proximal skeletal segment of the hand; "The wrist contains eight bones, roughly aligned in two rows, known as the carpal ...
, and the metacarpal bones of the
hand A hand is a prehensile, multi-fingered appendage located at the end of the forearm or forelimb of primates such as humans, chimpanzees, monkeys, and lemurs. A few other vertebrates such as the koala (which has two opposable thumbs on each " ...
. * ''Angular'' motions occur over synovial joints and causes them to either increase or decrease angles between bones. * ''Rotational'' motions move a structure in a rotational motion along a longitudinal axis, such as turning the head to look to either side. Apart from this motions can also be divided into: * ''Linear'' motions (or ''translatory'' motions), which move in a line between two points. ''Rectilinear'' motion is motion in a straight line between two points, whereas ''curvilinear'' motion is motion following a curved path. * ''Angular'' motions (or ''rotary'' motions) occur when an object is around another object increasing or decreasing the angle. The different parts of the object do not move the same distance. Examples include a movement of the knee, where the lower leg changes angle compared to the femur, or movements of the ankle. The study of movement in the human body is known as kinesiology. A categoric list of movements and the muscles involved can be found at
list of movements of the human body The list below describes such skeletal movements as normally are possible in particular joints of the human body. Other animals have different degrees of movement at their respective joints; this is because of differences in positions of musc ...
.


Abnormal motion

The prefix ''hyper-'' is sometimes added to describe movement beyond the normal limits, such as in '' hypermobility'', ''hyperflexion'' or ''hyperextension''. The range of motion describes the total range of motion that a joint is able to do. For example, if a part of the body such as a joint is overstretched or "bent backwards" because of exaggerated extension motion, then it can be described as ''hyperextended''. Hyperextension increases the stress on the ligaments of a joint, and is not always because of a voluntary movement. It may be a result of accidents, falls, or other causes of trauma. It may also be used in surgery, such as in temporarily dislocating joints for surgical procedures. Or it may be used as a pain compliance method to force a person to take a certain action, such as allowing a police officer to take him into custody.


General motion

These are general terms that can be used to describe most movements the body makes. Most terms have a clear opposite, and so are treated in pairs.


Flexion and extension

Flexion and extension describe movements that affect the angle between two parts of the body. These terms come from the Latin words with the same meaning.), "to bend" ( la, flectere) Flexion describes a bending movement that ''decreases'' the angle between a segment and its proximal segment. For example, bending the
elbow The elbow is the region between the arm and the forearm that surrounds the elbow joint. The elbow includes prominent landmarks such as the olecranon, the cubital fossa (also called the chelidon, or the elbow pit), and the lateral and the m ...
, or clenching a hand into a fist, are examples of flexion. When a person is sitting down, the knees are flexed. When a joint can move forward and backward, such as the neck and trunk, flexion is movement in the anterior direction. When the chin is against the chest, the neck is flexed, and the trunk is flexed when a person leans forward. Flexion of the shoulder or hip is movement of the arm or leg forward. Extension is the opposite of flexion, describing a straightening movement that ''increases'' the angle between body parts. For example, when standing up, the knees are extended. When a joint can move forward and backward, such as the neck and trunk, extension is movement in the posterior direction. Extension of the hip or shoulder moves the arm or leg backward. Even for other upper extremity joints - elbow and wrist, movement behind results in extension. Except for knee, ankle, and wrist, where the distal end has to move in the anterior direction for it to be called extension. With regard to the
toe Toes are the digits (fingers) of the foot of a tetrapod. Animal species such as cats that walk on their toes are described as being ''digitigrade''. Humans, and other animals that walk on the soles of their feet, are described as being ''plant ...
s, flexion means curling them downward whereas extension means uncurling them or raising them upward.


Abduction and adduction

Abduction is the motion of a structure away from the midline while adduction refers to motion towards the center of the body. The center of the body is defined as the midsagittal or
longitudinal Longitudinal is a geometric term of location which may refer to: * Longitude ** Line of longitude, also called a meridian * Longitudinal engine, an internal combustion engine in which the crankshaft is oriented along the long axis of the vehicle, ...
plane. These terms come from Latin words with similar meanings, ''ab-'' being the Latin prefix indicating "away," ''ad-'' indicating "toward," and ''ducere'' meaning "to draw or pull".), "to lead away" la, abducere Abduction is a motion that pulls a structure or part ''away from'' the midline of the body, carried out by one or more abductor muscles. In the case of fingers and toes, it is spreading the digits apart, away from the centerline of the hand or foot. For example, raising the arms up, such as when tightrope-walking, is an example of abduction at the shoulder. When the legs are splayed at the hip, such as when doing a
star jump __NOTOC__ A jumping jack, also known as a star jump and called a side-straddle hop in the US military, is a physical jumping exercise performed by jumping to a position with the legs spread wide and the hands going overhead, sometimes in a clap, a ...
or doing a
split Split(s) or The Split may refer to: Places * Split, Croatia, the largest coastal city in Croatia * Split Island, Canada, an island in the Hudson Bay * Split Island, Falkland Islands * Split Island, Fiji, better known as Hạfliua Arts, enterta ...
, the legs are abducted at the hip. Adduction is a motion that pulls a structure or part ''towards'' the midline of the body, or towards the midline of a limb, carried out by one or more adductor muscles. In the case of fingers and toes, it is bringing the digits together, towards the centerline of the hand or foot. Dropping the arms to the sides, and bringing the knees together, are examples of adduction. Adduction of the
wrist In human anatomy, the wrist is variously defined as (1) the carpus or carpal bones, the complex of eight bones forming the proximal skeletal segment of the hand; "The wrist contains eight bones, roughly aligned in two rows, known as the carpal ...
is also known as ulnar deviation which moves the hand towards the ulnar styloid (or, towards the
little finger The little finger, or pinkie, also known as the baby finger, fifth digit, or pinky finger, is the most ulnar and smallest digit of the human hand, and next to the ring finger. Etymology The word "pinkie" is derived from the Dutch word ''pin ...
). Abduction of the wrist is also called radial deviation which moves the hand moving towards the radial styloid (or, towards the
thumb The thumb is the first digit of the hand, next to the index finger. When a person is standing in the medical anatomical position (where the palm is facing to the front), the thumb is the outermost digit. The Medical Latin English noun for thum ...
).See
for appropriate image
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Elevation and depression

The terms elevation and depression refer to movement above and below the horizontal. They derive from the Latin terms with similar meanings), "to raise" ( la, elevare) Elevation is movement in a superior direction. For example, shrugging is an example of elevation of the scapula. Depression is movement in an inferior direction, the opposite of elevation.


Rotation

Rotation of body parts is referred to as internal or external, referring to rotation towards or away from the center of the body. Internal rotation (''medial rotation'' or ''intorsion'') is rotation towards the axis of the body, carried out by internal rotators. External rotation (''lateral rotation'' or ''extorsion'') is rotation away from the center of the body, carried out by external rotators. Internal and external rotators make up the
rotator cuff The rotator cuff is a group of muscles and their tendons that act to stabilize the human shoulder and allow for its extensive range of motion. Of the seven scapulohumeral muscles, four make up the rotator cuff. The four muscles are the supra ...
, a group of muscles that help to stabilize the shoulder joint. File:Babaji.jpg, The lotus position of yoga, demonstrating ''external rotation'' of the thigh at the hip. File:Cable-internal-rotation-2.png, Rotating the arm away from the body is ''external rotation''. File:Cable-internal-rotation-1.png, Rotating the arm closer to the body is ''internal rotation''.


Other

* '' Anterograde'' and '' retrograde'' flow refer to movement of blood or other fluids in a normal (anterograde) or abnormal (retrograde) direction. * '' Circumduction'' is a conical movement of a body part, such as a
ball and socket joint The ball-and-socket joint (or spheroid joint) is a type of synovial joint in which the ball-shaped surface of one rounded bone fits into the cup-like depression of another bone. The distal bone is capable of motion around an indefinite number o ...
or the eye. Circumduction is a combination of flexion, extension, adduction and abduction. Circumduction can be best performed at ball and socket joints, such as the hip and shoulder, but may also be performed by other parts of the body such as fingers, hands, feet, and head. For example, circumduction occurs when spinning the arm when performing a serve in tennis or bowling a
cricket ball A cricket ball is a hard, solid ball used to play cricket. A cricket ball consists of a cork core wound with string then a leather cover stitched on, and manufacture is regulated by cricket law at first-class level. The trajectory of a cricke ...
. * '' Reduction'' is a motion returning a bone to its original state, such as a shoulder reduction following
shoulder dislocation A dislocated shoulder is a condition in which the head of the humerus is detached from the shoulder joint. Symptoms include shoulder pain and instability. Complications may include a Bankart lesion, Hill-Sachs lesion, rotator cuff tear, or inj ...
, or reduction of a hernia. File:Heather Watson Serve.jpg, The swinging action made during a
tennis serve A serve (or, more formally, a service) in tennis is a shot to start a point. A player will hit the ball with a racquet so it will fall into the diagonally opposite service box without being stopped by the net. Normally players begin a serve by t ...
is an example of ''circumduction''


Special motion


Hands and feet


Flexion and extension of the foot

''Dorsiflexion'' and ''plantar flexion'' refer to extension or flexion of the foot at the ankle. These terms refer to flexion in direction of the "back" of the foot, which is the upper surface of the foot when standing, and flexion in direction of the sole of the foot. These terms are used to resolve confusion, as technically ''extension'' of the joint is dorsiflexion, which could be considered counter-intuitive as the motion reduces the angle between the foot and the leg. Dorsiflexion is where the toes are brought closer to the shin. This decreases the angle between the dorsum of the foot and the
leg A leg is a weight-bearing and locomotive anatomical structure, usually having a columnar shape. During locomotion, legs function as "extensible struts". The combination of movements at all joints can be modeled as a single, linear element c ...
. For example, when walking on the
heel The heel is the prominence at the posterior end of the foot. It is based on the projection of one bone, the calcaneus or heel bone, behind the articulation of the bones of the lower leg. Structure To distribute the compressive forces exerted ...
s the ankle is described as being in dorsiflexion. Plantar flexion or plantarflexion is the movement which decreases the angle between the sole of the foot and the back of the leg; for example, the movement when depressing a car pedal or standing on tiptoes. File:017 'Ballerina' 18x24 oil on linen.jpg, A
ballerina A ballet dancer ( it, ballerina fem.; ''ballerino'' masc.) is a person who practices the art of classical ballet. Both females and males can practice ballet; however, dancers have a strict hierarchy and strict gender roles. They rely on ye ...
, demonstrating ''plantar flexion'' of the feet File:Dorsiplantar.jpg, Dorsi and plantar flexion of the foot


Flexion and extension of the hand

Palmarflexion and dorsiflexion refer to movement of the flexion (palmarflexion) or extension (dorsiflexion) of the hand at the wrist. These terms refer to flexion between the hand and the body's ''dorsal'' surface, which in anatomical position is considered the back of the arm; and flexion between the hand and the body's ''palmar'' surface, which in anatomical position is considered the anterior side of the arm. The direction of terms are opposite to those in the foot because of embryological rotation of the limbs in opposite directions. '' Palmarflexion'' is flexion of the wrist towards the palm and
ventral Standard anatomical terms of location are used to unambiguously describe the anatomy of animals, including humans. The terms, typically derived from Latin or Greek roots, describe something in its standard anatomical position. This position prov ...
side of
forearm The forearm is the region of the upper limb between the elbow and the wrist. The term forearm is used in anatomy to distinguish it from the arm, a word which is most often used to describe the entire appendage of the upper limb, but which in an ...
. '' Dorsiflexion'' is hyperextension of the
wrist In human anatomy, the wrist is variously defined as (1) the carpus or carpal bones, the complex of eight bones forming the proximal skeletal segment of the hand; "The wrist contains eight bones, roughly aligned in two rows, known as the carpal ...
joint, towards the
dorsal Dorsal (from Latin ''dorsum'' ‘back’) may refer to: * Dorsal (anatomy), an anatomical term of location referring to the back or upper side of an organism or parts of an organism * Dorsal, positioned on top of an aircraft's fuselage * Dorsal co ...
side of forearm. File:Albrecht Dürer Betende Hände.jpg, '' Praying Hands'' by
Albrecht Dürer Albrecht Dürer (; ; hu, Ajtósi Adalbert; 21 May 1471 – 6 April 1528),Müller, Peter O. (1993) ''Substantiv-Derivation in Den Schriften Albrecht Dürers'', Walter de Gruyter. . sometimes spelled in English as Durer (without an umlaut) or Due ...
, demonstrating ''dorsiflexion'' of the hands.


Pronation and supination

Pronation and supination refer generally to the
prone Prone position () is a body position in which the person lies flat with the chest down and the back up. In anatomical terms of location, the dorsal side is up, and the ventral side is down. The supine position is the 180° contrast. Etymolog ...
(facing down) or
supine In grammar, a supine is a form of verbal noun used in some languages. The term is most often used for Latin, where it is one of the four principal parts of a verb. The word refers to a position of lying on one's back (as opposed to 'prone' ...
(facing up) positions. In the extremities, they refer to rotation of the forearm or foot so that in the standard anatomical position the palm or sole is facing anteriorly when in supination and posteriorly when in pronation. As an example, when a person is typing on a computer keyboard, their hands are pronated; when washing their face, they are supinated. ''
Pronation Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of organs, joints, limbs, and specific sections of the body. The terminology used describes this motion according to its direction relativ ...
'' at the
forearm The forearm is the region of the upper limb between the elbow and the wrist. The term forearm is used in anatomy to distinguish it from the arm, a word which is most often used to describe the entire appendage of the upper limb, but which in an ...
is a rotational movement where the hand and upper arm are turned so the thumbs point towards the body. When the forearm and hand are supinated, the thumbs point away from the body. Pronation of the foot is turning of the sole outwards, so that weight is borne on the medial part of the foot. ''
Supination Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of organs, joints, limbs, and specific sections of the body. The terminology used describes this motion according to its direction relativ ...
'' of the forearm occurs when the forearm or palm are rotated outwards. Supination of the foot is turning of the sole of the foot inwards, shifting weight to the lateral edge. File:Braus 1921 306.png, Supination and pronation of the foot File:Pronation and supination.jpg, Supination and pronation of the arm


Inversion and eversion

Inversion and eversion refer to movements that tilt the sole of the foot away from (eversion) or towards (inversion) the midline of the body. '' Eversion'' is the movement of the sole of the foot away from the median plane. ''
Inversion Inversion or inversions may refer to: Arts * , a French gay magazine (1924/1925) * ''Inversion'' (artwork), a 2005 temporary sculpture in Houston, Texas * Inversion (music), a term with various meanings in music theory and musical set theory * ...
'' is the movement of the sole towards the median plane. For example, inversion describes the motion when an ankle is twisted. File:Eversion_and_inversion.jpg, Example showing inversion and eversion of the foot Éversion du pied.jpg, Eversion of the right foot File:Inversion du pied.jpg, Inversion of the right foot


Eyes

Unique terminology is also used to describe the eye. For example: * A ''
version Version may refer to: Computing * Software version, a set of numbers that identify a unique evolution of a computer program * VERSION (CONFIG.SYS directive), a configuration directive in FreeDOS Music * Cover version * Dub version * Remix * '' ...
'' is an eye movement involving both eyes moving synchronously and symmetrically in the same direction. * ''
Torsion Torsion may refer to: Science * Torsion (mechanics), the twisting of an object due to an applied torque * Torsion of spacetime, the field used in Einstein–Cartan theory and ** Alternatives to general relativity * Torsion angle, in chemistry Bi ...
'' is eye movement that affects the vertical axis of the eye, such as the movement made when looking in to the nose.


Jaw and teeth

*''
Occlusion Occlusion may refer to: Health and fitness * Occlusion (dentistry), the manner in which the upper and lower teeth come together when the mouth is closed * Occlusion miliaria, a skin condition * Occlusive dressing, an air- and water-tight traum ...
'' is motion of the
mandibula In anatomy, the mandible, lower jaw or jawbone is the largest, strongest and lowest bone in the human facial skeleton. It forms the lower jaw and holds the lower tooth, teeth in place. The mandible sits beneath the maxilla. It is the only movabl ...
towards the maxilla making contact between the teeth. * ''
Protrusion Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of organs, joints, limbs, and specific sections of the body. The terminology used describes this motion according to its direction relativ ...
'' and '' retrusion'' are sometimes used to describe the anterior (protrusion) and posterior (retrusion) movement of the jaw. File:Protrusion_and_retrusion.jpg, Examples showing protrusion and retrusion. File:Elevation_and_Depression.jpg, Elevation and depression of the jaw.


Other

Other terms include: * ''
Nutation Nutation () is a rocking, swaying, or nodding motion in the axis of rotation of a largely axially symmetric object, such as a gyroscope, planet, or bullet in flight, or as an intended behaviour of a mechanism. In an appropriate reference frame ...
'' and ''counternutation'') refer to movement of the sacrum defined by the rotation of the promontory downwards and anteriorly, as with lumbar extension (nutation); or upwards and posteriorly, as with lumbar flexion (counternutation). *'' Opposition'' is the movement that involves grasping of the thumb and fingers. *''
Protraction Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of organs, joints, limbs, and specific sections of the body. The terminology used describes this motion according to its direction relativ ...
'' and '' Retraction'' refer to an anterior (protraction) or posterior (retraction) movement, such as of the arm at the shoulders, although these terms have been criticised as non-specific. *''
Reciprocal motion Reciprocating motion, also called reciprocation, is a repetitive up-and-down or back-and-forth linear motion. It is found in a wide range of mechanisms, including reciprocating engines and pumps. The two opposite motions that comprise a single r ...
'' is alternating motions in opposing directions. *''Reposition'' is restoring an object to its natural condition. File:Braus 1921 231.png, Nutation at left, counternutation at right File:Ok sign.jpg, An example of ''opposition'' File:Opposition_CMX.jpg, Example of ''opposition'' of the thumb and index finger


See also

*
Anatomical terms of location Standard anatomical terms of location are used to unambiguously describe the anatomy of animals, including humans. The terms, typically derived from Latin or Greek roots, describe something in its standard anatomical position. This position pro ...
*
Anatomical terms of muscle Anatomical terminology is used to uniquely describe aspects of skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle such as their actions, structure, size, and location. Types There are three types of muscle tissue in the body: skeletal, smooth, a ...
*
Anatomical terms of bone Many anatomical terms descriptive of bone are defined in anatomical terminology, and are often derived from Greek and Latin. Bone in the human body is categorized into long bone, short bone, flat bone, irregular bone and sesamoid bone. Types of ...
*
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy This article describes anatomical terminology that is used to describe the central and peripheral nervous systems - including the brain, brainstem, spinal cord, and nerves. Anatomical terminology in neuroanatomy Neuroanatomy, like other as ...


Notes


References


Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * *


External links


Hypermuscle: Muscles in Action at med.umich.edu
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