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Scaffolding, also called scaffold or staging, is a temporary structure used to support a work crew and materials to aid in the construction, maintenance and repair of
buildings A building, or edifice, is an enclosed structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place, such as a house or factory (although there's also portable buildings). Buildings come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and func ...
, bridges and all other man-made structures. Scaffolds are widely used on site to get access to heights and areas that would be otherwise hard to get to. Unsafe scaffolding has the potential to result in death or serious injury. Scaffolding is also used in adapted forms for formwork and shoring, grandstand seating, concert stages, access/viewing towers, exhibition stands, ski ramps, half pipes and art projects. There are five main types of scaffolding used worldwide today. These are tube and coupler (fitting) components, prefabricated modular system scaffold components, H-frame / façade modular system scaffolds, timber scaffolds and bamboo scaffolds (particularly in China and India). Each type is made from several components which often include: * A base jack or plate which is a load-bearing base for the scaffold. * The standard, the upright component with connector joins. * The ledger, a horizontal brace. * The transom, a horizontal cross-section load-bearing component which holds the batten, board, or decking unit. * Brace diagonal and/or cross section bracing component. * Batten or board decking component used to make the working platform. * Coupler, a fitting used to join components together. * Scaffold tie, used to tie in the scaffold to structures. * Brackets, used to extend the width of working platforms. Specialized components used to aid in their use as a temporary structure often include heavy duty load bearing transoms, ladders or stairway units for the ingress and egress of the scaffold, beams ladder/unit types used to span obstacles and rubbish chutes used to remove unwanted materials from the scaffold or construction project.


History


Antiquity

Sockets in the walls around the
paleolithic The Paleolithic or Palaeolithic (), also called the Old Stone Age (from Greek: παλαιός '' palaios'', "old" and λίθος ''lithos'', "stone"), is a period in human prehistory that is distinguished by the original development of stone too ...
cave painting In archaeology, Cave paintings are a type of parietal art (which category also includes petroglyphs, or engravings), found on the wall or ceilings of caves. The term usually implies prehistoric origin, and the oldest known are more than 40,000 ye ...
s at
Lascaux Lascaux ( , ; french: Grotte de Lascaux , "Lascaux Cave") is a network of caves near the village of Montignac, in the department of Dordogne in southwestern France. Over 600 parietal wall paintings cover the interior walls and ceilings of t ...
, suggest that a scaffold system was used for painting the ceiling, over 17,000 years ago. The
Berlin Foundry Cup The Berlin Foundry Cup (german: Erzgießerei-Schale) is a red-figure ''kylix'' (drinking cup) from the early 5th century BC. It is the name vase of the Attic vase painter known conventionally as the Foundry Painter. Its most striking feature is ...
depicts scaffolding in
ancient Greece Ancient Greece ( el, Ἑλλάς, Hellás) was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity ( AD 600), that comprised a loose collection of cu ...
(early 5th century BC). Egyptians,
Nubia Nubia () ( Nobiin: Nobīn, ) is a region along the Nile river encompassing the area between the first cataract of the Nile (just south of Aswan in southern Egypt) and the confluence of the Blue and White Niles (in Khartoum in central Sud ...
ns and Chinese are also recorded as having used scaffolding-like structures to build tall buildings. Early scaffolding was made of wood and secured with rope knots.


Modern era

Scaffolding was erected by individual firms with wildly varying standards and sizes. The process was revolutionized by Daniel Palmer Jones and David Henry Jones. Modern day scaffolding standards, practices and processes can be attributed to these men and their companies: Rapid Scaffold Tie Company Ltd, Tubular Scaffolding Company and Scaffolding Great Britain Ltd (SGB). David Palmer-Jones patented the "Scaffixer", a coupling device far more robust than rope which revolutionized scaffolding construction. In 1913, his company was commissioned for the reconstruction of Buckingham Palace, during which his Scaffixer gained much publicity. Palmer-Jones followed this up with the improved "Universal Coupler" in 1919 - this soon became the industry standard coupling and has remained so to this day. Advancements in metallurgy throughout the early 20th century saw the introduction of tubular steel
water pipe Plumbing is any system that conveys fluids for a wide range of applications. Plumbing uses pipes, valves, plumbing fixtures, tanks, and other apparatuses to convey fluids. Heating and cooling (HVAC), waste removal, and potable water delive ...
s (instead of timber poles) with standardized dimensions, allowing for the industrial interchangeability of parts and improving the structural stability of the scaffold. The use of diagonal bracings also helped to improve stability, especially on tall buildings. The first frame system was brought to market by SGB in 1944 and was used extensively for the
postwar reconstruction The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was an American initiative enacted in 1948 to provide foreign aid to Western Europe. The United States transferred over $13 billion (equivalent of about $ in ) in economic ...
.


Today

The European Standard, BS EN 12811-1, specifies performance requirements and methods of structural and general design for access and working scaffolds. Requirements given are for scaffold structures that rely on the adjacent structures for stability. In general these requirements also apply to other types of working scaffolds. The purpose of a working scaffold is to provide a safe working platform and access suitable for work crews to carry out their work. The European Standard sets out performance requirements for working scaffolds. These are substantially independent of the materials of which the scaffold is made. The standard is intended to be used as the basis for enquiry and design.


Materials

The basic components of scaffolding are tubes, couplers and boards. The basic lightweight tube scaffolding that became the standard and revolutionised scaffolding, becoming the baseline for decades, was invented and marketed in the mid-1950s. With one basic 24 pound unit a scaffold of various sizes and heights could be assembled easily by a couple of labourers without the nuts or bolts previously needed. Tubes are usually made either of
steel Steel is an alloy made up of iron with added carbon to improve its strength and fracture resistance compared to other forms of iron. Many other elements may be present or added. Stainless steels that are corrosion- and oxidation-resistan ...
or
aluminium Aluminium (aluminum in American and Canadian English) is a chemical element with the symbol Al and atomic number 13. Aluminium has a density lower than those of other common metals, at approximately one third that of steel. It ha ...
; although there is
composite Composite or compositing may refer to: Materials * Composite material, a material that is made from several different substances ** Metal matrix composite, composed of metal and other parts ** Cermet, a composite of ceramic and metallic materials ...
scaffolding which uses filament-wound tubes of glass fibre in a
nylon Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers composed of polyamides ( repeating units linked by amide links).The polyamides may be aliphatic or semi-aromatic. Nylon is a silk-like thermoplastic, generally made from pet ...
or
polyester Polyester is a category of polymers that contain the ester functional group in every repeat unit of their main chain. As a specific material, it most commonly refers to a type called polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Polyesters include natura ...
matrix, because of the high cost of composite tube, it is usually only used when there is a risk from overhead electric cables that cannot be isolated. If steel, they are either 'black' or galvanised. The tubes come in a variety of lengths and a standard outside
diameter In geometry, a diameter of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the center of the circle and whose endpoints lie on the circle. It can also be defined as the longest chord of the circle. Both definitions are also valid f ...
of 48.3 mm. (1.5 NPS pipe). The chief difference between the two types of metal tubes is the lower weight of aluminium tubes (1.7 kg/m as opposed to 4.4 kg/m). However they are more flexible and have a lower resistance to stress. Tubes are generally bought in 6.3 m lengths and can then be cut down to certain typical sizes. Most large companies will brand their tubes with their name and address in order to deter theft. Boards provide a working surface for scaffold users. They are seasoned
wood Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic materiala natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin ...
and come in three thicknesses (38 mm (usual), 50 mm and 63 mm) are a standard width (225 mm) and are a maximum of 3.9 m long. The board ends are protected either by metal plates called hoop irons or sometimes nail plates, which often have the company name stamped into them. Timber scaffold boards in the UK should comply with the requirements of BS 2482. As well as timber, steel or aluminium decking is used, as well as
laminate Lamination is the technique/process of manufacturing a material in multiple layers, so that the composite material achieves improved strength, stability, sound insulation, appearance, or other properties from the use of the differing materia ...
boards. In addition to the boards for the working platform, there are sole boards which are placed beneath the scaffolding if the surface is soft or otherwise suspect, although ordinary boards can also be used. Another solution, called a scaffpad, is made from a rubber base with a base plate moulded inside; these are desirable for use on uneven ground since they adapt, whereas sole boards may split and have to be replaced. Couplers are the fittings which hold the tubes together. The most common are called scaffold couplers, and there are three basic types: ''right-angle couplers'', ''putlog couplers'' and ''swivel couplers''. To join tubes end-to-end ''joint pins'' (also called spigots) or ''sleeve couplers'' are used. Only right angle couplers and swivel couplers can be used to fix tube in a 'load-bearing connection'. Single couplers are not load-bearing couplers and have no design capacity. Other common scaffolding components include base plates,
ladder A ladder is a vertical or inclined set of rungs or steps used for climbing or descending. There are two types: rigid ladders that are self-supporting or that may be leaned against a vertical surface such as a wall, and rollable ladders, such ...
s,
rope A rope is a group of yarns, plies, fibres, or strands that are twisted or braided together into a larger and stronger form. Ropes have tensile strength and so can be used for dragging and lifting. Rope is thicker and stronger than similarl ...
s, anchor ties, reveal ties, gin wheels, sheeting, etc. Most companies will adopt a specific colour to paint the scaffolding with, in order that quick visual identification can be made in case of theft. All components that are made from metal can be painted but items that are wooden should never be painted as this could hide defects. Despite the metric measurements given, many scaffolders measure tubes and boards in imperial units, with tubes from 21 feet down and boards from 13 ft down. Bamboo scaffolding is widely used in
Hong Kong Hong Kong ( (US) or (UK); , ), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (abbr. Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR), is a List of cities in China, city and Special administrative regions of China, special ...
and
Macau Macau or Macao (; ; ; ), officially the Macao Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (MSAR), is a city and special administrative region of China in the western Pearl River Delta by the South China Sea. With a pop ...
, with
nylon Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers composed of polyamides ( repeating units linked by amide links).The polyamides may be aliphatic or semi-aromatic. Nylon is a silk-like thermoplastic, generally made from pet ...
straps tied into knots as couplers. In India, bamboo or other wooden scaffolding is also mostly used, with poles being lashed together using ropes made from coconut hair ( coir).


Basic scaffolding

The key elements of the scaffolding are ''the standard'', ''ledger'' and ''transoms''. The standards, also called uprights, are the vertical tubes that transfer the entire weight of the structure to the ground where they rest on a square ''base plate'' to spread the load. The base plate has a shank in its centre to hold the tube and is sometimes pinned to a ''sole board''. Ledgers are horizontal tubes which connect between the standards. Transoms rest upon the ledgers at right angles. ''Main transoms'' are placed next to the standards, they hold the standards in place and provide support for boards; ''intermediate transoms'' are those placed between the main transoms to provide extra support for boards. In Canada this style is referred to as "English". "American" has the transoms attached to the standards and is used less but has certain advantages in some situations. As well as the tubes at right angles there are ''cross braces'' to increase rigidity, these are placed diagonally from ledger to ledger, next to the standards to which they are fitted. If the braces are fitted to the ledgers they are called ledger braces. To limit sway a ''facade brace'' is fitted to the face of the scaffold every 30 metres or so at an angle of 35°-55° running right from the base to the top of the scaffold and fixed at every level. Of the couplers previously mentioned, right-angle couplers join ledgers or transoms to standards, putlog or single couplers join board bearing transoms to ledgers - Non-board bearing transoms should be fixed using a right-angle coupler. Swivel couplers are to connect tubes at any other angle. The actual joints are staggered to avoid occurring at the same level in neighbouring standards. The spacings of the basic elements in the scaffold are fairly standard. For a general purpose scaffold the maximum bay length is 2.1 m, for heavier work the bay size is reduced to 2 or even 1.8 m while for inspection a bay width of up to 2.7 m is allowed. The scaffolding width is determined by the width of the boards, the minimum width allowed is 600 mm but a more typical four-board scaffold would be 870 mm wide from standard to standard. More heavy-duty scaffolding can require 5, 6 or even up to 8 boards width. Often an ''inside board'' is added to reduce the gap between the inner standard and the structure. The lift height, the spacing between ledgers, is 2 m, although the base lift can be up to 2.7 m. The diagram above also shows a kicker lift, which is just 150 mm or so above the ground. Transom spacing is determined by the thickness of the boards supported, 38 mm boards require a transom spacing of no more than 1.2 m while a 50 mm board can stand a transom spacing of 2.6 m and 63 mm boards can have a maximum span of 3.25 m. The minimum overhang for all boards is 50 mm and the maximum overhang is no more than 4x the thickness of the board.


Foundations

Good foundations are essential. Often scaffold frameworks will require more than simple base plates to safely carry and spread the load. Scaffolding can be used without base plates on concrete or similar hard surfaces, although base plates are always recommended. For surfaces like pavements or tarmac base plates are necessary. For softer or more doubtful surfaces sole boards must be used, beneath a single standard a sole board should be at least with no dimension less than , the thickness must be at least . For heavier duty scaffold much more substantial baulks set in concrete can be required. On uneven ground steps must be cut for the base plates, a minimum step size of around is recommended. A working platform requires certain other elements to be safe. They must be close-boarded, have double guard rails and toe and stop boards. Safe and secure access must also be provided. ----


Ties

Scaffolds are only rarely independent structures. To provide stability for a scaffolding (at left) framework ties are generally fixed to the adjacent building/fabric/steelwork. General practice is to attach a tie every 4 m on alternate lifts (traditional scaffolding). Prefabricated System scaffolds require structural connections at all frames - i.e. 2–3 m centres (tie patterns must be provided by the System manufacturer/supplier). The ties are coupled to the scaffold as close to the junction of standard and ledger (node point) as possible. Due to recent regulation changes, scaffolding ties must support +/- loads (tie/butt loads) and lateral (shear) loads. Due to the different nature of structures there is a variety of different ties to take advantage of the opportunities. ''Through ties'' are put through structure openings such as windows. A vertical inside tube crossing the opening is attached to the scaffold by a transom and a crossing horizontal tube on the outside called a bridle tube. The gaps between the tubes and the structure surfaces are packed or wedged with timber sections to ensure a solid fit. ''Box ties'' are used to attach the scaffold to suitable pillars or comparable features. Two additional transoms are put across from the lift on each side of the feature and are joined on both sides with shorter tubes called tie tubes. When a complete box tie is impossible a l-shaped ''lip tie'' can be used to hook the scaffold to the structure, to limit inward movement an additional transom, a ''butt transom'', is placed hard against the outside face of the structure. Sometimes it is possible to use ''anchor ties'' (also called ''bolt ties''), these are ties fitted into holes drilled in the structure. A common type is a ring bolt with an expanding wedge which is then tied to a node point. The least 'invasive' tie is a ''reveal tie''. These use an opening in the structure but use a tube wedged horizontally in the opening. The reveal tube is usually held in place by a reveal screw pin (an adjustable threaded bar) and protective packing at either end. A transom tie tube links the reveal tube to the scaffold. Reveal ties are not well regarded, they rely solely on friction and need regular checking so it is not recommended that more than half of all ties be reveal ties. If it is not possible to use a safe number of ties ''rakers'' can be used. These are single tubes attached to a ledger extending out from the scaffold at an angle of less than 75° and securely founded. A transom at the base then completes a triangle back to the base of the main scaffold.


Bamboo scaffolding

Bamboo scaffolding is a type of scaffolding made from
bamboo Bamboos are a diverse group of evergreen perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. The origin of the word "bamboo" is uncertain, ...
and widely used in
construction Construction is a general term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations,"Construction" def. 1.a. 1.b. and 1.c. ''Oxford English Dictionary'' Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) Oxford University Press 2009 and ...
work for centuries. Many famous
landmark A landmark is a recognizable natural or artificial feature used for navigation, a feature that stands out from its near environment and is often visible from long distances. In modern use, the term can also be applied to smaller structures or f ...
s, notably
The Great Wall of China The Great Wall of China (, literally "ten thousand ''li'' wall") is a series of fortifications that were built across the historical northern borders of ancient Chinese states and Imperial China as protection against various nomadic groups ...
, were built using bamboo scaffolding, and its use continues today in some parts of the world.


History

Bamboo scaffolding was first introduced into the building industry in
Hong Kong Hong Kong ( (US) or (UK); , ), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (abbr. Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR), is a List of cities in China, city and Special administrative regions of China, special ...
immediately after colonization in the 1800s. It was widely used in the building of houses and multi-story buildings (up to four stories high) prior to the development of metal scaffolding. It was also useful for short-term construction projects, such as framework for temporary sheds for Cantonese Opera performances. There are three types of scaffolding in Hong Kong: # Double-row scaffold; # Extended Bamboo scaffolding; # Shop signs of Bamboo Scaffolding.


Gradual decline

In 2013, there were 1,751 registered bamboo scaffolders and roughly 200 scaffolding companies in Hong Kong. The use of bamboo scaffolding is diminishing due to shortages in labor and material. Despite the lack of labor force and material, recently safety issues have become another serious concern. The labor shortage may be due to the reluctance of younger generations to become scaffolders. “They even think that it’s a dirty and dangerous job. They are not going to do that kind of work,” said Yu Hang Flord, who has been a scaffolder for 30 years and later became the director of Wui Fai Holdings, a member of the Hong Kong and Kowloon Scaffolders General Merchants Association. “They refuse to step in, although we give them high pay. They are scared of it. Young generations do not like jobs that involve hard work.” Another reason fewer people are becoming scaffolders is that new recruits need to undergo training with the Hong Kong Construction Industry Council in order to acquire a license. Older scaffolders generally learned in apprenticeships, and may have been able to gather more hands-on experience. Material shortages are also a contributing factor to the decline. The bamboo scaffolding material was imported from mainland
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, most populous country, with a Population of China, population exceeding 1.4 billion, slig ...
. Bamboo—which matures after three years to the wide diameter and thick skin perfect for scaffolding—came from the Shaoxing area in
Guangdong Guangdong (, ), alternatively romanized as Canton or Kwangtung, is a coastal province in South China on the north shore of the South China Sea. The capital of the province is Guangzhou. With a population of 126.01 million (as of 2020 ...
. Over the past two decades, firms have had to look to
Guangxi Guangxi (; ; alternately romanized as Kwanghsi; ; za, Gvangjsih, italics=yes), officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (GZAR), is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China, located in South China and bordering Vietnam ...
instead. The industry's fear is that one day supplies will be blocked due to export embargoes and environmental concerns. Attempts to import bamboo from
Thailand Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is b ...
, or switch to synthetic or plastic bamboo, have so far proved unsuccessful. In many African countries, notably
Nigeria Nigeria ( ), , ig, Naìjíríyà, yo, Nàìjíríà, pcm, Naijá , ff, Naajeeriya, kcg, Naijeriya officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf o ...
, bamboo scaffolding is still used for small scale construction in urban areas. In rural areas, the use of bamboo scaffolding for construction is common. In fact, bamboo is an essential building and construction commodity in Nigeria; the bamboo materials are transported on heavy trucks and
trailers Trailer may refer to: a Transportation * Trailer (vehicle), an unpowered vehicle pulled by a powered vehicle ** Bicycle trailer, a wheeled frame for hitching to a bicycle to tow cargo or passengers ** Full-trailer ** Semi-trailer **Horse traile ...
from rural areas (especially the tropical rain forest) to cities and the northern part of Nigeria. Some of the structures in relaxation and recreation centres, both in urban and rural areas of Nigeria, are put in place using bamboo materials. This is not for reasons of
poverty Poverty is the state of having few material possessions or little income. Poverty can have diverse
(especially in the cities) but to add more
aesthetics Aesthetics, or esthetics, is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of beauty and taste, as well as the philosophy of art (its own area of philosophy that comes out of aesthetics). It examines aesthetic values, often expressed t ...
to these centres. Bamboo materials are still used in the construction of some bukas (local restaurants) in rural areas.


Specifications

Forms of bamboo scaffolding include: * Double-row Scaffold Only double-row bamboo scaffold is allowed to be used for working at height. * Nylon Mesh The perimeter of bamboo scaffold should be covered by nylon mesh against falling objects. The lapping of nylon mesh should be at least 100 mm wide. * Access and Egress Suitable means of access should be provided from the building or ground level to the scaffold such as gangway, stairs and ladder etc. * Catch Fan Sloping catch fans shall be erected at a level close to the first floor and at no more than 15 metres, vertical intervals should give a minimum horizontal protection coverage of 1500 mm. Large catch fans should be erected at specific locations to protect the public and/or workers underneath. * Platform of Catch Fan or Receptacle A suitable receptacle, covered with galvanized zinc sheet, should be provided within each catch-fan to trap falling objects. * Steel Bracket Steel brackets shall be provided for supporting the standard of scaffold at about six floor intervals. The horizontal distance between steel brackets is about 3 metres. * Putlogs Mild steel bars or similar materials are required to tie any structure to maintain the bamboo scaffold in its position on every floor. The distance of adjacent putlogs is about 3 to 4 metres. * Working Platform Every working platform must be at least 400 mm wide and closely boarded by planks. The edges of working platforms should be protected by no less than 2 horizontal bamboo members of the scaffold, at intervals between 750 mm to 900 mm and suitable toe-boards no less than 200 mm high. * Special Scaffold All scaffolds with a height excess of 15 metres shall be designed by an Engineer. * Competent Examiner They should complete a formal training in bamboo scaffolding work or hold a trade test certificate on bamboo scaffolding and have at least 10 years of relevant experience. *Trained Worker They should complete formal training in bamboo scaffolding work or hold a trade test certificate on bamboo scaffolding and have at least 3 years of relevant experience.


Uses in construction

Bamboo scaffolding is a temporary structure to support people and materials when constructing or repairing building exteriors and interiors. In bamboo scaffolding, plastic fibre straps and bamboo shoots are bound together to form a solid and secure scaffold structure without screws. Bamboo scaffolding does not need to have a foundation on the ground, as long as the scaffolding has a fulcrum for structural support. Bamboo scaffolding is mostly seen in developing Asian countries such as
India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area, the List of countries and dependencies by population, second-most populous ...
,
Bangladesh Bangladesh (}, ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world, with a population exceeding 165 million people in an area of . Bangladesh is among the mo ...
,
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්‍රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
, and
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Gui ...
.


Cultural use


Chinese opera theatres

Chinese Opera Traditional Chinese opera (), or ''Xiqu'', is a form of musical theatre in China with roots going back to the early periods in China. It is an amalgamation of various art forms that existed in ancient China, and evolved gradually over more tha ...
is one of the world's "Intangible Cultural Heritages". One of bamboo scaffolding's main alternative uses is in drama theatres. The flexibility and convenience of this type of scaffolding suits stages set up for temporary use and also separates the audience from the performers. Respecting and promoting the traditional cultures of Chinese Opera, a huge event called the West Kowloon Bamboo Theatre has been held at the
West Kowloon Waterfront Promenade West Kowloon Waterfront Promenade () is a promenade running alongside Victoria Harbour on reclaimed land in Tsim Sha Tsui on the Kowloon peninsula of Hong Kong. It opened to the public on 17September 2005. The promenade starts at the junction ...
annually since 2012.


Yu Lan Ghost Festival

Stages are built from bamboo scaffolding for the live Chinese operas and Chiu Chow–style dramas performed during every
Yu Lan Yu Lan (; 3 June 1921 – 28 June 2020) was a Chinese film actress. In 1961, Yu won the award for Best Actress at the 2nd Moscow International Film Festival for her performance in ''A Revolutionary Family''. Her youngest son is Chinese director a ...
Ghost Festival to worship ghostly ancestors.


Cheung Chau Bun Festival

The bamboo tower used in the famous Bun Scrambling Competition during the Cheung Chau Bun Festival on the island of
Cheung Chau Cheung Chau (lit. "Long Island") is an island southwest of Hong Kong Island. It is nicknamed the 'dumbbell island (啞鈴島)' due to its shape. It has been inhabited for longer than most other places in Hong Kong, and had a population of ...
is constructed out of bamboo scaffolding. Nine thousand buns, representing fortune and blessing, are supported on the fourteen-meter tall bamboo tower in front of the Pak Tai Temple. For the Piu Sik Parade, bamboo stands and racks are used to hold the young costumed performers above the crowds.


Specialty scaffolding

Types of scaffolding covered by the Occupational Health and Safety Administration in the United States include the following categories: Pole; tube and coupler; fabricated frame (tubular welded frame scaffolds); plasterers’, decorators’, and large area scaffolds; bricklayers' (pipe); horse; form scaffolds and carpenters’ bracket scaffolds; roof brackets; outrigger; pump jacks; ladder jacks; window jacks; crawlingboards (chicken ladders); step, platform, and trestle ladder scaffolds; single-point adjustable suspension; two-point adjustable suspension (swing stages); multipoint adjustable suspension; stonesetters’ multipoint adjustable suspension scaffolds, and masons’ multipoint adjustable suspension scaffolds; catenary; float (ship); interior hung; needle beam; multilevel suspended; mobile; repair bracket scaffolds; and stilts.


Gallery of scaffold types

Byggställning - Ystad-2020.jpg, A scaffolding ready to be assembled. File:Coupler 1.jpg, ''Tube and clamp'' scaffold detail. File:2512-échafaudage-Réunion.jpg, A type of metal pole scaffold in France. File:Deva Citadel 2011 - Wall Section Under Restoration-1.jpg, Wooden pole scaffold. File:CARPENTER AT WORK ON THE FIRST UNIT OF THE NEW ALPINE VILLAGE AT THE OUTSKIRTS OF HELEN. WHEN COMPLETED THE PROJECT... - NARA - 557731.jpg, ''Pipe staging'' is very common in the U.S. Welded sections stack on top of each other and braced with cross braces, workers stand on planks or aluminum platforms. File:HK BambooScaffolding NylonKnot.JPG, ''Bamboo scaffold'' with nylon knots. File:Rietdekken - Beilen - 20521600 - RCE.jpg, The ''putlog'' is the horizontal piece on which the platform rests, the upright pole is called a ''standard''. In some masonry buildings the holes into which the putlogs are inserted remain unfilled and are called ''putlog holes''. File:Fotothek df tg 0003033 Mechanik ^ Hebezeug ^ Winde ^ Seil.jpg, A type of putlog scaffold where the putlogs go through the wall and are relatively balanced on each side. File:Exterieur VERROTTE DRAAGCONSTRUCTIE LOOPGEDEELTE RONDOM HOUTEN OPBOUW - Amsterdam - 20294998 - RCE.jpg, ''Carpenters' bracket scaffolding'' or ''wall brackets'' bolt through, and hang from, a wall. File:Floriano Ferramola rifiuta di abbandonare il cantiere davanti alle truppe di Gaston de Foix.jpg, Tall ''horse scaffold''. File:Scaffold (PSF).png, ''Swing stage'' File:Rieten dak met ladder en ladderlift - Blaricum - 20344468 - RCE.jpg, ''Ladder brackets'' mount to the rungs of a ladder and hold planks. File:Wrens Train For New Job- Training For Ship Mechanics of the Women's Royal Naval Service, England, UK, 1943 D17079.jpg, ''Trestle ladder scaffold''. File:Carpentry and painting LCCN2001705885.tif, A simple putlog type scaffolding and ''roof brackets''.


Putlog scaffold

In addition to the putlog couplers (discussed above), there are also putlog tubes. These have a flattened end or have been fitted with a blade. This feature allows the end of the tube to be inserted into or rest upon the brickwork of the structure. A putlog scaffold may also be called a bricklayer's scaffold. As such, the scaffold consists only of a single row of standards with a single ledger. The putlogs are transoms - attached to the ledger at one end but integrated into the bricks at the other. Spacing is the same on a putlog scaffold as on a general purpose scaffold, and ties are still required. In recent years a number of new innovations have meant an increased scope of use for scaffolding, such as ladderbeams for spanning spaces that cannot accommodate standards and the increased use of sheeting and structure to create temporary roofs. Putlog tubes can also be used vertically when drove under downward pressure into the ground, most typically in greens and fields, where approx 1/4 of the putlog tube remains exposed above ground. The purpose for this alternative method is to create a good anchoring point for additional vertical scaffolding to clamp on to, most commonly used in live events and festivals with scaffolding poles up to 21 feet high where festoon lighting, cabling and bunting can be hung from safely.


Pump-jack

A pump-jack is a type of portable scaffolding system. The scaffold rests on supports attached to two or more vertical posts. The user raises the scaffolding by pumping the foot pedals on the supports, like an automobile jack.


Baker staging

Baker staging is a metal scaffold which is easy to assemble. Rolling platforms typically wide by long and tall sections which can be stacked up to three high with the use of added outriggers. The work platform height is adjustable.


X-Deck ladder scaffolding

Low level scaffolding that is height adjustable. It is a hybrid ladder scaffold work platform.


Standards

The widespread use of scaffolding systems, along with the profound importance that they earned in modern applications such as civil engineering projects and temporary structures, led to the definition of a series of standards covering a vast number of specific issues involving scaffolding. Among the standards there are: *
DIN 4420 DIN 4420 refers to a series of DIN standard Standard may refer to: Symbols * Colours, standards and guidons, kinds of military signs * Standard (emblem), a type of a large symbol or emblem used for identification Norms, conventions or requ ...
, a
DIN DIN or Din or din may refer to: People and language * Din (name), people with the name * Dīn, an Arabic word with three general senses: judgment, custom, and religion from which the name originates * Dinka language (ISO 639 code: din), spoken by ...
standard divided in 5 parts which covers the design and detail of scaffolds, ladder scaffolds, safety requirements and standard types, materials, components, dimensions and loadbearing capacity. * DIN 4421, a
DIN DIN or Din or din may refer to: People and language * Din (name), people with the name * Dīn, an Arabic word with three general senses: judgment, custom, and religion from which the name originates * Dinka language (ISO 639 code: din), spoken by ...
standard which covers the analysis, design and construction of
falsework Falsework consists of temporary structures used in construction to support a permanent structure until its construction is sufficiently advanced to support itself. For arches, this is specifically called centering. Falsework includes temporary s ...
* 29 CFR Part 1926: Safety Standards for Scaffolds Used in the Construction Industry from the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), with an accompanying "construction eTool"


See also

* Index of construction articles *
National Access and Scaffolding Confederation The National Access and Scaffolding Confederation (NASC) is a United Kingdom construction trade association representing companies involved in scaffolding and access work. Founded in 1945, the NASC represents its sector as a member of Build UK ( ...
(UK trade association) * Steeplejack *
Willow Island disaster The Willow Island disaster was the collapse of a cooling tower under construction at the Pleasants Power Station at Willow Island, West Virginia, on April 27, 1978. 51 construction workers were killed. It is thought to be the deadliest const ...


References


External links


Illustrated Formwork and Temporary Work Glossary

New York City Scaffolding Regulations PDF (shows nine types of scaffolding)


* ttps://www.osha.gov/dte/library/scaffolds/scaffolding/handout.html OSHA scaffold types illustrated
Illustrations of many kinds of scaffolding


{{Authority control Construction equipment Scaffolding