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Ringforts, ring forts or ring fortresses are circular
fortified A fortification is a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Latin ''fortis'' ("strong") and ''facere' ...
settlements that were mostly built during the
Bronze Age The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second pri ...
up to about the year 1000. They are found in Northern Europe, especially in
Ireland Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, in north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St George's Channel. Ireland is the s ...
. There are also many in
South Wales South Wales ( cy, De Cymru) is a loosely defined region of Wales bordered by England to the east and mid Wales to the north. Generally considered to include the historic counties of Glamorgan and Monmouthshire, south Wales extends westwards ...
and in
Cornwall Cornwall (; kw, Kernow ) is a Historic counties of England, historic county and Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in South West England. It is recognised as one of the Celtic nations, and is the homeland of the Cornish people ...
, where they are called rounds. Ringforts come in many sizes and may be made of stone or earth. Earthen ringforts would have been marked by a
circular rampart A circular rampart (German: ''Ringwall'') is an embankment built in the shape of a circle that was used as part of the defences for a military fortification, hill fort or refuge, or was built for religious purposes or as a place of gathering. The ...
(a bank and ditch), often with a stakewall. Both stone and earthen ringforts would generally have had at least one building inside.


Distribution


Ireland

In
Irish language Irish (Standard Irish: ), also known as Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Insular Celtic branch of the Celtic language family, which is a part of the Indo-European language family. Irish is indigenous to the island of Ireland and was ...
sources they are known by a number of names: ' (anglicised ''rath'', also Welsh ''rath''), ' (anglicised ''lis''; cognate with Cornish '), ' (anglicised ''cashel''), ' (anglicised ''caher'' or ''cahir''; cognate with
Welsh Welsh may refer to: Related to Wales * Welsh, referring or related to Wales * Welsh language, a Brittonic Celtic language spoken in Wales * Welsh people People * Welsh (surname) * Sometimes used as a synonym for the ancient Britons (Celtic peopl ...
', Cornish and Breton ') and ' (anglicised ''dun'' or ''doon''; cognate with Welsh and Cornish ').Edwards, Nancy. ''The Archaeology of Early Medieval Ireland''. Routledge, 2006. Page 12. The ' and ' was an earthen ringfort; the ' being the enclosing bank and the ' being the open space within.Seán P Ó Ríordáin, Ruaidhrí De Valera. ''Antiquities of the Irish countryside''. Taylor & Francis, 1979. Page 30. The ' and ' was a stone ringfort. The term ' was usually used for any stronghold of importance, which may or may not be ring-shaped. In Ireland, over 40,000 sites have been identified as ringforts and it is thought that at least 50,000 ringforts existed on the island.''New History'', 550 They are common throughout the country, with a mean density of just over one ringfort within any area of . It is likely that many have been destroyed by farming and urbanisation. However, many hitherto unknown ringforts have been found thanks to early
Ordnance Survey Ordnance Survey (OS) is the national mapping agency for Great Britain. The agency's name indicates its original military purpose (see ordnance and surveying), which was to map Scotland in the wake of the Jacobite rising of 1745. There was a ...
maps, aerial photography, and the archaeological work that has accompanied road-building.


England and Wales

In Cornwall, parts of Devon, and south Wales, enclosed settlements share many characteristics with their Irish counterparts, including the circular shape and (), and their continuing occupation from the Iron Age into the early medieval period; the form later influencing the distinctive circular shell-keeps found across the medieval
Severnside The geographical term Severnside refers to an area adjoining or straddling the River Severn or its estuary in Great Britain. The term is used by different organisations, in different contexts, to refer to quite different areas. The Severn passe ...
region. Few Cornish examples have been archaeologically excavated, with the exception of Trethurgy Rounds.


Scandinavia

Hillforts are also known from Scandinavia, of which nineteen can be found on the Swedish island of
Öland Öland (, ; ; sometimes written ''Øland'' in other Scandinavian languages, and often ''Oland'' internationally; la, Oelandia) is the second-largest Swedish island and the smallest of the traditional provinces of Sweden. Öland has an area ...
alone. These hillforts are not to be confused with Viking ring fortresses, of which seven are known from Denmark and southern Sweden, all from around 980 in the
Viking Age The Viking Age () was the period during the Middle Ages when Norsemen known as Vikings undertook large-scale raiding, colonizing, conquest, and trading throughout Europe and reached North America. It followed the Migration Period and the Germ ...
. The Viking forts all share a strikingly similar design and are collectively referred to as
Trelleborg Trelleborg () is a town in Skåne County, Sweden, with 43,359 inhabitants as of December 31, 2015. It is the southernmost town in Sweden located some west from the southernmost point of Sweden and the Scandinavian peninsula. It is one of the ...
s, after the first excavated fortress of that type in 1936. All the Viking ring fortresses are believed to have been built within a very short timeframe, during the reign of Harold Bluetooth, but for yet unknown military purposes. They might have served as boot camps for
Sweyn Forkbeard Sweyn Forkbeard ( non, Sveinn Haraldsson tjúguskegg ; da, Svend Tveskæg; 17 April 963 – 3 February 1014) was King of Denmark from 986 to 1014, also at times King of the English and King of Norway. He was the father of King Harald II of ...
's men before his invasion of England in 1013.


Chronology

The debate on
chronology Chronology (from Latin ''chronologia'', from Ancient Greek , ''chrónos'', "time"; and , ''-logia'') is the science of arranging events in their order of occurrence in time. Consider, for example, the use of a timeline or sequence of even ...
is primarily a result of the huge number of ringforts and the failure of any other form of settlement site to survive to modern times in any great quantity from the period before the Early Christian period or from
Gaelic Ireland Gaelic Ireland ( ga, Éire Ghaelach) was the Gaelic political and social order, and associated culture, that existed in Ireland from the late prehistoric era until the early 17th century. It comprised the whole island before Anglo-Normans c ...
after the
Anglo-Norman Anglo-Norman may refer to: *Anglo-Normans, the medieval ruling class in England following the Norman conquest of 1066 *Anglo-Norman language **Anglo-Norman literature *Anglo-Norman England, or Norman England, the period in English history from 1066 ...
arrival. Three general theories mark the debate on the chronology of Irish ringforts; firstly the theory that wishes to date ringforts back into the
Iron Age The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age division of the prehistory and protohistory of humanity. It was preceded by the Stone Age ( Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) and the Bronze Age ( Chalcolithic). The concept has been mostly ...
period; secondly, the theory that seeks to see the continuation of ringfort habitation into the Later Medieval and even the Modern Period; finally, the more common and generally accepted theory that ringforts were a product of the second half of the first millennium, a theory which has been given greater definition by Matthew Stout in recent years. According to the authoritative ''New History of Ireland'' (2005), "archaeologists are agreed that the vast bulk of them are the farm enclosures of the well-to-do of early medieval Ireland".


Theories

The theories that the ringfort either pre- or post-dates the
Early Middle Ages The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th or early 6th century to the 10th century. They marked the start of the Mi ...
in Ireland, are both based on essentially the same premise, as is highlighted here by Tadhg O'Keefe in relation to the latter argument:


Dating from the Iron Age

The conjecture that ringforts can be seen to have evolved from and be part of an Iron Age tradition has been expanded by Darren Limbert. This hypothesis is based on a number of re-interpretations of the available evidence, as well as concern over the available evidence. As only a small portion of ringforts have undergone total excavation, and the fact that these excavations have not taken place on anything like a national level, the evidence is insufficient to place all ringforts and the origins of them within the Early Christian period. Limbert argues instead, that the ringfort should be seen in the context of a variety of similar developments in Britain and the European Continent, particularly in
Iberia The Iberian Peninsula (), ** * Aragonese language, Aragonese and Occitan language, Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica'' ** ** * french: Péninsule Ibérique * mwl, Península Eibérica * eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a pe ...
and
Gaul Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...
. While conceding that most ringforts were built in the Early Christian period, he suggests a link between the arrival of Eóganachta dynasty in
Munster Munster ( gle, an Mhumhain or ) is one of the provinces of Ireland, in the south of Ireland. In early Ireland, the Kingdom of Munster was one of the kingdoms of Gaelic Ireland ruled by a "king of over-kings" ( ga, rí ruirech). Following t ...
c. 400 AD, and the introduction of ringforts. In support of this he notes that: "The other major Eoganachta ringforts Cashel.html" ;"title="Cashel,_Tipperary.html" ;"title="ther than Cashel, Tipperary">Cashel">Cashel,_Tipperary.html" ;"title="ther than Cashel, Tipperary">Cashelof Ballycatten, Garranes and possibly Garryduff, despite limited Stratigraphy, stratigraphic discernment, have produced artefacts of ambiguously early origins. Also, their defensive nature,... supports an intrusion of a
Celt The Celts (, see pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples () are. "CELTS location: Greater Europe time period: Second millennium B.C.E. to present ancestry: Celtic a collection of Indo-European peoples. "The Celts, an ancient ...
ic warrior caste..." The similarity with South Welsh 'raths' and Cornish 'rounds' suggests a degree of cultural interaction between Western British and Irish populations, however differences in dates of occupation mean this cannot be confirmed. On the island of
Öland Öland (, ; ; sometimes written ''Øland'' in other Scandinavian languages, and often ''Oland'' internationally; la, Oelandia) is the second-largest Swedish island and the smallest of the traditional provinces of Sweden. Öland has an area ...
,
Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic countries, Nordic c ...
, nineteen ringforts have been identified, including Eketorp, a site that has been completely excavated and that one may visit. Currently, excavations are ongoing at
Sandby borg Sandby borg is an Iron Age ringfort, one of at least 15 on the island of Öland, Sweden. It sits about 2 kilometers southeast of Södra Sandby village in Sandby parish in southeastern Öland. It is close to the village of Gårdby. From 2011, the ...
, which was the site of a massacre in the 5th century A.D. It is also possible that the Hill of Tara is an early type of ringfort.


Use continuing into the Later Medieval period

At the opposite end of the spectrum to this, the argument has been put forward to suggest that ringforts were in use, if not being built in the Later Medieval and possibly Early Modern period in Gaelic Ireland. This argument is primarily two-fold, ringforts were gradually converted into what would more generally be considered as mottes today, and there is some slight and contentious archaeological evidence that points to the habitation and construction of obvious ringforts in this later medieval period. From a morphological viewpoint, and probably also from the view of the contemporary person, there is little to distinguish a ringfort from a small earthwork castle or motte. Indeed, in a number of cases it would appear that either the
Normans The Normans ( Norman: ''Normaunds''; french: Normands; la, Nortmanni/Normanni) were a population arising in the medieval Duchy of Normandy from the intermingling between Norse Viking settlers and indigenous West Franks and Gallo-Romans. ...
converted existing ringforts into the basis of the future construction of mottes and earthworks, or that the Gaelic Irish, through the use of raised raths, sought to emulate the Norman example. Some L Plan Castles, such as Balingarry Castle in Ireland originated as ringforts. This theory is supported by a number of excavations, most notably the results of the Castleskreen II excavation, and the raised raths at Piper's Fort, and Ballyfounder, Co.
Limerick Limerick ( ; ga, Luimneach ) is a western city in Ireland situated within County Limerick. It is in the province of Munster and is located in the Mid-West which comprises part of the Southern Region. With a population of 94,192 at the 2 ...
, which seem to have been converted into mottes in the case of Castleskreen II or in the later cases, built in imitation of such constructions. If one were to accept a defensive function for ringforts, it would seem that after the introduction of more complex forms of defensive structures into Ireland this would naturally lead to the use of ringforts and raised raths in a manner analogous to the contemporary Norman buildings.


7th to 10th centuries

While it would seem probable that some ringforts may have seen continuation in the Later Medieval period as adapted or imitation mottes it seems doubtful if the continuation that ringforts were still being built on a more general scale throughout the country, and the evidence put forward for such a theory would appear quite slim. The excavations which support such a theory, most notably Rynne's excavation at Shannon Airport of Garrynamona which is suggestive of a 15th-century ringfort being constructed, have failed to win any form of widespread popular acceptance. The most common theory however is that ringforts are the product of the later half of the first millennium, a theory that has generally been supported by the excavated evidence of the period, and one that has seen remarkable if slightly ambitious definition from Matthew Stout. In his work ''The Irish Ringfort'', Stout has sought to use the
radiocarbon Carbon-14, C-14, or radiocarbon, is a radioactive isotope of carbon with an atomic nucleus containing 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Its presence in organic materials is the basis of the radiocarbon dating method pioneered by Willard Libby and c ...
and dendrochronological dates from 114 ringforts and associated sites to find an overall date pattern for the use of ringforts; and through this has placed over half of all ringforts in the period 540 AD to 884 AD with two-thirds falling within the 600 AD to 900 AD period. While this method has brought the dating of the ringfort phase of Irish history to an ever more accurate level, certain problems do exist with his analysis. Firstly, as he notes himself, the research is overly biased towards
Ulster Ulster (; ga, Ulaidh or ''Cúige Uladh'' ; sco, label= Ulster Scots, Ulstèr or ''Ulster'') is one of the four traditional Irish provinces. It is made up of nine counties: six of these constitute Northern Ireland (a part of the United Kin ...
(64% of dated sites were from Ulster), and the dates come from a very small sample of sites relative to the total number of ringforts. Finally, Stout's use of radiocarbon dating is to one standard deviation, which means that there is an approximately one third chance that the data offered is inaccurate by up to 100 years on either side. Yet despite these difficulties, Stout's analysis has to a large extent brought a degree of finality to the debate of the dating and use of ringforts, with it being more or less certain that the vast majority were probably occupied and constructed in the second half of the first millennium. His analysis is further supported by Gerald of Wales who commented that ringforts in Ireland, were known as Daneforts, and that they had been abandoned by the late 12th century when he was in Ireland.


Function


In agriculture

It has traditionally been understood that the ringfort was a dispersed farmstead, the home of a free man and his family and the centre of a mixed agricultural economy to a large extent dominated by cattle. A medieval Irish law text describes a prosperous farmer - in Old Irish - as having a dwelling house, a sheep-pen, a calf-pen and a pig-sty - it would seem that these were all within the ring-fort. Evidence suggests that not all ringforts were farmsteads, but rather that ringforts appeared to have fulfilled a variety of other functions as well. The most celebrated example of this is Garryduff II in
County Cork County Cork ( ga, Contae Chorcaí) is the largest and the southernmost county of Ireland, named after the city of Cork, the state's second-largest city. It is in the province of Munster and the Southern Region. Its largest market towns a ...
. This ringfort which is overlooked and in close proximity to another larger ringfort, Garryduff I, has provided archaeologists with no evidence of habitation or settlement, and the pre-eminent theory at the moment is that this ringfort was possibly used as an enclosure for livestock. However, this interpretation is still the most commonly held in academic, archaeological and popular debate, although pollen studies and other evidence have greatly modified the traditional view of the dominance of livestock as opposed to arable farming in early medieval Ireland, making it clear that cereal production was much more important than once thought in the Early Medieval period.


In industry

Other sites have provided evidence that ringforts may not have principally been farmsteads, but rather had a more diverse and significant role in the economy. A good example of this is provided by the large, tri-vallate ringfort in Garannes, County Cork, which offers no evidence for habitation or settlement but provides a great deal of evidence to suggest that the site had an industrial nature. Furthermore, the finds of continental
pottery Pottery is the process and the products of forming vessels and other objects with clay and other ceramic materials, which are fired at high temperatures to give them a hard and durable form. Major types include earthenware, stoneware and ...
at the site, suggests that the site was trading with the continent and/or may have been acting as a gateway centre for similar high status goods into the local economy. Both Garannes, and especially Garryduff II, highlight the other roles that ringforts may have had in early Christian Ireland. While it would seem that most ringforts fitted the traditional explanation as farmsteads, that should not be used as a blanket explanation. A number of other functions for many of the surviving ringforts, such as those outlined above and possibly other settlement functions, still need to be considered.


In defence

A ringfort is a defensive feature that would appear to be obvious both from the name with the defensive implications that fort implies, and also from the generally understood morphological definition of the ringfort, with the banks and fosse been commonly seen as defensive. Indeed, in S. Ó Ríordáin's common morphological definition, he refers to the banks and fosses of the ringfort as defences. One presumes that the ringfort had a defensive aspect, and in a cattle-dominated society it is generally argued that the purpose of the ringfort was to provide protection to a small community and their livestock during a 'hit and run' raid for cattle, the idea being that the ringfort would provide adequate defence for a small period of time. This theory is strengthened by the idea of 'visual territories' which operates from the assumption that all ringfort in a region were probably occupied contemporarily, and that in a particular area one ringfort would be in the sight of at least one other neighbouring ringfort so that if one ringfort were attacked, relief would possibly come from a neighbouring one. Furthermore, a number of aspects of the generally circular nature of the ringfort highlight the defensive advantages, most notably that a circle as a shape "offered broad perspectives of approaching attackers and allowed the maximum area to be enclosed relative to the length of the bank constructed."


In aristocracy

While defence may be expanded as the modern day explanation for the surrounding banks of a ringfort, this was not the contemporary explanation, rather the explanations forthcoming from the Early Christian texts stress the importance and role of the banks in signifying
nobility Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. The character ...
, kingship and authority. This relationship can be quite clearly seen in the following extract from the Críth Gablach: As can be seen from the above text, the relationship between the banks of a ringfort and vassalage is quite clear. With the argument being that the more elaborate the ringfort, usually in the forms of multiple outlying banks, the higher the status of the occupant. This emphasis on status in the function of the ringfort over that of defence would explain a number of defensive weaknesses of the ringfort. Banks, or multiples of them, would not appear to offer the best return to their builders for their defensive value in comparison to a fence or a hedge. Also, few of the ringforts where buildings have been found inside, would be able to survive a night with a herd of cattle brought inside the ringfort. Furthermore, little effort would appear to have been expended on the upkeep of ditches and fosses to prevent decay and silting. Another key difficulty with viewing the ringfort primarily as a defensive unit is the general lack of ability to fight out from the ringforts, from the top of the banks.


Legends and folklore concerning ringforts and rounds

The materials used to construct ringforts frequently disintegrated over time. Tradition associated their circular remains with
fairies A fairy (also fay, fae, fey, fair folk, or faerie) is a type of mythical being or legendary creature found in the folklore of multiple European cultures (including Celtic, Slavic, Germanic, English, and French folklore), a form of spirit, ...
and leprechauns, and they were called ''“ fairy forts"''. Castle Pencaire on Tregonning Hill was regarded as the abode of giants.
Chun Castle Chun may refer to: Places * Chun River in Thailand * Chun District in Phayao Province, Thailand * Chûn Castle, a hillfort in the United Kingdom * Commandery (China) (), an administrative division of imperial China People and names * Jeon (Korea ...
in
Morvah Morvah is a civil parish and village on the Penwith peninsula in west Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. Geography The village is centred approximately eight miles (13 km) west-southwest of St Ives and north-west of Penzance.Ordnance Su ...
is related as the home of the giant ''Denbras'' who is buried by the character Tom at Chun Quoit from oral folklore recorded by
William Bottrell William Bottrell (1816–1881) was born at Rafta, St Levan in Cornwall on 7 March 1816. He contributed greatly to the preservation of Cornish mythology. Both he and Thomas Quiller Couch contributed folk stories of West Cornwall for Robert Hunt's ...
published 1870. Kelly Rounds (Castle Kilibury) in
Triggshire The hundred of Trigg (also known as Triggshire) was one of ten ancient administrative shires of Cornwall—see "Hundreds of Cornwall". Trigg is mentioned by name during the 7th century, as "Pagus Tricurius", "land of three war hosts". Morris, ...
is often proposed as the location of King Arthur's Celliwig, known from the Welsh poem ''Pa Gwr yw y Porthawr?'' and described in the 11th century Culhwch and Olwen.
Castle Dore Castle Dore is an Iron Age hill fort ( ringfort) near Fowey in Cornwall, United Kingdom located at . It was probably occupied from the 5th or 4th centuries BC until the 1st century BC. It consists of two ditches surrounding a circul ...
is often proposed as the court of
King Mark Mark of Cornwall ( la, Marcus, kw, Margh, cy, March, br, Marc'h) was a sixth-century King of Kernow (Cornwall), possibly identical with King Conomor. He is best known for his appearance in Arthurian legend as the uncle of Tristan and the husb ...
(Mergh Cunomor / Marcus Cunomorus) in the romance Drustan hac Yseult, the doomed hero sailing the seas from Brittany to Ireland to seek his love.


List of notable ringforts

;Ireland *
Cahercommaun Cahercommaun (), sometimes ''Cahercommane'', is a triple stone ringfort on the south-east edge of the Burren area, in Kilnaboy, near the rural village of Carran, in County Clare, Ireland. It was built in the 9th century. Features Cahercommau ...
(Cathair Chomáin) – ringfort/
promontory fort A promontory fort is a defensive structure located above a steep cliff, often only connected to the mainland by a small neck of land, thus using the topography to reduce the ramparts needed. Although their dating is problematic, most seem to da ...
* Caherconnell (Cathair Chonaill) *
Caherconree Caherconree () at , is the 20th–highest peak in Ireland on the Arderin scale, and the 27th–highest peak on the Vandeleur-Lynam scale.Mountainviews, (September 2013), "A Guide to Ireland's Mountain Summits: The Vandeleur-Lynams & the Arderin ...
(Cathair Conraoi) – ringfort/promontory fort * Caherdaniel (Cathair Dónall) * Dún Aonghasa – ringfort/promontory fort *
Dún Dúchathair Dún Dúchathair or simply Dúchathair (anglicized Doocaher), meaning "black fort", is a large stone fort on the cliffs at Cill Éinne, (Killeany), Inishmore (one of the Aran Islands) in County Galway, Ireland. Due to erosion, it now sits on a ro ...
– ringfort/promontory fort * Grianán Ailigh * Lisnagade (Lios na gCead) * Mooghaun (An Múchán) *
Mount Sandel Fort Mount Sandel Fort is an Iron Age fort in Coleraine, County Londonderry, Northern Ireland. The remains of the fort are located close to the Mount Sandel Mesolithic site. Mount Sandel Fort mound is a State Care Historic Monument in the townland o ...
(Cill Santail) * Staigue (An Stéig) The royal sites of Ireland are also sometimes called ringforts, although their role seems to have been mainly ceremonial. They include: * Cruachan * Dún Ailinne * Navan Fort (Eamhain Mhacha) * Tara (Teamhair) * Tlachta * Tullahoge (Tulaigh Óg) ; Cornwall (Cornish rounds) *
Caer Bran Caer Bran Hill Fort is an archaeological site near Sancreed and Carn Euny Iron Age village, on the Penwith peninsula in Cornwall. Site It is a popular location for walkers and antiquarians because it commands a stunning 360 degree panorama of ...
*
Carlidnack Carlidnack (or Carlinack) is a hamlet in the parish of Mawnan, Cornwall, England. Carlidnack lies south-west of Falmouth on a road leading north-east from Mawnan Smith and at around above sea level. There is evidence of an ancient settlement ...
*
Castle an Dinas Castle an Dinas is an Iron Age hillfort at the summit of Castle Downs near St Columb Major in Cornwall, UK () and is considered one of the most important hillforts in the southwest of Britain. It dates from around the 3rd to 2nd century BCE ...
*
Castle Dore Castle Dore is an Iron Age hill fort ( ringfort) near Fowey in Cornwall, United Kingdom located at . It was probably occupied from the 5th or 4th centuries BC until the 1st century BC. It consists of two ditches surrounding a circul ...
*
Chûn Castle Chûn Castle is a large Iron Age hillfort (ringfort) near Penzance in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. The fort was built about 2,500 years ago, and fell into disuse until the early centuries AD when it was possibly re-occupied to protect the ...
* Helsbury Castle * Kelly Rounds * Penventinnie Round – well preserved circular fort * Prideaux (Pridias) * Tregonning – rounds associated with circular hillfort * Trethurgy – an excavated round * Warbstow Bury - regarded as the 'one of the largest and best preserved
multivallate A hillfort is a type of earthwork used as a fortified refuge or defended settlement, located to exploit a rise in elevation for defensive advantage. They are typically European and of the Bronze Age or Iron Age. Some were used in the post-Rom ...
hillforts' in Cornwal
English heritage Report
* Cadson Bury,
Callington Callington ( kw, Kelliwik) is a civil parish and town in east Cornwall, England, United Kingdom about north of Saltash and south of Launceston. Callington parish had a population of 4,783 in 2001, according to the 2001 census. This had ...
– often associated with the Arthurian Celliwig ;Denmark (Viking ring fortresses) * Aggersborg *
Fyrkat Fyrkat is a former Viking ring castle in Denmark, dating from c. 980 AD. It is located near the town of Hobro, some distance from the present end of the Mariager Fjord in Northern Jutland. The fortress is built on a narrow piece of land, with a ...
*
Nonnebakken Nonnebakken (literally, "The Nun Hill") is a hill in Odense, Denmark. It is the site of one of Denmark's six former Viking ring castles, built during the reign of Sweyn Forkbeard, who had forced his father Harold Bluetooth to leave the country and ...
* Trelleborg (Slagelse) ;Sweden * Eketorp * Ismantorp *
Sandby borg Sandby borg is an Iron Age ringfort, one of at least 15 on the island of Öland, Sweden. It sits about 2 kilometers southeast of Södra Sandby village in Sandby parish in southeastern Öland. It is close to the village of Gårdby. From 2011, the ...
- site of a preserved massacre ;Germany * Ringwall of Burg * Ringwall of Otzenhausen ;Estonia * Valjala Stronghold * Varbola Stronghold


See also

* * * *


Notes


References

* "New History", Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí ed. (2005). ''A New History of Ireland: Prehistoric and early Ireland'', (Volume 1 of series), Oxford University Press,


Further reading/sources

* GF Barrett and BJ Graham, ''Some considerations concerning the dating and distribution of Ring-Forts in Ireland'' in Ulster Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 38., 1975 pp. 33–45 * Michelle Comber, ''Trade and Communication Networks in Early Historic Ireland'' in The Journal of Archaeology, X, 2001 * Nancy Edward, ''The archaeology of early medieval Ireland'', Batsford, London, 1996 * PJ Graham & LJ Proudfoot, ''An Historical Geography of Ireland'', Academic Press, London, 1993 * Darren Limbert, ''Irish Ringforts: A review of their Origins'' in Archaeological Journal, 153, 1996, pp. 243–289 * CJ Lynn ''Some Early Ringforts and crannógs'' in The Journal of Irish Archaeology, I, 1983, p. 47–58 * Eoin MacNeill ''Ancient Irish Law : The Law of Status or Franchise" in the Royal Irish Academy, Volume XXXVI, C, 1923 pp. 365–316 * JP Mallory & TE McNeill, ''The Archaeology of Ulster from Colonisation to Plantation'', Institute of Irish Studies, Belfast, 1991 * Tadhg O'Keefe, ''Medieval Ireland – An archaeology'', Tempus, Gloucestershire, 2000 * MJ O'Kelly, ''Two Ringforts at Garryduff, Co. Cork'' in Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 63C, 1962 pp. 17–125 * SP Ó Ríordáin ''The excavation of a large Earthen Ringfort at Garranes, Co. Cork'' in Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 47C, 1942, pp. 77–150 * Matthew Stout, ''Early Christian Ireland: Settlement and environment'' in ''A History of Settlement in Ireland'', TB Barry (ed), London, 2000, pp. 81–109 * Matthew Stout, ''The Irish Ringfort'', Four Court Press, Dublin, 1997 * Aiden O'Sullivan, Finbar McCormick, Thomas R. Kerr, and Lorcan Harney, ''Early Medieval Ireland AD 400-1100: The Evidence from Archaeological Excavations'', Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, 2013, 2014.


External links


Details of archaeological excavations in Ireland




{{Fortifications Fortifications by type Archaeology of Ireland Forts in Ireland Archaeology of Wales Prehistoric Ireland