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ancient Roman religion Religion in ancient Rome consisted of varying imperial and provincial religious practices, which were followed both by the people of Rome as well as those who were brought under its rule. The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, ...
, the ''rex sacrorum'' ("king of the sacred things", also sometimes ''rex sacrificulus'') was a
senatorial A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the e ...
priesthood reserved for
patricians The patricians (from la, patricius, Greek: πατρίκιος) were originally a group of ruling class families in ancient Rome. The distinction was highly significant in the Roman Kingdom, and the early Republic, but its relevance waned after ...
. Although in the historical era, the '' pontifex maximus'' was the head of Roman state religion, Festus says that in the ranking of the highest Roman priests (''ordo sacerdotum''), the ''rex sacrorum'' was of highest prestige, followed by the '' flamines maiores'' ('' Flamen Dialis'', ''
Flamen Martialis In ancient Roman religion, the Flamen Martialis was the high priest of the official state cult of Mars, the god of war. He was one of the '' flamines maiores'', the three high priests who were the most important of the fifteen flamens. The Flamen ...
'', '' Flamen Quirinalis'') and the ''pontifex maximus''. The ''rex sacrorum'' was based in the Regia.


Description

During the
Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Ki ...
, the ''rex sacrorum'' was chosen by the ''pontifex maximus'' from a list of patricians submitted by the
College of Pontiffs The College of Pontiffs ( la, Collegium Pontificum; see ''collegium'') was a body of the ancient Roman state whose members were the highest-ranking priests of the state religion. The college consisted of the '' pontifex maximus'' and the other '' ...
. A further requirement was that he be born from parents married through the ritual of ''
confarreatio In ancient Rome, ''confarreatio'' was a traditional patrician form of marriage. The ceremony involved the bride and bridegroom sharing a cake of emmer, in Latin ''far'' or ''panis farreus'', hence the rite's name. (''Far'' is often translated as ...
'', which was also the form of marriage he himself had to enter. His wife, the ''regina sacrorum'', also performed religious duties specific to her role. Marriage was thus such a fundamental part of the priesthood that if the ''regina'' died, the ''rex'' had to resign. The ''rex sacrorum'' was above the ''pontifex maximus'', although he was more or less a powerless figurehead. The ''rex sacrorum'' wore a
toga The toga (, ), a distinctive garment of ancient Rome, was a roughly semicircular cloth, between in length, draped over the shoulders and around the body. It was usually woven from white wool, and was worn over a tunic. In Roman historical tra ...
, the undecorated soft "shoeboot" ''(
calceus The calceus (pl. ''calcei'': cf Latin ''calx'' "ankle") was a mid-weight, outdoor walking "shoe-boot", worn in ancient Rome. It was flat-soled, usually hobnailed and entirely covered the foot and ankle, up to the lower shin. It was secured with c ...
)'', and carried a ceremonial axe; as a priest of archaic Roman religion, he sacrificed ''
capite velato The vocabulary of ancient Roman religion was highly specialized. Its study affords important information about the religion, traditions and beliefs of the ancient Romans. This legacy is conspicuous in European cultural history in its influence on ...
'', with head covered. The ''rex'' held a sacrifice on the
Kalends The calends or kalends ( la, kalendae) is the first day of every month in the Roman calendar. The English word "calendar" is derived from this word. Use The Romans called the first day of every month the ''calends'', signifying the start of a n ...
of each month. On the Nones, he announced the dates of
festivals A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid. A festival ...
for the month. On March 24 and May 24, he held a sacrifice in the
Comitium The Comitium ( it, Comizio) was the original open-air public meeting space of Ancient Rome, and had major religious and prophetic significance. The name comes from the Latin word for "assembly". The Comitium location at the northwest corner of th ...
. In addition to these duties the ''rex sacrorum'' seems to have functioned as the high priest of
Janus In ancient Roman religion and myth, Janus ( ; la, Ianvs ) is the god of beginnings, gates, transitions, time, duality, doorways, passages, frames, and endings. He is usually depicted as having two faces. The month of January is named for Jan ...
. The ''rex sacrorum'' was a feature of Italic religion and possibly also Etruscan. The title is found in
Latin cities Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
such as
Lanuvium Lanuvium, modern Lanuvio, is an ancient city of Latium vetus, some southeast of Rome, a little southwest of the Via Appia. Situated on an isolated hill projecting south from the main mass of the Alban Hills, Lanuvium commanded an extensive vie ...
,
Tusculum Tusculum is a ruined Classical Rome, Roman city in the Alban Hills, in the Latium region of Italy. Tusculum was most famous in Roman times for the many great and luxurious patrician country villas sited close to the city, yet a comfortable dist ...
, and
Velitrae Velletri (; la, Velitrae; xvo, Velester) is an Italian '' comune'' in the Metropolitan City of Rome, approximately 40 km to the southeast of the city centre, located in the Alban Hills, in the region of Lazio, central Italy. Neighbouring com ...
. At Rome the priesthood was deliberately depoliticized; the ''rex sacrorum'' was not elected, and his inauguration was merely witnessed by a '' comitia calata'', an assembly called for the purpose. Like the '' flamen Dialis'' but in contrast to the pontiffs and
augur An augur was a priest and official in the classical Roman world. His main role was the practice of augury, the interpretation of the will of the gods by studying the flight of birds. Determinations were based upon whether they were flying ...
s, the ''rex'' was barred from a political and military career. He was thus not a "decayed king"; rather, after the overthrow of the
kings of Rome The king of Rome ( la, rex Romae) was the ruler of the Roman Kingdom. According to legend, the first king of Rome was Romulus, who founded the city in 753 BC upon the Palatine Hill. Seven legendary kings are said to have ruled Rome until 509 BC ...
, the office of ''rex sacrorum'' fulfilled at least some of the sacral duties of kingship, with the
consuls A consul is an official representative of the government of one state in the territory of another, normally acting to assist and protect the citizens of the consul's own country, as well as to facilitate trade and friendship between the people ...
assuming political power and military command, as well as some sacral functions. It is a matter of scholarly debate as to whether the ''rex sacrorum'' was created during the formation of the Republic, as
Arnaldo Momigliano Arnaldo Dante Momigliano (5 September 1908 – 1 September 1987) was an Italian historian of classical antiquity, known for his work in historiography, and characterised by Donald Kagan as "the world's leading student of the writing of history ...
argued, or had existed in the Regal period.


Regina sacrorum

As the wife of the ''rex sacrorum'', the ''regina sacrorum'' ("queen of the sacred things") was a high priestess who carried out ritual duties only she could perform. On the
Kalends The calends or kalends ( la, kalendae) is the first day of every month in the Roman calendar. The English word "calendar" is derived from this word. Use The Romans called the first day of every month the ''calends'', signifying the start of a n ...
of every month, the ''regina'' presided at the sacrifice of a sow ''(porca)'' or female lamb ''(agna)'' to Juno. The highly public nature of these sacrifices, like the role of the Vestals in official Roman religion, contradicts the commonplace notion that women's religious activities in ancient Rome were restricted to the private or domestic sphere. Unlike the Vestals, however, the ''regina sacrorum'' and the ''
flaminica Dialis In ancient Roman religion, the was the high priest of Jupiter. The term ''Dialis'' is related to ''Diespiter'', an Old Latin form of the name ''Jupiter''. There were 15 '' flamines'', of whom three were ''flamines maiores'', serving the thr ...
'' (the wife of the ''flamen Dialis'' or high priest of
Jupiter Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined, but slightly less than one-thousand ...
) were complements to a male partner; these two priesthoods were gender-balanced and had shared duties. While performing her rituals, the ''regina'' wore a headdress called the ''arculum'', formed from a garland of
pomegranate The pomegranate (''Punica granatum'') is a fruit-bearing deciduous shrub in the family Lythraceae, subfamily Punicoideae, that grows between tall. The pomegranate was originally described throughout the Mediterranean Basin, Mediterranean re ...
twigs tied up with a white woolen thread. The ''rex'' and ''regina sacrorum'' were required to marry by the ritual of ''
confarreatio In ancient Rome, ''confarreatio'' was a traditional patrician form of marriage. The ceremony involved the bride and bridegroom sharing a cake of emmer, in Latin ''far'' or ''panis farreus'', hence the rite's name. (''Far'' is often translated as ...
'', originally reserved for
patricians The patricians (from la, patricius, Greek: πατρίκιος) were originally a group of ruling class families in ancient Rome. The distinction was highly significant in the Roman Kingdom, and the early Republic, but its relevance waned after ...
, but after the ''
Lex Canuleia The (‘ Canuleian law’), or , was a law of the Roman Republic, passed in the year 445 BC, restoring the right of (marriage) between patricians and plebeians. Canuleius' first rogation Five years earlier, as part of the process of establishin ...
'' of 445 BC, it is possible that the ''regina'' could have been
plebeian In ancient Rome, the plebeians (also called plebs) were the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census, or in other words " commoners". Both classes were hereditary. Etymology The precise origins ...
. Inscriptions record the names of a few ''reginae sacrorum'', including Sergia Paullina, the wife of Cn. Pinarius Cornelius Severus, shortly before 112 AD, and Manlia Fadilla around the 2nd/3rd century AD.Jörg Rüpke, ''Fasti sacerdotum: A Prosopography of Pagan, Jewish, and Christian Religious Officials in the City of Rome, 300 BC to AD 499'' (Oxford University Press, 2008, originally published in German 2005), pp. 223, 783, 840.


Decline and later use

The office of ''rex sacrorum'' was not a highly coveted position among the patricians, for although the ''rex sacrorum'' was technically superior to the pontiffs, the rank conferred no real political gain. Because of this there would be some years without a ''rex sacrorum'' at all. By the time of Antony's civil war the office was entirely in disuse, but seems to have been revived later by
Augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
as there was mention of it during the empire until it was probably abolished by
Theodosius I Theodosius I ( grc-gre, Θεοδόσιος ; 11 January 347 – 17 January 395), also called Theodosius the Great, was Roman emperor from 379 to 395. During his reign, he succeeded in a crucial war against the Goths, as well as in two ...
.William Smith, Charles Anthon ''A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities'' 1870 p. 837


In popular culture

* "The King of Sacrifices" by
John Maddox Roberts John Maddox Roberts is an American author of science fiction, fantasy, and historical fiction including the ''SPQR'' series and '' Hannibal's Children''. Personal life John Maddox Roberts was born in Ohio and was raised in Texas, California, a ...
appears in ''The Mammoth Book of Historical Detectives'', edited by Michael Ashley. (Carroll & Graf Publishers, 1995)


See also

*
Archon basileus ''Archon basileus'' ( grc, ἄρχων βασιλεύς ') was a Greek title, meaning "king magistrate": the term is derived from the words ''archon'' "magistrate" and ''basileus'' "king" or "sovereign". Most modern scholars claim that in Classical ...
, a similar office from
ancient Greece Ancient Greece ( el, Ἑλλάς, Hellás) was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity ( AD 600), that comprised a loose collection of cu ...
. * Rex Nemorensis, another Roman priest given the title "king".


References

{{Reflist Ancient Roman religious titles