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An explosive (or explosive material) is a reactive substance that contains a great amount of potential energy that can produce an explosion if released suddenly, usually accompanied by the production of light, heat, sound, and pressure. An explosive charge is a measured quantity of explosive material, which may either be composed solely of one ingredient or be a mixture containing at least two substances. The potential energy stored in an explosive material may, for example, be *
chemical energy Chemical energy is the energy of chemical substances that is released when they undergo a chemical reaction and transform into other substances. Some examples of storage media of chemical energy include batteries, Schmidt-Rohr, K. (2018). "How ...
, such as nitroglycerin or
grain dust A grain elevator is a facility designed to stockpile or store grain. In the grain trade, the term "grain elevator" also describes a tower containing a bucket elevator or a pneumatic conveyor, which scoops up grain from a lower level and deposit ...
*
pressurized {{Wiktionary Pressurization or pressurisation is the application of pressure in a given situation or environment. Industrial Industrial equipment is often maintained at pressures above or below atmospheric. Atmospheric This is the process by ...
gas Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, liquid, and plasma). A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon), elemental molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), or ...
, such as a gas cylinder,
aerosol can Aerosol spray is a type of dispensing system which creates an aerosol mist of liquid particles. It comprises a can or bottle that contains a payload, and a propellant under pressure. When the container's valve is opened, the payload is forced out ...
, or BLEVE *
nuclear Nuclear may refer to: Physics Relating to the nucleus of the atom: *Nuclear engineering *Nuclear physics *Nuclear power *Nuclear reactor *Nuclear weapon *Nuclear medicine *Radiation therapy *Nuclear warfare Mathematics *Nuclear space *Nuclear ...
energy, such as in the fissile isotopes uranium-235 and plutonium-239 Explosive materials may be categorized by the speed at which they expand. Materials that
detonate Detonation () is a type of combustion involving a supersonic exothermic front accelerating through a medium that eventually drives a shock front propagating directly in front of it. Detonations propagate supersonically through shock waves with s ...
(the front of the chemical reaction moves faster through the material than the speed of sound) are said to be "high explosives" and materials that deflagrate are said to be "low explosives". Explosives may also be categorized by their sensitivity. Sensitive materials that can be initiated by a relatively small amount of heat or pressure are primary explosives and materials that are relatively insensitive are
secondary Secondary may refer to: Science and nature * Secondary emission, of particles ** Secondary electrons, electrons generated as ionization products * The secondary winding, or the electrical or electronic circuit connected to the secondary winding i ...
or tertiary explosives. A wide variety of chemicals can explode; a smaller number are manufactured specifically for the purpose of being used as explosives. The remainder are too dangerous, sensitive, toxic, expensive, unstable, or prone to decomposition or degradation over short time spans. In contrast, some materials are merely
combustible A combustible material is something that can burn (i.e., ''combust'') in air. A combustible material is flammable if it ignites easily at ambient temperatures. In other words, a combustible material ignites with some effort and a flammable mat ...
or
flammable A combustible material is something that can burn (i.e., ''combust'') in air. A combustible material is flammable if it ignites easily at ambient temperatures. In other words, a combustible material ignites with some effort and a flammable mat ...
if they burn without exploding. The distinction, however, is not razor-sharp. Certain materials—dusts, powders, gases, or volatile organic liquids—may be simply combustible or flammable under ordinary conditions, but become explosive in specific situations or forms, such as dispersed airborne clouds, or confinement or sudden release.


History

Early thermal weapons, such as
Greek fire Greek fire was an incendiary weapon used by the Eastern Roman Empire beginning . Used to set fire to enemy ships, it consisted of a combustible compound emitted by a flame-throwing weapon. Some historians believe it could be ignited on contact w ...
, have existed since ancient times. At its roots, the history of chemical explosives lies in the history of gunpowder. During the Tang Dynasty in the 9th century, Taoist Chinese alchemists were eagerly trying to find the elixir of immortality. In the process, they stumbled upon the explosive invention of black powder made from coal, saltpeter, and sulfur in 1044. Gunpowder was the first form of chemical explosives and by 1161, the Chinese were using explosives for the first time in warfare. The Chinese would incorporate explosives fired from bamboo or bronze tubes known as bamboo firecrackers. The Chinese also inserted live rats inside the bamboo firecrackers; when fired toward the enemy, the flaming rats created great psychological ramifications—scaring enemy soldiers away and causing cavalry units to go wild. The first useful explosive stronger than black powder was nitroglycerin, developed in 1847. Since nitroglycerin is a liquid and highly unstable, it was replaced by
nitrocellulose Nitrocellulose (also known as cellulose nitrate, flash paper, flash cotton, guncotton, pyroxylin and flash string, depending on form) is a highly flammable compound formed by nitrating cellulose through exposure to a mixture of nitric acid and ...
, trinitrotoluene (
TNT Trinitrotoluene (), more commonly known as TNT, more specifically 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, and by its preferred IUPAC name 2-methyl-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene, is a chemical compound with the formula C6H2(NO2)3CH3. TNT is occasionally used as a reagen ...
) in 1863, smokeless powder,
dynamite Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents (such as powdered shells or clay), and stabilizers. It was invented by the Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Geesthacht, Northern Germany, and patented in 1867. It rapidly g ...
in 1867 and gelignite (the latter two being sophisticated stabilized preparations of nitroglycerin rather than chemical alternatives, both invented by
Alfred Nobel Alfred Bernhard Nobel ( , ; 21 October 1833 – 10 December 1896) was a Swedish chemist, engineer, inventor, businessman, and philanthropist. He is best known for having bequeathed his fortune to establish the Nobel Prize, though he als ...
). World War I saw the adoption of TNT in artillery shells. World War II saw extensive use of new explosives (see List of explosives used during World War II). In turn, these have largely been replaced by more powerful explosives such as C-4 and PETN. However, C-4 and PETN react with metal and catch fire easily, yet unlike TNT, C-4 and PETN are waterproof and malleable.Ankony, Robert C., ''Lurps: A Ranger's Diary of Tet, Khe Sanh, A Shau, and Quang Tri,'' revised ed., Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Lanham, MD (2009), p.73.


Applications


Commercial

The largest commercial application of explosives is mining. Whether the mine is on the surface or is buried underground, the detonation or deflagration of either a high or low explosive in a confined space can be used to liberate a fairly specific sub-volume of a brittle material in a much larger volume of the same or similar material. The mining industry tends to use nitrate-based explosives such a
emulsions of fuel oil and ammonium nitrate solutions
mixtures of ammonium nitrate prills (fertilizer pellets) and fuel oil (
ANFO ANFO ( ) (or AN/FO, for ammonium nitrate/fuel oil) is a widely used bulk industrial explosive. It consists of 94% porous prilled ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) (AN), which acts as the oxidizing agent and absorbent for the fuel, and 6% number 2 fuel ...
) an
gelatinous suspensions or slurries
of ammonium nitrate and combustible fuels. In Materials Science and Engineering, explosives are used in
cladding Cladding is an outer layer of material covering another. It may refer to the following: * Cladding (boiler), the layer of insulation and outer wrapping around a boiler shell *Cladding (construction), materials applied to the exterior of buildings ...
( explosion welding). A thin plate of some material is placed atop a thick layer of a different material, both layers typically of metal. Atop the thin layer is placed an explosive. At one end of the layer of explosive, the explosion is initiated. The two metallic layers are forced together at high speed and with great force. The explosion spreads from the initiation site throughout the explosive. Ideally, this produces a metallurgical bond between the two layers. As the length of time the shock wave spends at any point is small, we can see mixing of the two metals and their surface chemistries, through some fraction of the depth, and they tend to be mixed in some way. It is possible that some fraction of the surface material from either layer eventually gets ejected when the end of material is reached. Hence, the mass of the now "welded" bilayer, may be less than the sum of the masses of the two initial layers. There are applications where a shock wave, and electrostatics, can result in high velocity projectiles.


Military


Civilian


Safety


Types


Chemical

An explosion is a type of spontaneous chemical reaction that, once initiated, is driven by both a large exothermic change (great release of heat) and a large positive entropy change (great quantities of gases are released) in going from reactants to products, thereby constituting a thermodynamically favorable process in addition to one that propagates very rapidly. Thus, explosives are substances that contain a large amount of energy stored in
chemical bond A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between atoms or ions that enables the formation of molecules and crystals. The bond may result from the electrostatic force between oppositely charged ions as in ionic bonds, or through the sharing o ...
s. The energetic stability of the gaseous products and hence their generation comes from the formation of strongly bonded species like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and (di)nitrogen, which contain strong double and triple bonds having bond strengths of nearly 1 MJ/mole. Consequently, most commercial explosives are organic compounds containing -NO2, -ONO2 and -NHNO2 groups that, when detonated, release gases like the aforementioned (e.g., nitroglycerin,
TNT Trinitrotoluene (), more commonly known as TNT, more specifically 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, and by its preferred IUPAC name 2-methyl-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene, is a chemical compound with the formula C6H2(NO2)3CH3. TNT is occasionally used as a reagen ...
,
HMX HMX, also called octogen, is a powerful and relatively insensitive nitroamine high explosive, chemically related to RDX. Like RDX, the compound's name is the subject of much speculation, having been variously listed as High Melting Explosive, Her ...
, PETN,
nitrocellulose Nitrocellulose (also known as cellulose nitrate, flash paper, flash cotton, guncotton, pyroxylin and flash string, depending on form) is a highly flammable compound formed by nitrating cellulose through exposure to a mixture of nitric acid and ...
). An explosive is classified as a low or high explosive according to its rate of
combustion Combustion, or burning, is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel (the reductant) and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke. Combustion ...
: low explosives burn rapidly (or deflagrate), while high explosives
detonate Detonation () is a type of combustion involving a supersonic exothermic front accelerating through a medium that eventually drives a shock front propagating directly in front of it. Detonations propagate supersonically through shock waves with s ...
. While these definitions are distinct, the problem of precisely measuring rapid decomposition makes practical classification of explosives difficult. Traditional explosives mechanics is based on the shock-sensitive rapid oxidation of carbon and hydrogen to carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and water in the form of steam.
Nitrate Nitrate is a polyatomic ion with the chemical formula . Salts containing this ion are called nitrates. Nitrates are common components of fertilizers and explosives. Almost all inorganic nitrates are soluble in water. An example of an insolubl ...
s typically provide the required oxygen to burn the carbon and hydrogen fuel. High explosives tend to have the oxygen, carbon and hydrogen contained in one organic molecule, and less sensitive explosives like ANFO are combinations of fuel (carbon and hydrogen fuel oil) and
ammonium nitrate Ammonium nitrate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is a white crystalline salt consisting of ions of ammonium and nitrate. It is highly soluble in water and hygroscopic as a solid, although it does not form hydrates. It is p ...
. A sensitizer such as powdered aluminum may be added to an explosive to increase the energy of the detonation. Once detonated, the nitrogen portion of the explosive formulation emerges as nitrogen gas and toxic nitric oxides.


Decomposition

The
chemical decomposition Chemical decomposition, or chemical breakdown, is the process or effect of simplifying a single chemical entity (normal molecule, reaction intermediate, etc.) into two or more fragments. Chemical decomposition is usually regarded and defined as th ...
of an explosive may take years, days, hours, or a fraction of a second. The slower processes of decomposition take place in storage and are of interest only from a stability standpoint. Of more interest are the other two rapid forms besides decomposition: deflagration and detonation.


Deflagration

In deflagration, decomposition of the explosive material is propagated by a flame front which moves slowly through the explosive material at speeds less than the speed of sound within the substance (usually below 340 m/s or 1240km/h) in contrast to detonation, which occurs at speeds greater than the speed of sound. Deflagration is a characteristic of
low explosive An explosive (or explosive material) is a reactive substance that contains a great amount of potential energy that can produce an explosion if released suddenly, usually accompanied by the production of light, heat, sound, and pressure. An expl ...
material.


Detonation

This term is used to describe an explosive phenomenon whereby the decomposition is propagated by a
shock wave In physics, a shock wave (also spelled shockwave), or shock, is a type of propagating disturbance that moves faster than the local speed of sound in the medium. Like an ordinary wave, a shock wave carries energy and can propagate through a med ...
traversing the explosive material at speeds greater than the speed of sound within the substance. The shock front is capable of passing through the high explosive material at supersonic speeds, typically thousands of metres per second.


Exotic

In addition to chemical explosives, there are a number of more exotic explosive materials, and exotic methods of causing explosions. Examples include
nuclear explosive A nuclear explosive is an explosive device that derives its energy from nuclear reactions. Almost all nuclear explosive devices that have been designed and produced are nuclear weapons intended for warfare. Other, non-warfare, applications for nuc ...
s, and abruptly heating a substance to a plasma state with a high-intensity
laser A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The word "laser" is an acronym for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation". The firs ...
or electric arc. Laser- and arc-heating are used in laser detonators,
exploding-bridgewire detonator The exploding-bridgewire detonator (EBW, also known as exploding wire detonator) is a type of detonator used to initiate the detonation reaction in explosive materials, similar to a blasting cap because it is fired using an electric current. EB ...
s, and exploding foil initiators, where a shock wave and then detonation in conventional chemical explosive material is created by laser- or electric-arc heating. Laser and electric energy are not currently used in practice to generate most of the required energy, but only to initiate reactions.


Properties

To determine the suitability of an explosive substance for a particular use, its physical
properties Property is the ownership of land, resources, improvements or other tangible objects, or intellectual property. Property may also refer to: Mathematics * Property (mathematics) Philosophy and science * Property (philosophy), in philosophy and ...
must first be known. The usefulness of an explosive can only be appreciated when the properties and the factors affecting them are fully understood. Some of the more important characteristics are listed below:


Sensitivity

Sensitivity refers to the ease with which an explosive can be ignited or detonated, i.e., the amount and intensity of
shock Shock may refer to: Common uses Collective noun *Shock, a historic commercial term for a group of 60, see English numerals#Special names * Stook, or shock of grain, stacked sheaves Healthcare * Shock (circulatory), circulatory medical emerge ...
, friction, or heat that is required. When the term sensitivity is used, care must be taken to clarify what kind of sensitivity is under discussion. The relative sensitivity of a given explosive to impact may vary greatly from its sensitivity to friction or heat. Some of the test methods used to determine sensitivity relate to: * Impact – Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the distance through which a standard weight must be dropped onto the material to cause it to explode. * Friction – Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the amount of pressure applied to the material in order to create enough friction to cause a reaction. * Heat – Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the temperature at which decomposition of the material occurs. Specific explosives (usually but not always highly sensitive on one or more of the three above axes) may be idiosyncratically sensitive to such factors as pressure drop, acceleration, the presence of sharp edges or rough surfaces, incompatible materials, or even—in rare cases—nuclear or electromagnetic radiation. These factors present special hazards that may rule out any practical utility. Sensitivity is an important consideration in selecting an explosive for a particular purpose. The explosive in an armor-piercing projectile must be relatively insensitive, or the shock of impact would cause it to detonate before it penetrated to the point desired. The explosive lenses around nuclear charges are also designed to be highly insensitive, to minimize the risk of accidental detonation.


Sensitivity to initiation

The index of the capacity of an explosive to be initiated into detonation in a sustained manner. It is defined by the power of the detonator which is certain to prime the explosive to a sustained and continuous detonation. Reference is made to the Sellier-Bellot scale that consists of a series of 10 detonators, from n. 1 to n. 10, each of which corresponds to an increasing charge weight. In practice, most of the explosives on the market today are sensitive to an n. 8 detonator, where the charge corresponds to 2 grams of mercury fulminate.


Velocity of detonation

The velocity with which the reaction process propagates in the mass of the explosive. Most commercial mining explosives have detonation velocities ranging from 1800 m/s to 8000 m/s. Today, velocity of detonation can be measured with accuracy. Together with density it is an important element influencing the yield of the energy transmitted for both atmospheric over-pressure and ground acceleration. By definition, a "low explosive", such as black powder, or smokeless gunpowder has a burn rate of 171–631 m/s. In contrast, a "high explosive", whether a primary, such as
detonating cord Detonating cord (also called detonation cord, detacord, detcord, primer cord, or sun cord) is a thin, flexible plastic tube usually filled with pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN, pentrite). With the PETN exploding at a rate of approximately ...
, or a secondary, such as TNT or C-4 has a significantly higher burn rate about 6900-8092 m/s.


Stability

Stability is the ability of an explosive to be stored without deterioration. The following factors affect the stability of an explosive: * Chemical constitution. In the strictest technical sense, the word "stability" is a thermodynamic term referring to the energy of a substance relative to a reference state or to some other substance. However, in the context of explosives, stability commonly refers to ease of detonation, which is concerned with
kinetics Kinetics ( grc, κίνησις, , kinesis, ''movement'' or ''to move'') may refer to: Science and medicine * Kinetics (physics), the study of motion and its causes ** Rigid body kinetics, the study of the motion of rigid bodies * Chemical kin ...
(i.e., rate of decomposition). It is perhaps best, then, to differentiate between the terms thermodynamically stable and kinetically stable by referring to the former as "inert." Contrarily, a kinetically unstable substance is said to be "labile." It is generally recognized that certain groups like nitro (–NO2),
nitrate Nitrate is a polyatomic ion with the chemical formula . Salts containing this ion are called nitrates. Nitrates are common components of fertilizers and explosives. Almost all inorganic nitrates are soluble in water. An example of an insolubl ...
(–ONO2), and
azide In chemistry, azide is a linear, polyatomic anion with the formula and structure . It is the conjugate base of hydrazoic acid . Organic azides are organic compounds with the formula , containing the azide functional group. The dominant applic ...
(–N3), are intrinsically labile. Kinetically, there exists a low activation barrier to the decomposition reaction. Consequently, these compounds exhibit high sensitivity to flame or mechanical shock. The chemical bonding in these compounds is characterized as predominantly covalent and thus they are not thermodynamically stabilized by a high ionic-lattice energy. Furthermore, they generally have positive enthalpies of formation and there is little mechanistic hindrance to internal molecular rearrangement to yield the more thermodynamically stable (more strongly bonded) decomposition products. For example, in lead azide, Pb(N3)2, the nitrogen atoms are already bonded to one another, so decomposition into Pb and N2 /sup> is relatively easy. * Temperature of storage. The rate of decomposition of explosives increases at higher temperatures. All standard military explosives may be considered to have a high degree of stability at temperatures from –10 to +35 °C, but each has a high temperature at which its rate of decomposition rapidly accelerates and stability is reduced. As a rule of thumb, most explosives become dangerously unstable at temperatures above 70 °C. * Exposure to sunlight. When exposed to the ultraviolet rays of sunlight, many explosive compounds containing nitrogen groups rapidly decompose, affecting their stability. *
Electrical discharge An electric discharge is the release and transmission of electricity in an applied electric field through a medium such as a gas (ie., an outgoing flow of electric current through a non-metal medium).American Geophysical Union, National Research ...
. Electrostatic or spark sensitivity to initiation is common in a number of explosives. Static or other electrical discharge may be sufficient to cause a reaction, even detonation, under some circumstances. As a result, safe handling of explosives and
pyrotechnics Pyrotechnics is the science and craft of creating such things as fireworks, safety matches, oxygen candles, explosive bolts and other fasteners, parts of automotive airbags, as well as gas-pressure blasting in mining, quarrying, and demolition. ...
usually requires proper electrical grounding of the operator.


Power, performance, and strength

The term power or performance as applied to an explosive refers to its ability to do work. In practice it is defined as the explosive's ability to accomplish what is intended in the way of energy delivery (i.e., fragment projection, air blast, high-velocity jet, underwater shock and bubble energy, etc.). Explosive power or performance is evaluated by a tailored series of tests to assess the material for its intended use. Of the tests listed below, cylinder expansion and air-blast tests are common to most testing programs, and the others support specific applications. * Cylinder expansion test. A standard amount of explosive is loaded into a long hollow cylinder, usually of copper, and detonated at one end. Data is collected concerning the rate of radial expansion of the cylinder and the maximum cylinder wall velocity. This also establishes the Gurney energy or 2''E''. * Cylinder fragmentation. A standard steel cylinder is loaded with explosive and detonated in a sawdust pit. The fragments are collected and the size distribution analyzed. * Detonation pressure (
Chapman–Jouguet condition The Chapman–Jouguet condition holds approximately in detonation waves in high explosives. It states that the detonation propagates at a velocity at which the reacting gases just reach sonic velocity (in the frame of the leading shock wave) as the ...
). Detonation pressure data derived from measurements of shock waves transmitted into water by the detonation of cylindrical explosive charges of a standard size. * Determination of critical diameter. This test establishes the minimum physical size a charge of a specific explosive must be to sustain its own detonation wave. The procedure involves the detonation of a series of charges of different diameters until difficulty in detonation wave propagation is observed. * Massive-diameter detonation velocity. Detonation velocity is dependent on loading density (c), charge diameter, and grain size. The hydrodynamic theory of detonation used in predicting explosive phenomena does not include the diameter of the charge, and therefore a detonation velocity, for a massive diameter. This procedure requires the firing of a series of charges of the same density and physical structure, but different diameters, and the extrapolation of the resulting detonation velocities to predict the detonation velocity of a charge of a massive diameter. * Pressure versus scaled distance. A charge of a specific size is detonated and its pressure effects measured at a standard distance. The values obtained are compared with those for TNT. * Impulse versus scaled distance. A charge of a specific size is detonated and its impulse (the area under the pressure-time curve) measured as a function of distance. The results are tabulated and expressed as TNT equivalents. * Relative bubble energy (RBE). A 5 to 50 kg charge is detonated in water and piezoelectric gauges measure peak pressure, time constant, impulse, and energy. ::The RBE may be defined as ''K''''x'' 3 ::RBE = ''K''''s'' ::where ''K'' = the bubble expansion period for an experimental (''x'') or a standard (''s'') charge.


Brisance

In addition to strength, explosives display a second characteristic, which is their shattering effect or brisance (from the French meaning to "break"), which is distinguished and separate from their total work capacity. This characteristic is of practical importance in determining the effectiveness of an explosion in fragmenting shells, bomb casings, grenades, and the like. The rapidity with which an explosive reaches its peak pressure (
power Power most often refers to: * Power (physics), meaning "rate of doing work" ** Engine power, the power put out by an engine ** Electric power * Power (social and political), the ability to influence people or events ** Abusive power Power may ...
) is a measure of its brisance. Brisance values are primarily employed in France and Russia. The sand crush test is commonly employed to determine the relative brisance in comparison to TNT. No test is capable of directly comparing the explosive properties of two or more compounds; it is important to examine the data from several such tests (sand crush, trauzl, and so forth) in order to gauge relative brisance. True values for comparison require field experiments.


Density

Density of loading refers to the mass of an explosive per unit volume. Several methods of loading are available, including pellet loading, cast loading, and press loading, the choice being determined by the characteristics of the explosive. Dependent upon the method employed, an average density of the loaded charge can be obtained that is within 80–99% of the theoretical maximum density of the explosive. High load density can reduce sensitivity by making the mass more resistant to internal friction. However, if density is increased to the extent that individual crystals are crushed, the explosive may become more sensitive. Increased load density also permits the use of more explosive, thereby increasing the power of the warhead. It is possible to compress an explosive beyond a point of sensitivity, known also as ''dead-pressing'', in which the material is no longer capable of being reliably initiated, if at all.


Volatility

Volatility is the readiness with which a substance
vaporizes Vaporization (or vaporisation) of an element or compound is a phase transition from the liquid phase to vapor. There are two types of vaporization: evaporation and boiling. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon, whereas boiling is a bulk phenomenon ...
. Excessive volatility often results in the development of pressure within rounds of ammunition and separation of mixtures into their constituents. Volatility affects the chemical composition of the explosive such that a marked reduction in stability may occur, which results in an increase in the danger of handling.


Hygroscopicity and water resistance

The introduction of water into an explosive is highly undesirable since it reduces the sensitivity, strength, and velocity of detonation of the explosive.
Hygroscopicity Hygroscopy is the phenomenon of attracting and holding water molecules via either absorption or adsorption from the surrounding environment, which is usually at normal or room temperature. If water molecules become suspended among the substance ...
is a measure of a material's moisture-absorbing tendencies. Moisture affects explosives adversely by acting as an inert material that absorbs heat when vaporized, and by acting as a solvent medium that can cause undesired chemical reactions. Sensitivity, strength, and velocity of detonation are reduced by inert materials that reduce the continuity of the explosive mass. When the moisture content evaporates during detonation, cooling occurs, which reduces the temperature of reaction. Stability is also affected by the presence of moisture since moisture promotes decomposition of the explosive and, in addition, causes corrosion of the explosive's metal container. Explosives considerably differ from one another as to their behavior in the presence of water. Gelatin dynamites containing nitroglycerine have a degree of water resistance. Explosives based on
ammonium nitrate Ammonium nitrate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is a white crystalline salt consisting of ions of ammonium and nitrate. It is highly soluble in water and hygroscopic as a solid, although it does not form hydrates. It is p ...
have little or no water resistance as ammonium nitrate is highly soluble in water and is hygroscopic.


Toxicity

Many explosives are
toxic Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a subs ...
to some extent. Manufacturing inputs can also be organic compounds or hazardous materials that require special handling due to risks (such as
carcinogen A carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that promotes carcinogenesis (the formation of cancer). This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes. Several radioactive substa ...
s). The decomposition products, residual solids, or gases of some explosives can be toxic, whereas others are harmless, such as carbon dioxide and water. Examples of harmful by-products are: * Heavy metals, such as lead, mercury, and barium from primers (observed in high-volume firing ranges) * Nitric oxides from TNT * Perchlorates when used in large quantities "Green explosives" seek to reduce environment and health impacts. An example of such is the lead-free primary explosive copper(I) 5-nitrotetrazolate, an alternative to lead azide. One variety of a green explosive is CDP explosives, whose synthesis does not involve any toxic ingredients, consumes carbon dioxide while detonating and does not release any nitric oxides into the atmosphere when used.


Explosive train

Explosive material may be incorporated in the
explosive train A triggering sequence, also called an explosive train or a firing train, is a sequence of events that culminates in the detonation of explosives. For safety reasons, most widely used high explosives are difficult to detonate. A primary explosive o ...
of a device or system. An example is a pyrotechnic lead igniting a booster, which causes the main charge to detonate.


Volume of products of explosion

The most widely used explosives are condensed liquids or solids converted to gaseous products by explosive chemical reactions and the energy released by those reactions. The gaseous products of complete reaction are typically carbon dioxide, steam, and nitrogen. Gaseous volumes computed by the ideal gas law tend to be too large at high pressures characteristic of explosions. Ultimate volume expansion may be estimated at three orders of magnitude, or one liter per gram of explosive. Explosives with an oxygen deficit will generate soot or gases like
carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide (chemical formula CO) is a colorless, poisonous, odorless, tasteless, flammable gas that is slightly less dense than air. Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom connected by a triple bond. It is the simpl ...
and hydrogen, which may react with surrounding materials such as atmospheric oxygen. Attempts to obtain more precise volume estimates must consider the possibility of such side reactions, condensation of steam, and aqueous solubility of gases like carbon dioxide. By comparison, CDP detonation is based on the rapid reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon with the abundant release of energy. Rather than produce typical waste gases like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen and nitric oxides, CDP is different. Instead, the highly energetic reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon vaporizes and pressurizes excess dry ice at the wave front, which is the only gas released from the detonation. The velocity of detonation for CDP formulations can therefore be customized by adjusting the weight percentage of reducing agent and dry ice. CDP detonations produce a large amount of solid materials that can have great commercial value as an abrasive: Example – CDP Detonation Reaction with Magnesium: XCO2 + 2Mg → 2MgO + C + (X-1)CO2 The products of detonation in this example are magnesium oxide, carbon in various phases including diamond, and vaporized excess carbon dioxide that was not consumed by the amount of magnesium in the explosive formulation.


Oxygen balance (OB% or ''Ω'')

Oxygen balance Oxygen balance (OB, OB%, or Ω) is an expression that is used to indicate the degree to which an explosive can be oxidized. If an explosive molecule contains just enough oxygen to fully oxidize the other atoms in the explosive. For example, fully ...
is an expression that is used to indicate the degree to which an explosive can be oxidized. If an explosive molecule contains just enough oxygen to convert all of its carbon to carbon dioxide, all of its hydrogen to water, and all of its metal to metal oxide with no excess, the molecule is said to have a zero oxygen balance. The molecule is said to have a positive oxygen balance if it contains more oxygen than is needed and a negative oxygen balance if it contains less oxygen than is needed. The sensitivity, strength, and
brisance In explosives engineering, brisance (; , ) is the shattering capability of a high explosive, determined mainly by its detonation pressure. Practical uses Brisance is of practical importance for determining the effectiveness of an explosion in f ...
of an explosive are all somewhat dependent upon oxygen balance and tend to approach their maxima as oxygen balance approaches zero. Oxygen balance applies to traditional explosives mechanics with the assumption that carbon is oxidized to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide during detonation. In what seems like a paradox to an explosives expert, Cold Detonation Physics uses carbon in its most highly oxidized state as the source of oxygen in the form of carbon dioxide. Oxygen balance, therefore, either does not apply to a CDP formulation or must be calculated without including the carbon in the carbon dioxide.


Chemical composition

A chemical explosive may consist of either a chemically pure compound, such as nitroglycerin, or a mixture of a fuel and an oxidizer, such as
black powder Gunpowder, also commonly known as black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It consists of a mixture of sulfur, carbon (in the form of charcoal) and potassium nitrate (saltpeter). Th ...
or
grain dust A grain elevator is a facility designed to stockpile or store grain. In the grain trade, the term "grain elevator" also describes a tower containing a bucket elevator or a pneumatic conveyor, which scoops up grain from a lower level and deposit ...
and air.


Pure compounds

Some chemical compounds are unstable in that, when shocked, they react, possibly to the point of detonation. Each molecule of the compound dissociates into two or more new molecules (generally gases) with the release of energy. * Nitroglycerin: A highly unstable and sensitive liquid * Acetone peroxide: A very unstable white
organic peroxide In organic chemistry, organic peroxides are organic compounds containing the peroxide functional group (). If the R′ is hydrogen, the compounds are called hydroperoxides, which are discussed in that article. The O−O bond of peroxides easily b ...
*
TNT Trinitrotoluene (), more commonly known as TNT, more specifically 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, and by its preferred IUPAC name 2-methyl-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene, is a chemical compound with the formula C6H2(NO2)3CH3. TNT is occasionally used as a reagen ...
: Yellow insensitive crystals that can be melted and cast without detonation *
Cellulose nitrate Nitrocellulose (also known as cellulose nitrate, flash paper, flash cotton, guncotton, pyroxylin and flash string, depending on form) is a highly flammable compound formed by nitrating cellulose through exposure to a mixture of nitric acid and ...
: A nitrated polymer which can be a high or low explosive depending on nitration level and conditions * RDX, PETN,
HMX HMX, also called octogen, is a powerful and relatively insensitive nitroamine high explosive, chemically related to RDX. Like RDX, the compound's name is the subject of much speculation, having been variously listed as High Melting Explosive, Her ...
: Very powerful explosives which can be used pure or in plastic explosives ** C-4 (or Composition C-4): An RDX plastic explosive plasticized to be adhesive and malleable The above compositions may describe most of the explosive material, but a practical explosive will often include small percentages of other substances. For example,
dynamite Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents (such as powdered shells or clay), and stabilizers. It was invented by the Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Geesthacht, Northern Germany, and patented in 1867. It rapidly g ...
is a mixture of highly sensitive nitroglycerin with sawdust, powdered silica, or most commonly
diatomaceous earth Diatomaceous earth (), diatomite (), or kieselgur/kieselguhr is a naturally occurring, soft, siliceous sedimentary rock that can be crumbled into a fine white to off-white powder. It has a particle size ranging from more than 3  μm to le ...
, which act as stabilizers. Plastics and polymers may be added to bind powders of explosive compounds; waxes may be incorporated to make them safer to handle;
aluminium Aluminium (aluminum in American and Canadian English) is a chemical element with the symbol Al and atomic number 13. Aluminium has a density lower than those of other common metals, at approximately one third that of steel. It has ...
powder may be introduced to increase total energy and blast effects. Explosive compounds are also often "alloyed": HMX or RDX powders may be mixed (typically by melt-casting) with TNT to form
Octol {{Short description, A high explosive mixture consisting of HMX and TNT Octol is a melt-castable, high explosive mixture consisting of HMX and TNT in different weight proportions. Composition Two formulations are commonly used: * 70% HMX & 30% T ...
or
Cyclotol Cyclotol is an explosive consisting of castable mixtures of RDX and TNT. It is related to the more common Composition B, which is roughly 60% RDX and 40% TNT; various compositions of Cyclotol contain from 65% to 80% RDX. Typical ranges are from 60 ...
.


Oxidized fuel

An oxidizer is a pure substance ( molecule) that in a chemical reaction can contribute some atoms of one or more oxidizing elements, in which the fuel component of the explosive burns. On the simplest level, the oxidizer may itself be an oxidizing element, such as
gaseous Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, liquid, and plasma). A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon), elemental molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), or co ...
or liquid oxygen. *
Black powder Gunpowder, also commonly known as black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It consists of a mixture of sulfur, carbon (in the form of charcoal) and potassium nitrate (saltpeter). Th ...
: Potassium nitrate,
charcoal Charcoal is a lightweight black carbon residue produced by strongly heating wood (or other animal and plant materials) in minimal oxygen to remove all water and volatile constituents. In the traditional version of this pyrolysis process, cal ...
and sulfur * Flash powder: Fine metal powder (usually
aluminium Aluminium (aluminum in American and Canadian English) is a chemical element with the symbol Al and atomic number 13. Aluminium has a density lower than those of other common metals, at approximately one third that of steel. It has ...
or magnesium) and a strong oxidizer (e.g.
potassium chlorate Potassium chlorate is a compound containing potassium, chlorine and oxygen, with the molecular formula KClO3. In its pure form, it is a white crystalline substance. After sodium chlorate, it is the second most common chlorate in industrial use. ...
or perchlorate) *
Ammonal Ammonal is an explosive made up of ammonium nitrate and aluminium powder, not to be confused with T-ammonal which contains trinitrotoluene as well to increase properties such as brisance. The mixture is often referred to as Tannerite, which i ...
:
Ammonium nitrate Ammonium nitrate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is a white crystalline salt consisting of ions of ammonium and nitrate. It is highly soluble in water and hygroscopic as a solid, although it does not form hydrates. It is p ...
and aluminium powder *
Armstrong's mixture Armstrong's mixture is a highly sensitive primary explosive. It is very friction-sensitive. Formulations vary, but one consists of 67% potassium chlorate, 27% red phosphorus, 3% sulfur, and 3% calcium carbonate. It is named for Sir William Armstr ...
:
Potassium chlorate Potassium chlorate is a compound containing potassium, chlorine and oxygen, with the molecular formula KClO3. In its pure form, it is a white crystalline substance. After sodium chlorate, it is the second most common chlorate in industrial use. ...
and red phosphorus. This is a very sensitive mixture. It is a primary high explosive in which sulfur is substituted for some or all of the phosphorus to slightly decrease sensitivity. * Cold Detonation Physics: Combinations of carbon dioxide in the form of dry ice (an untraditional oxygen source), and powdered reducing agents (fuel) like magnesium and aluminum. * Sprengel explosives: A very general class incorporating any strong oxidizer and highly reactive fuel, although in practice the name was most commonly applied to mixtures of
chlorate The chlorate anion has the formula ClO3-. In this case, the chlorine atom is in the +5 oxidation state. "Chlorate" can also refer to chemical compounds containing this anion; chlorates are the salts of chloric acid. "Chlorate", when followed by ...
s and nitroaromatics. **
ANFO ANFO ( ) (or AN/FO, for ammonium nitrate/fuel oil) is a widely used bulk industrial explosive. It consists of 94% porous prilled ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) (AN), which acts as the oxidizing agent and absorbent for the fuel, and 6% number 2 fuel ...
: Ammonium nitrate and
fuel oil Fuel oil is any of various fractions obtained from the distillation of petroleum (crude oil). Such oils include distillates (the lighter fractions) and residues (the heavier fractions). Fuel oils include heavy fuel oil, marine fuel oil (MFO), bun ...
** Cheddites:
Chlorate The chlorate anion has the formula ClO3-. In this case, the chlorine atom is in the +5 oxidation state. "Chlorate" can also refer to chemical compounds containing this anion; chlorates are the salts of chloric acid. "Chlorate", when followed by ...
s or perchlorates and oil ** Oxyliquits: Mixtures of organic materials and
liquid oxygen Liquid oxygen—abbreviated LOx, LOX or Lox in the aerospace, submarine and gas industries—is the liquid form of molecular oxygen. It was used as the oxidizer in the first liquid-fueled rocket invented in 1926 by Robert H. Goddard, an applic ...
**
Panclastite Panclastites are a class of Sprengel explosives similar to oxyliquits. They were first suggested in 1881 by Eugène Turpin, a French chemist. They are a mixture of liquid dinitrogen tetroxide serving as oxidizer with a suitable fuel, e.g. carbon dis ...
s: Mixtures of organic materials and dinitrogen tetroxide


Availability and cost

The availability and cost of explosives are determined by the availability of the raw materials and the cost, complexity, and safety of the manufacturing operations.


Classification


By sensitivity


Primary

A primary explosive is an explosive that is extremely sensitive to stimuli such as impact, friction, heat,
static electricity Static electricity is an imbalance of electric charges within or on the surface of a material or between materials. The charge remains until it is able to move away by means of an electric current or electrical discharge. Static electricity is na ...
, or electromagnetic radiation. Some primary explosives are also known as
contact explosive A contact explosive is a chemical substance that explodes violently when it is exposed to a relatively small amount of energy (e.g. friction, pressure, sound, light). Though different contact explosives have varying amounts of energy sensitivity ...
s. A relatively small amount of energy is required for initiation. As a very general rule, primary explosives are considered to be those compounds that are more sensitive than PETN. As a practical measure, primary explosives are sufficiently sensitive that they can be reliably initiated with a blow from a hammer; however, PETN can also usually be initiated in this manner, so this is only a very broad guideline. Additionally, several compounds, such as
nitrogen triiodide Nitrogen triiodide is an inorganic compound with the formula N I3. It is an extremely sensitive contact explosive: small quantities explode with a loud, sharp snap when touched even lightly, releasing a purple cloud of iodine vapor; it can even ...
, are so sensitive that they cannot even be handled without detonating. Nitrogen triiodide is so sensitive that it can be reliably detonated by exposure to
alpha radiation Alpha decay or α-decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus) and thereby transforms or 'decays' into a different atomic nucleus, with a mass number that is reduced by four and an atomi ...
; it is the only explosive for which this is true. Primary explosives are often used in
detonator A detonator, frequently a blasting cap, is a device used to trigger an explosive device. Detonators can be chemically, mechanically, or electrically initiated, the last two being the most common. The commercial use of explosives uses electri ...
s or to trigger larger charges of less sensitive secondary explosives. Primary explosives are commonly used in
blasting cap A detonator, frequently a blasting cap, is a device used to trigger an explosive device. Detonators can be chemically, mechanically, or electrically initiated, the last two being the most common. The commercial use of explosives uses electri ...
s and percussion caps to translate a physical shock signal. In other situations, different signals such as electrical or physical shock, or, in the case of laser detonation systems, light, are used to initiate an action, i.e., an explosion. A small quantity, usually milligrams, is sufficient to initiate a larger charge of explosive that is usually safer to handle. Examples of primary high explosives are: * Acetone peroxide * Alkali metal
ozonide Ozonide is the polyatomic anion . Cyclic organic compounds formed by the addition of ozone () to an alkene are also called ozonides. Ionic ozonides Inorganic ozonides are dark red salts. The anion has the bent shape of the ozone molecule. Ino ...
s *
Ammonium permanganate Ammonium permanganate is the chemical compound NH4MnO4, or NH3· HMnO4. It is a water soluble, violet-brown or dark purple salt. Preparation Ammonium permanganate was first prepared by Eilhard Mitscherlich in 1824 by reaction of silver perma ...
*
Ammonium chlorate Ammonium chlorate is an inorganic compound with the formula NH4ClO3. It is obtained by neutralizing chloric acid with either ammonia or ammonium carbonate, or by precipitating barium, strontium or calcium Calcium is a chemical element wi ...
* Azidotetrazolates * Azoclathrates *
Benzoyl peroxide Benzoyl peroxide is a chemical compound (specifically, an organic peroxide) with structural formula , often abbreviated as (BzO)2. In terms of its structure, the molecule can be described as two benzoyl (, Bz) groups connected by a peroxide ( ...
*
Benzvalene Benzvalene is an organic compound and one of several isomers of benzene. It was first synthesized in 1971 by Thomas J. Katz et al. The 1971 synthesis consisted of treating cyclopentadiene with methyllithium in dimethyl ether and then with dichlor ...
* 3,5-Bis(trinitromethyl)tetrazole *
Chlorine oxide Chlorine and oxygen can bond in many ways: * chlorine monoxide, , chlorine (II) oxide * chlorine peroxide, , dimer of chlorine (II) oxide * chlorine dioxide, , chlorine (IV) oxide * chloroperoxyl, * chlorine trioxide, ClO3, chlorine (VI) oxid ...
s *
Copper(I) acetylide Copper(I) acetylide, or cuprous acetylide, is a chemical compound with the formula Cu2 C2. Although never characterized by X-ray crystallography, the material has been claimed at least since 1856. One form is claimed to be a monohydrate with for ...
*
Copper(II) azide Copper(II) azide is a medium density explosive with the molecular formula . Uses Copper azide is very explosive and is too sensitive for any practical use unless handled in solution. Preparation Copper azide can be prepared by a metathesis re ...
*
Cumene hydroperoxide Cumene hydroperoxide is the organic compound with the formula C6H5CMe2OOH (Me = CH3). An oily liquid, it is classified as an organic hydroperoxide. Products of decomposition of cumene hydroperoxide are methylstyrene, acetophenone, and cumyl ...
* CXP CycloProp(-2-)enyl Nitrate (or CPN) *
Cyanogen azide Cyanogen azide, N3CN or CN4, is an azide compound of carbon and nitrogen which is an oily, colourless liquid at room temperature. It is a highly explosive chemical that is soluble in most organic solvents, and normally handled in dilute solution ...
* Cyanuric triazide *
Diacetyl peroxide Diacetyl peroxide is the organic peroxide with the formula (CH3CO2)2. It is a white solid or oily liquid with a sharp odor. As with a number of organic peroxides, it is explosive. It is often used as a solution, e.g., in dimethyl phthalate. Histo ...
*
1-Diazidocarbamoyl-5-azidotetrazole 1-Diazidocarbamoyl-5-azidotetrazole, often jokingly referred to as azidoazide azide, is a heterocyclic inorganic compound with the formula C2N14. It is an extremely sensitive explosive. Synthesis 1-Diazidocarbamoyl-5-azidotetrazole was produced ...
*
Diazodinitrophenol Diazodinitrophenol (DDNP) was the first diazo compound produced; it was subsequently used to make dyes and explosives. It forms yellow crystals in pure form; however, the color of impure forms may vary from dark yellow to green to dark brown. It ...
*
Diazomethane Diazomethane is the chemical compound CH2N2, discovered by German chemist Hans von Pechmann in 1894. It is the simplest diazo compound. In the pure form at room temperature, it is an extremely sensitive explosive yellow gas; thus, it is almost ...
* Diethyl ether peroxide *
4-Dimethylaminophenylpentazole 4-Dimethylaminophenylpentazole is an unstable, explosive compound that contains the rare pentazole ring, which is composed of five nitrogen atoms. The electron donating effect of the 4-dimethylamino substituent on the phenyl ring makes this compo ...
* Disulfur dinitride * Ethyl azide * Explosive antimony *
Fluorine perchlorate Fluorine perchlorate, also called perchloryl hypofluorite is the rarely encountered chemical compound of fluorine, chlorine, and oxygen with the chemical formula or . It is an extremely unstable gas that explodes spontaneously and has a penetrat ...
* Fulminic acid * Halogen azides: **
Fluorine azide Fluorine azide or triazadienyl fluoride is a yellow green gas composed of nitrogen and fluorine with formula . It is counted as an interhalogen compound, as the azide functional group is termed a pseudohalogen. It resembles , , and in this resp ...
**
Chlorine azide Chlorine azide () is an inorganic compound that was discovered in 1908 by Friedrich Raschig. Concentrated is notoriously unstable and may spontaneously detonate at any temperature. Preparation and handling Chlorine azide is prepared by passin ...
**
Bromine azide Bromine azide is an explosive inorganic compound with the formula . It has been described as a crystal or a red liquid at room temperature. It is extremely sensitive to small variations in temperature and pressure, with explosions occurring at Δp ...
**
Iodine azide Iodine azide () is an explosive inorganic compound, which in ordinary conditions is a yellow solid. Formally, it is an inter-pseudohalogen. Preparation Iodine azide can be prepared from the reaction between silver azide and elemental iodine: ...
*
Hexamethylene triperoxide diamine Hexamethylene triperoxide diamine (HMTD) is a high explosive organic compound. HMTD is an organic peroxide, a heterocyclic compound with a cage-like structure. It is a primary explosive. It has been considered as an initiating explosive for bla ...
*
Hydrazoic acid Hydrazoic acid, also known as hydrogen azide or azoimide, This also contains a detailed description of the contemporaneous production process. is a compound with the chemical formula . It is a colorless, volatile, and explosive liquid at room tem ...
*
Hypofluorous acid Hypofluorous acid, chemical formula H O F, is the only known oxyacid of fluorine and the only known oxoacid in which the main atom gains electrons from oxygen to create a negative oxidation state. The oxidation state of the oxygen in hypofluor ...
* Lead azide *
Lead styphnate Lead styphnate (lead 2,4,6- trinitroresorcinate, C6HN3O8Pb ), whose name is derived from styphnic acid, is an explosive used as a component in primer and detonator mixtures for less sensitive secondary explosives. Lead styphnate is only sligh ...
* Lead picrate *
Manganese heptoxide Manganese(VII) oxide (manganese heptoxide) is an inorganic compound with the formula Mn2O7. This volatile liquid is highly reactive. It is a dangerous oxidizer and was first described in 1860. It is the acid anhydride of permanganic acid. Prop ...
* Mercury(II) fulminate * Mercury nitride * Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide *
Nickel hydrazine nitrate Nickel hydrazine nitrate (NHN), (chemical formula: i(N2H4)3NO3)2 is an energetic material having explosive properties in between that of primary explosive and a secondary explosive. It is a salt of a coordination compound of nickel with a reactio ...
* Nickel hydrazine perchlorate * Nitrogen trihalides: ** Nitrogen trichloride **
Nitrogen tribromide Nitrogen tribromide is a chemical compound with the formula NBr3. It is extremely explosive in its pure form, even at −100 °C, and was not isolated until 1975. It is a deep-red and volatile solid. Preparation NBr3 was first prepared by r ...
**
Nitrogen triiodide Nitrogen triiodide is an inorganic compound with the formula N I3. It is an extremely sensitive contact explosive: small quantities explode with a loud, sharp snap when touched even lightly, releasing a purple cloud of iodine vapor; it can even ...
* Nitroglycerin *
Nitronium perchlorate Nitronium perchlorate, NO2ClO4, also known as nitryl perchlorate and nitroxyl perchlorate, is an inorganic chemical, the salt of the perchlorate anion and the nitronium cation. It forms colorless monoclinic crystals. It is hygroscopic, and is a s ...
*
Nitrosyl perchlorate In organic chemistry, nitroso refers to a functional group in which the nitric oxide () group is attached to an organic moiety. As such, various nitroso groups can be categorized as ''C''-nitroso compounds (e.g., nitrosoalkanes; ), ''S''-nitroso ...
* Nitrotetrazolate-''N''-oxides * Pentazenium hexafluoroarsenate *
Peroxy acid A peroxy acid (often spelled as one word, peroxyacid, and sometimes called peracid) is an acid which contains an acidic –OOH group. The two main classes are those derived from conventional mineral acids, especially sulfuric acid, and the peroxy ...
s *
Peroxymonosulfuric acid Peroxymonosulfuric acid, , also known as persulfuric acid, peroxysulfuric acid, or Caro's acid. In this acid, the S(VI) center adopts its characteristic tetrahedral geometry; the connectivity is indicated by the formula HO–O–S(O)2–OH. It is ...
* Selenium tetraazide * Silicon tetraazide *
Silver azide Silver azide is the chemical compound with the formula . It is a silver(I) salt of hydrazoic acid. It forms a colorless crystals. It is a well-known explosive. Structure and chemistry Silver azide can be prepared by treating an aqueous solution o ...
*
Silver acetylide Silver acetylide is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula Ag2C2, a metal acetylide. The compound can be regarded as a salt of the weak acid, acetylene. The salt's anion consists of two carbon atoms linked by a triple bond. The alternat ...
* Silver fulminate *
Silver nitride Silver nitride is an explosive chemical compound with symbol Ag3N. It is a black, metallic-looking solid which is formed when silver oxide or silver nitrate, is dissolved in concentrated solutions of ammonia, causing formation of the diammine silve ...
* Tellurium tetraazide * ''tert''-Butyl hydroperoxide * Tetraamine copper complexes * Tetraazidomethane * Tetrazene explosive * Tetrazoles * Titanium tetraazide * Triazidomethane * Oxides of xenon: **
Xenon dioxide Xenon dioxide, or xenon(IV) oxide, is a compound of xenon and oxygen with formula XeO2 which was synthesized in 2011. It is synthesized at 0 °C by hydrolysis of xenon tetrafluoride in aqueous sulfuric acid: XeF4 + 2H2O -> XeO2 + 4HF Struc ...
**
Xenon oxytetrafluoride Xenon oxytetrafluoride () is an inorganic chemical compound. It is a colorless stable liquid with a melting point of that can be synthesized by partial hydrolysis of , or the reaction of with silica or : : + → + + A high-yield synthesi ...
**
Xenon tetroxide Xenon tetroxide is a chemical compound of xenon and oxygen with molecular formula XeO4, remarkable for being a relatively stable compound of a noble gas. It is a yellow crystalline solid that is stable below −35.9 ° C; above that temperat ...
**
Xenon trioxide Xenon trioxide is an unstable compound of xenon in its +6 oxidation state. It is a very powerful oxidizing agent, and liberates oxygen from water slowly, accelerated by exposure to sunlight. It is dangerously explosive upon contact with organic ma ...


Secondary

A secondary explosive is less sensitive than a primary explosive and requires substantially more energy to be initiated. Because they are less sensitive, they are usable in a wider variety of applications and are safer to handle and store. Secondary explosives are used in larger quantities in an explosive train and are usually initiated by a smaller quantity of a primary explosive. Examples of secondary explosives include
TNT Trinitrotoluene (), more commonly known as TNT, more specifically 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, and by its preferred IUPAC name 2-methyl-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene, is a chemical compound with the formula C6H2(NO2)3CH3. TNT is occasionally used as a reagen ...
and RDX.


Tertiary

Tertiary explosives, also called blasting agents, are so insensitive to shock that they cannot be reliably detonated by practical quantities of primary explosive, and instead require an intermediate
explosive booster {{unreferenced, date=August 2011 An explosive booster is a sensitive explosive charge that acts as a bridge between a (relatively weak) conventional detonator and a low-sensitivity (but typically high-energy) explosive such as TNT. By itself, the ...
of secondary explosive. These are often used for safety and the typically lower costs of material and handling. The largest consumers are large-scale mining and construction operations. Most tertiaries include a fuel and an oxidizer.
ANFO ANFO ( ) (or AN/FO, for ammonium nitrate/fuel oil) is a widely used bulk industrial explosive. It consists of 94% porous prilled ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) (AN), which acts as the oxidizing agent and absorbent for the fuel, and 6% number 2 fuel ...
can be a tertiary explosive if its reaction rate is slow.


By velocity


Low

Low explosives (or low order explosives) are compounds wherein the rate of decomposition proceeds through the material at less than the speed of sound. The decomposition is propagated by a flame front (
deflagration Deflagration (Lat: ''de + flagrare'', "to burn down") is subsonic combustion in which a pre-mixed flame propagates through a mixture of fuel and oxidizer. Deflagrations can only occur in pre-mixed fuels. Most fires found in daily life are diffu ...
) which travels much more slowly through the explosive material than a
shock wave In physics, a shock wave (also spelled shockwave), or shock, is a type of propagating disturbance that moves faster than the local speed of sound in the medium. Like an ordinary wave, a shock wave carries energy and can propagate through a med ...
of a high explosive. Under normal conditions, low explosives undergo deflagration at rates that vary from a few centimetres per second to approximately . It is possible for them to deflagrate very quickly, producing an effect similar to a detonation. This can happen under higher pressure (such as when gunpowder deflagrates inside the confined space of a bullet casing, accelerating the bullet to well beyond the speed of sound) or temperature. A low explosive is usually a mixture of a
combustible A combustible material is something that can burn (i.e., ''combust'') in air. A combustible material is flammable if it ignites easily at ambient temperatures. In other words, a combustible material ignites with some effort and a flammable mat ...
substance and an oxidant that decomposes rapidly (deflagration); however, they burn more slowly than a high explosive, which has an extremely fast burn rate. Low explosives are normally employed as propellants. Included in this group are petroleum products such as propane and gasoline, gunpowder (including smokeless powder), and light
pyrotechnics Pyrotechnics is the science and craft of creating such things as fireworks, safety matches, oxygen candles, explosive bolts and other fasteners, parts of automotive airbags, as well as gas-pressure blasting in mining, quarrying, and demolition. ...
, such as flares and fireworks, but can replace high explosives in certain applications, including in gas pressure blasting.


High

High explosives (HE, or high order explosives) are explosive materials that
detonate Detonation () is a type of combustion involving a supersonic exothermic front accelerating through a medium that eventually drives a shock front propagating directly in front of it. Detonations propagate supersonically through shock waves with s ...
, meaning that the explosive shock front passes through the material at a supersonic speed. High explosives detonate with
explosive velocity Explosive velocity, also known as detonation velocity or velocity of detonation (VoD), is the velocity at which the shock wave front travels through a detonated explosive. Explosive velocities are always faster than the local speed of sound in ...
of about . For instance, TNT has a detonation (burn) rate of approximately 6.9 km/s (22,600 feet per second), detonating cord of 6.7 km/s (22,000 feet per second), and C-4 about 8.0 km/s (26,000 feet per second). They are normally employed in mining, demolition, and military applications. The term ''high explosive'' is in contrast with the term ''low explosive'', which explodes (
deflagrates Deflagration (Lat: ''de + flagrare'', "to burn down") is subsonic combustion in which a pre-mixed flame propagates through a mixture of fuel and oxidizer. Deflagrations can only occur in pre-mixed fuels. Most fires found in daily life are diffu ...
) at a lower rate. High explosives can be divided into two explosives classes differentiated by sensitivity: primary explosive and secondary explosive. Although tertiary explosives (such as ANFO at 3,200 m/s) can technically meet the explosive velocity definition, they are not considered high explosives in regulatory contexts. Countless high-explosive compounds are chemically possible, but commercially and militarily important ones have included NG,
TNT Trinitrotoluene (), more commonly known as TNT, more specifically 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, and by its preferred IUPAC name 2-methyl-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene, is a chemical compound with the formula C6H2(NO2)3CH3. TNT is occasionally used as a reagen ...
, TNP, TNX, RDX,
HMX HMX, also called octogen, is a powerful and relatively insensitive nitroamine high explosive, chemically related to RDX. Like RDX, the compound's name is the subject of much speculation, having been variously listed as High Melting Explosive, Her ...
, PETN, TATP,
TATB TATB, triaminotrinitrobenzene or 2,4,6-triamino-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene is an aromatic explosive, based on the basic six-carbon benzene ring structure with three nitro functional groups (NO2) and three amine (NH2) groups attached, alternating arou ...
, and HNS.


By physical form

Explosives are often characterized by the physical form that the explosives are produced or used in. These use forms are commonly categorized as: * Pressings * Castings * Plastic or polymer bonded * Plastic explosives, a.k.a. putties * Rubberized * Extrudable *
Binary Binary may refer to: Science and technology Mathematics * Binary number, a representation of numbers using only two digits (0 and 1) * Binary function, a function that takes two arguments * Binary operation, a mathematical operation that ta ...
* Blasting agents * Slurries and gels * Dynamites


Shipping label classifications

Shipping labels and tags may include both
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmonizi ...
and national markings. United Nations markings include numbered Hazard Class and Division (HC/D) codes and alphabetic Compatibility Group codes. Though the two are related, they are separate and distinct. Any Compatibility Group designator can be assigned to any Hazard Class and Division. An example of this hybrid marking would be a consumer firework, which is labeled as 1.4G or 1.4S. Examples of national markings would include United States Department of Transportation (U.S. DOT) codes.


United Nations (UN) GHS Hazard Class and Division

The UN GHS Hazard Class and Division (HC/D) is a numeric designator within a hazard class indicating the character, predominance of associated hazards, and potential for causing personnel casualties and property damage. It is an internationally accepted system that communicates using the minimum amount of markings the primary hazard associated with a substance. Listed below are the Divisions for Class 1 (Explosives): * 1.1 Mass Detonation Hazard. With HC/D 1.1, it is expected that if one item in a container or pallet inadvertently detonates, the explosion will sympathetically detonate the surrounding items. The explosion could propagate to all or the majority of the items stored together, causing a mass detonation. There will also be fragments from the item's casing and/or structures in the blast area. * 1.2 Non-mass explosion, fragment-producing. HC/D 1.2 is further divided into three subdivisions, HC/D 1.2.1, 1.2.2 and 1.2.3, to account for the magnitude of the effects of an explosion. * 1.3 Mass fire, minor blast or fragment hazard. Propellants and many pyrotechnic items fall into this category. If one item in a package or stack initiates, it will usually propagate to the other items, creating a mass fire. * 1.4 Moderate fire, no blast or fragment. HC/D 1.4 items are listed in the table as explosives with no significant hazard. Most small arms ammunition (including loaded weapons) and some pyrotechnic items fall into this category. If the energetic material in these items inadvertently initiates, most of the energy and fragments will be contained within the storage structure or the item containers themselves. * 1.5 mass detonation hazard, very insensitive. * 1.6 detonation hazard without mass detonation hazard, extremely insensitive. To see an entire UNO Table, browse Paragraphs 3-8 and 3-9 of NAVSEA OP 5, Vol. 1, Chapter 3.


Class 1 Compatibility Group

Compatibility Group codes are used to indicate storage compatibility for HC/D Class 1 (explosive) materials. Letters are used to designate 13 compatibility groups as follows. * A: Primary explosive substance (1.1A). * B: An article containing a primary explosive substance and not containing two or more effective protective features. Some articles, such as detonator assemblies for blasting and primers, cap-type, are included. (1.1B, 1.2B, 1.4B). * C: Propellant explosive substance or other deflagrating explosive substance or article containing such explosive substance (1.1C, 1.2C, 1.3C, 1.4C). These are bulk propellants, propelling charges, and devices containing propellants with or without means of ignition. Examples include single-based propellant, double-based propellant, triple-based propellant, and
composite propellant Ammonium perchlorate composite propellant (APCP) is a solid-propellant rocket fuel. It differs from many traditional solid rocket propellants such as black powder or zinc-sulfur, not only in chemical composition and overall performance but also ...
s,
solid propellant A propellant (or propellent) is a mass that is expelled or expanded in such a way as to create a thrust or other motive force in accordance with Newton's third law of motion, and "propel" a vehicle, projectile, or fluid payload. In vehicles, the e ...
rocket motors and ammunition with inert projectiles. * D: Secondary detonating explosive substance or black powder or article containing a secondary detonating explosive substance, in each case without means of initiation and without a propelling charge, or article containing a primary explosive substance and containing two or more effective protective features. (1.1D, 1.2D, 1.4D, 1.5D). * E: Article containing a secondary detonating explosive substance without means of initiation, with a propelling charge (other than one containing flammable liquid, gel or
hypergolic A hypergolic propellant is a rocket propellant combination used in a rocket engine, whose components spontaneously ignite when they come into contact with each other. The two propellant components usually consist of a fuel and an oxidizer. The ...
liquid) (1.1E, 1.2E, 1.4E). * F containing a
secondary Secondary may refer to: Science and nature * Secondary emission, of particles ** Secondary electrons, electrons generated as ionization products * The secondary winding, or the electrical or electronic circuit connected to the secondary winding i ...
detonating explosive An explosive (or explosive material) is a reactive substance that contains a great amount of potential energy that can produce an explosion if released suddenly, usually accompanied by the production of light, heat, sound, and pressure. An expl ...
substance with its means of initiation, with a propelling charge (other than one containing flammable liquid, gel or hypergolic liquid) or without a propelling charge (1.1F, 1.2F, 1.3F, 1.4F). * G: Pyrotechnic substance or article containing a pyrotechnic substance, or article containing both an explosive substance and an illuminating, incendiary, tear-producing or smoke-producing substance (other than a water-activated article or one containing white phosphorus, phosphide or flammable liquid or gel or hypergolic liquid) (1.1G, 1.2G, 1.3G, 1.4G). Examples include Flares, signals, incendiary or illuminating ammunition and other smoke and tear producing devices. * H: Article containing both an explosive substance and white phosphorus (1.2H, 1.3H). These articles will spontaneously combust when exposed to the atmosphere. * J: Article containing both an explosive substance and flammable liquid or gel (1.1J, 1.2J, 1.3J). This excludes liquids or gels which are spontaneously flammable when exposed to water or the atmosphere, which belong in group H. Examples include liquid or gel filled incendiary ammunition, fuel-air explosive (FAE) devices, and flammable liquid fueled missiles. * K: Article containing both an explosive substance and a toxic chemical agent (1.2K, 1.3K) * L Explosive substance or article containing an explosive substance and presenting a special risk (e.g., due to water-activation or presence of hypergolic liquids, phosphides, or
pyrophoric A substance is pyrophoric (from grc-gre, πυροφόρος, , 'fire-bearing') if it ignites spontaneously in air at or below (for gases) or within 5 minutes after coming into contact with air (for liquids and solids). Examples are organolith ...
substances) needing isolation of each type (1.1L, 1.2L, 1.3L). Damaged or suspect ammunition of any group belongs in this group. * N: Articles containing only extremely insensitive detonating substances (1.6N). * S: Substance or article so packed or designed that any hazardous effects arising from accidental functioning are limited to the extent that they do not significantly hinder or prohibit fire fighting or other emergency response efforts in the immediate vicinity of the package (1.4S).


Regulation

The legality of possessing or using explosives varies by jurisdiction. Various countries around the world have enacted explosives law and require licenses to manufacture, distribute, store, use, possess explosives or ingredients.


Netherlands

In the Netherlands, the civil and commercial use of explosives is covered under the ''Wet explosieven voor civiel gebruik'' (explosives for civil use Act), in accordance with EU directive nr. 93/15/EEG (Dutch). The illegal use of explosives is covered under the ''Wet Wapens en Munitie'' (Weapons and Munition Act) (Dutch).


UK

The new Explosives Regulations 2014 (ER 2014) came into force on 1 October 2014 and defines "explosive" as:


United States

During World War I, numerous laws were created to regulate war related industries and increase security within the United States. In 1917, the
65th United States Congress The 65th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, DC from March 4, 1917, to ...
created many laws, including the '' Espionage Act of 1917'' and ''Explosives Act of 1917''. The ''Explosives Act of 1917'' (session 1, chapter 83, ) was signed on 6 October 1917 and went into effect on 16 November 1917. The legal summary is "An Act to prohibit the manufacture, distribution, storage, use, and possession in time of war of explosives, providing regulations for the safe manufacture, distribution, storage, use, and possession of the same, and for other purposes". This was the first federal regulation of licensing explosives purchases. The act was deactivated after World War I ended. After the United States entered World War II, the Explosives Act of 1917 was reactivated. In 1947, the act was deactivated by President Truman. The ''
Organized Crime Control Act of 1970 The Organized Crime Control Act of 1970 (, October 15, 1970), was an Act of Congress sponsored by Democratic Senator John L. McClellan and signed into law by U.S. President Richard Nixon. The Act was the product of two sets of hearings in t ...
'' () transferred many explosives regulations to the
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (BATFE), commonly referred to as the ATF, is a domestic law enforcement agency within the United States Department of Justice. Its responsibilities include the investigation and prevent ...
(ATF) of the Department of Treasury. The bill became effective in 1971. Currently, regulations are governed by Title 18 of the United States Code and
Title 27 of the Code of Federal Regulations CFR Title 27 – Alcohol, Tobacco Products and Firearms is one of 50 titles composing the United States Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) and contains the principal set of rules and regulations issued by federal agencies regarding alcohol, tobacco p ...
: * "Importation, Manufacture, Distribution and Storage of Explosive Materials" (18 U.S.C. Chapter 40). * "Commerce in Explosives" (27 C.F.R. Chapter II, Part 555). Many states restrict the possession, sale, and use of explosives.
Alabama Code Title 8 Chapter 17 Article 9

Alaska State Code Chapter 11.61.240 & 11.61.250

Arizona State Code Title 13 Chapter 31 Articles 01 through 19

Arkansas State Code Title 5 Chapter 73 Article 108

California Penal Code Title 2 Division 5
* Colorado (Colorado statutes are copyrighted and require purchase before reading.)


Delaware Code Title 16 Part VI Chapters 70 & 71


* ttp://www.lexisnexis.com/hottopics/gacode/Default.asp Georgia Code Title 16 Chapter 7 Articles 64-97 (Repealed by Ga. L. 1996)
Hawaii Administrative Rules Title 12 Subtitle 8 Part 1 Chapter 58
AN


Illinois Explosives Act 225 ILCS 210Michigan Penal Code Chapter XXXIII Section 750.200 – 750.212a

Minnesota

Mississippi Code Title 45 Chapter 13 Article 3 Section 101–109
* New York: Health and safety regulations restrict the quantity of
black powder Gunpowder, also commonly known as black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It consists of a mixture of sulfur, carbon (in the form of charcoal) and potassium nitrate (saltpeter). Th ...
a person may store and transport.Special provisions relating to black powder

Wisconsin Chapter 941 Subchapter 4-31


List


Compounds


Acetylide In organometallic chemistry, acetylide refers to chemical compounds with the chemical formulas and , where M is a metal. The term is used loosely and can refer to substituted acetylides having the general structure (where R is an organic side ...
s

* CUA, DCA,
AGA Aga or AGA may refer to: Business * Architectural Glass and Aluminum (AGA), a glazing contractor, established in 1970 * AGA (automobile), ''Autogen Gasaccumulator AG'', 1920s German car company *AGA AB, ''Aktiebolaget Svenska Gasaccumulator'', a ...


Fulminates

* HCNO, AUF, HGF, PTF, KF, AGF


Nitro

* MonoNitro: NGA, NE, NM, NP, NS, NU * DiNitro: DDNP, DNB, DNEU, DNN, DNP, DNPA, DNPH, DNR, DNPD, DNPA, DNC, DPS, DPA, EDNP, KDNBF, BEAF * TriNitro: RDX, DATB,
TATB TATB, triaminotrinitrobenzene or 2,4,6-triamino-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene is an aromatic explosive, based on the basic six-carbon benzene ring structure with three nitro functional groups (NO2) and three amine (NH2) groups attached, alternating arou ...
,
PBS The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) is an American public broadcaster and non-commercial, free-to-air television network based in Arlington, Virginia. PBS is a publicly funded nonprofit organization and the most prominent provider of educati ...
, PBP, TNAL, TNAS, TNB, TNBA, TNC, MC,
TNEF Transport Neutral Encapsulation Format or TNEF is a proprietary email attachment format used by Microsoft Outlook and Microsoft Exchange Server. An attached file with TNEF encoding is most often named ''winmail.dat'' or ''win.dat'', and has a MIM ...
, TNOC, TNOF, TNP,
TNT Trinitrotoluene (), more commonly known as TNT, more specifically 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, and by its preferred IUPAC name 2-methyl-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene, is a chemical compound with the formula C6H2(NO2)3CH3. TNT is occasionally used as a reagen ...
, TNN, TNPG, TNR, BTNEN, BTNEC, SA,
API An application programming interface (API) is a way for two or more computer programs to communicate with each other. It is a type of software interface, offering a service to other pieces of software. A document or standard that describes how ...
, TNS * TetraNitro: Tetryl * OctaNitro: ONC


Nitrate Nitrate is a polyatomic ion with the chemical formula . Salts containing this ion are called nitrates. Nitrates are common components of fertilizers and explosives. Almost all inorganic nitrates are soluble in water. An example of an insolubl ...
s

* Mononitrates: AN, BAN, CAN,
MAN A man is an adult male human. Prior to adulthood, a male human is referred to as a boy (a male child or adolescent). Like most other male mammals, a man's genome usually inherits an X chromosome from the mother and a Y chromo ...
,
NAN Nan or NAN may refer to: Places China * Nan County, Yiyang, Hunan, China * Nan Commandery, historical commandery in Hubei, China Thailand * Nan Province ** Nan, Thailand, the administrative capital of Nan Province * Nan River People Given nam ...
, UN * Dinitrates: DEGDN, EDDN, EDNA, EGDN, HDN, TEGDN, TAOM * Trinitrates: BTTN, TMOTN, NG * Tetranitrates: ETN, PETN, TNOC * Pentanitrates: XPN * Hexanitrates: CHN, MHN


Amines

* Tertiary Amines: NTBR, NTCL,
NTI Nti is a surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Collins Agyarko Nti (born 1958), Ghanaian politician * Opoku Nti (born 1961), Ghanaian footballer * Theophidack Nti (born 1977), Ghanaian footballer {{Surname Surnames of African ori ...
, NTS, SEN, AGN * Diamines: DSDN *
Azide In chemistry, azide is a linear, polyatomic anion with the formula and structure . It is the conjugate base of hydrazoic acid . Organic azides are organic compounds with the formula , containing the azide functional group. The dominant applic ...
s: CNA, CYA, CLA, CUA, EA, FA, HA, PBA,
AGA Aga or AGA may refer to: Business * Architectural Glass and Aluminum (AGA), a glazing contractor, established in 1970 * AGA (automobile), ''Autogen Gasaccumulator AG'', 1920s German car company *AGA AB, ''Aktiebolaget Svenska Gasaccumulator'', a ...
, NAA, RBA,
SEA The sea, connected as the world ocean or simply the ocean, is the body of salty water that covers approximately 71% of the Earth's surface. The word sea is also used to denote second-order sections of the sea, such as the Mediterranean Sea, ...
, SIA,
TEA Tea is an aromatic beverage prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured or fresh leaves of ''Camellia sinensis'', an evergreen shrub native to East Asia which probably originated in the borderlands of southwestern China and norther ...
, TAM,
TIA TIA or Tia may refer to: Aviation * Tampa International Airport, US, IATA code TPA * Texas International Airlines, US, ICAO code * Tirana International Airport Nënë Tereza, Albania, IATA code * Trans International Airlines, former U.S. airl ...
* Tetramines: TZE, TZO, AA * Pentamines: PZ * Octamines: OAC, ATA


Peroxide In chemistry, peroxides are a group of compounds with the structure , where R = any element. The group in a peroxide is called the peroxide group or peroxo group. The nomenclature is somewhat variable. The most common peroxide is hydrogen p ...
s

* AP (TATP), CHP,
DAP DAP or Dap may refer to: Science * DAP (gene), human gene that encodes death-associated proteins, which mediate programmed cell death * Diamidophosphate, phosphorylating compound * Diaminopimelic acid, amino acid derivative of lysine * Diaminop ...
, DBP, DEP, HMTD,
MEKP Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP) is an organic peroxide with the formula CH3)(C2H5)C(O2H)sub>2O2. MEKP is a colorless oily liquid. It is widely used in vulcanization (crosslinking) of polymers. It is derived from the reaction of methyl ethy ...
, TBHP


Oxides

* XOTF, XDIO,
XTRO ''Xtro'' is a 1983 British science fiction horror film directed by Harry Bromley Davenport. Starring Bernice Stegers, Philip Sayer, and Simon Nash, the film focuses on a father who was abducted by aliens and returns to his family three years ...
, XTEO


Unsorted

*
Alkali metal Ozonides In chemistry, an alkali (; from ar, القلوي, al-qaly, lit=ashes of the saltwort) is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal. An alkali can also be defined as a base that dissolves in water. A solution of a so ...
*
Ammonium chlorate Ammonium chlorate is an inorganic compound with the formula NH4ClO3. It is obtained by neutralizing chloric acid with either ammonia or ammonium carbonate, or by precipitating barium, strontium or calcium Calcium is a chemical element wi ...
*
Ammonium perchlorate Ammonium perchlorate ("AP") is an inorganic compound with the formula NH4 ClO4. It is a colorless or white solid that is soluble in water. It is a powerful oxidizer. Combined with a fuel, it can be used as a rocket propellant called ammonium pe ...
* Ammonium permaganate * Azidotetrazolates * Azoclathrates *
Benzvalene Benzvalene is an organic compound and one of several isomers of benzene. It was first synthesized in 1971 by Thomas J. Katz et al. The 1971 synthesis consisted of treating cyclopentadiene with methyllithium in dimethyl ether and then with dichlor ...
*
Chlorine oxide Chlorine and oxygen can bond in many ways: * chlorine monoxide, , chlorine (II) oxide * chlorine peroxide, , dimer of chlorine (II) oxide * chlorine dioxide, , chlorine (IV) oxide * chloroperoxyl, * chlorine trioxide, ClO3, chlorine (VI) oxid ...
s * DMAPP *
Fluorine perchlorate Fluorine perchlorate, also called perchloryl hypofluorite is the rarely encountered chemical compound of fluorine, chlorine, and oxygen with the chemical formula or . It is an extremely unstable gas that explodes spontaneously and has a penetrat ...
*
Fulminating gold Fulminating gold is a light- and shock-sensitive yellow to yellow-orange amorphous heterogeneous mixture of different polymeric compounds of predominantly gold (III), ammonia, and chlorine that cannot be described by a chemical formula. Here, t ...
* Fulminating silver (several substances) * Hexafluoroarsenate *
Hypofluorous acid Hypofluorous acid, chemical formula H O F, is the only known oxyacid of fluorine and the only known oxoacid in which the main atom gains electrons from oxygen to create a negative oxidation state. The oxidation state of the oxygen in hypofluor ...
*
Manganese heptoxide Manganese(VII) oxide (manganese heptoxide) is an inorganic compound with the formula Mn2O7. This volatile liquid is highly reactive. It is a dangerous oxidizer and was first described in 1860. It is the acid anhydride of permanganic acid. Prop ...
* Mercury nitride *
Nitronium perchlorate Nitronium perchlorate, NO2ClO4, also known as nitryl perchlorate and nitroxyl perchlorate, is an inorganic chemical, the salt of the perchlorate anion and the nitronium cation. It forms colorless monoclinic crystals. It is hygroscopic, and is a s ...
* Nitrotetrazolate-N-Oxides *
Peroxy acid A peroxy acid (often spelled as one word, peroxyacid, and sometimes called peracid) is an acid which contains an acidic –OOH group. The two main classes are those derived from conventional mineral acids, especially sulfuric acid, and the peroxy ...
s *
Peroxymonosulfuric acid Peroxymonosulfuric acid, , also known as persulfuric acid, peroxysulfuric acid, or Caro's acid. In this acid, the S(VI) center adopts its characteristic tetrahedral geometry; the connectivity is indicated by the formula HO–O–S(O)2–OH. It is ...
* Tetramine copper complexes * Tetrasulfur tetranitride


Mixtures

* Aluminum Orphorite,
Amatex Amatex is a military explosive consisting of 51% ammonium nitrate, 40% TNT, and 9% RDX RDX (abbreviation of "Research Department eXplosive") or hexogen, among other names, is an organic compound with the formula (O2N2CH2)3. It is a white solid w ...
,
Amatol Amatol is a highly explosive material made from a mixture of TNT and ammonium nitrate. The British name originates from the words ammonium and toluene (the precursor of TNT). Similar mixtures (one part dinitronaphthalene and seven parts ammoni ...
,
Ammonal Ammonal is an explosive made up of ammonium nitrate and aluminium powder, not to be confused with T-ammonal which contains trinitrotoluene as well to increase properties such as brisance. The mixture is often referred to as Tannerite, which i ...
,
Armstrong's mixture Armstrong's mixture is a highly sensitive primary explosive. It is very friction-sensitive. Formulations vary, but one consists of 67% potassium chlorate, 27% red phosphorus, 3% sulfur, and 3% calcium carbonate. It is named for Sir William Armstr ...
,
ANFO ANFO ( ) (or AN/FO, for ammonium nitrate/fuel oil) is a widely used bulk industrial explosive. It consists of 94% porous prilled ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) (AN), which acts as the oxidizing agent and absorbent for the fuel, and 6% number 2 fuel ...
, ANNMAL, Astrolite * Baranol,
Baratol Baratol is an explosive made of a mixture of TNT and barium nitrate, with a small quantity (about 1%) of paraffin wax used as a phlegmatizing agent. TNT typically makes up 25% to 33% of the mixture. Because of the high density of barium nitrate, ...
,
Ballistite Ballistite is a smokeless propellant made from two high explosives, nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine. It was developed and patented by Alfred Nobel in the late 19th century. Military adoption Alfred Nobel patented https://www.nobelprize.org/alfr ...
, Butyl tetryl * Carbonite,
Composition A Composition or Compositions may refer to: Arts and literature *Composition (dance), practice and teaching of choreography *Composition (language), in literature and rhetoric, producing a work in spoken tradition and written discourse, to include v ...
,
Composition B Composition B, colloquially Comp B, is an explosive consisting of castable mixtures of RDX and TNT. It is used as the main explosive filling in artillery projectiles, rockets, land mines, hand grenades and various other munitions. It was also use ...
, Composition C,
Composition 1 Composition or Compositions may refer to: Arts and literature *Composition (dance), practice and teaching of choreography *Composition (language), in literature and rhetoric, producing a work in spoken tradition and written discourse, to include v ...
,
Composition 2 Composition or Compositions may refer to: Arts and literature *Composition (dance), practice and teaching of choreography *Composition (language), in literature and rhetoric, producing a work in spoken tradition and written discourse, to include v ...
, Composition 3, Composition 4,
Composition 5 Composition or Compositions may refer to: Arts and literature *Composition (dance), practice and teaching of choreography *Composition (language), in literature and rhetoric, producing a work in spoken tradition and written discourse, to include v ...
,
Composition B Composition B, colloquially Comp B, is an explosive consisting of castable mixtures of RDX and TNT. It is used as the main explosive filling in artillery projectiles, rockets, land mines, hand grenades and various other munitions. It was also use ...
,
Composition H6 __NOTOC__ Composition H6 is a castable military explosive mixture composed of the following percentages by weight: * 44.0% RDX * 29.5% TNT * 21.0% powdered aluminium * 5.0% paraffin wax as a phlegmatizing agent. * 0.5% calcium chloride H6 is ...
,
Cordtex Cordtex is a type of detonating cord generally used in mining. It uses an explosive core of pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) inside its plastic coating. It is commonly the thickness of electrical extension cord and has a detonation velocity ...
,
Cyclotol Cyclotol is an explosive consisting of castable mixtures of RDX and TNT. It is related to the more common Composition B, which is roughly 60% RDX and 40% TNT; various compositions of Cyclotol contain from 65% to 80% RDX. Typical ranges are from 60 ...

CDP Formulations
* Danubit, Detasheet,
Detonating cord Detonating cord (also called detonation cord, detacord, detcord, primer cord, or sun cord) is a thin, flexible plastic tube usually filled with pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN, pentrite). With the PETN exploding at a rate of approximately ...
,
Dualin Dualin is an explosive material based on nitroglycerin and nitrogenized cellulose using sawdust or wood pulp. It is inferior to dynamite and more liable to explosion. Dualin was invented by the Prussia Prussia, , Old Prussian: ''Prūsa'' or ' ...
, Dunnite,
Dynamite Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents (such as powdered shells or clay), and stabilizers. It was invented by the Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Geesthacht, Northern Germany, and patented in 1867. It rapidly g ...
*
Ecrasite Ecrasite is an explosive material which is unaffected by moisture, shock or fire. It is a mixture of ammonium salts of cresol, phenol and various nitrocresols and nitrophenols principally trinitrocresol and picric acid. It was invented in 1888-1889 ...
, Ednatol * Flash powder * Gelignite, Gunpowder * Hexanite, Hydromite 600 *
Kinetite Kinetite was an explosive material patented in 1884 by T. Petry and O. Fallenstein, It consisted of nitro-benzol thickened or gelatinised by the addition of some collodion-cotton incorporated with finely ground potassium chlorate and precipitated ...
*
Minol The VEB Kombinat Minol, founded on 1 January 1956, was the state-owned gasoline and lubricant reseller of the German Democratic Republic. The marketing name MINOL was invented in 1949, when Die Deutsche Kraftstoff- und Mineralölzentrale (DKM ...
*
Octol {{Short description, A high explosive mixture consisting of HMX and TNT Octol is a melt-castable, high explosive mixture consisting of HMX and TNT in different weight proportions. Composition Two formulations are commonly used: * 70% HMX & 30% T ...
, Oxyliquit *
Panclastite Panclastites are a class of Sprengel explosives similar to oxyliquits. They were first suggested in 1881 by Eugène Turpin, a French chemist. They are a mixture of liquid dinitrogen tetroxide serving as oxidizer with a suitable fuel, e.g. carbon dis ...
,
Pentolite Pentolite is a composite high explosive used for military and civilian purposes, e.g., warheads and booster charges. It is made of pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) phlegmatized with trinitrotoluene (TNT) by melt casting.B. M. Dobratz & P. C ...
,
Picratol Picratol is a high explosive mixture, comprising 52% ' Explosive D' and 48% TNT. It has a detonation velocity of approximately 6,972 metres per second. Picratol has no civilian applications. It was exclusively intended for military use and was es ...
, PNNM,
Pyrotol Pyrotol was an explosive available for a time after World War I. It was reprocessed from military surplus, with a typical composition of 60% smokeless powder, 34% sodium nitrate, and 6% of 40% nitroglycerin dynamite. Usually used in combinatio ...
* Schneiderite,
Semtex Semtex is a general-purpose plastic explosive containing RDX and PETN. It is used in commercial blasting, demolition, and in certain military applications. Semtex was developed and manufactured in Czechoslovakia, originally under the name B 1 an ...
, Shellite * Tannerit simply,
Tannerite Tannerite is a brand of binary explosive targets used for firearms practice and sold in kit form. The targets comprise a combination of oxidizers and a fuel, primarily aluminium powder, that is supplied as two separate components that are mixe ...
, Titadine,
Tovex Tovex (also known as Trenchrite, Seismogel, and Seismopac) is a water-gel explosive composed of ammonium nitrate and methylammonium nitrate that has several advantages over traditional dynamite, including lower toxicity and safer manufacture, tr ...
, Torpex,
Tritonal Tritonal is a mixture of 80% TNT and 20% aluminium powder, used in several types of ordnance such as air-dropped bombs. The aluminium improves the total heat output and hence impulse of the TNT — the length of time during which the blast ...


Elements and isotopes

*
Alkali metals The alkali metals consist of the chemical elements lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K),The symbols Na and K for sodium and potassium are derived from their Latin names, ''natrium'' and ''kalium''; these are still the origins of the names ...
* Explosive antimony * Plutonium-239 * Uranium-235


See also

*
Blast injury A blast injury is a complex type of physical trauma resulting from direct or indirect exposure to an explosion. Blast injuries occur with the detonation of high-order explosives as well as the deflagration of low order explosives. These injurie ...
* Detection dog *
Flame speed The flame speed is the measured rate of expansion of the flame front in a combustion reaction. Whereas ''flame velocity'' is generally used for a fuel, a related term is explosive velocity, which is the same relationship measured for an explosive. ...
*
Improvised explosive device An improvised explosive device (IED) is a bomb constructed and deployed in ways other than in conventional military action. It may be constructed of conventional military explosives, such as an artillery shell, attached to a detonating mechan ...
*
Insensitive munition Insensitive munitions are munitions that are designed to withstand stimuli representative of severe but credible accidents. The current range of stimuli are shock (from bullets, fragments and shaped charge jets), heat (from fires or adjacent ther ...
*
Largest artificial non-nuclear explosions There have been many extremely large explosions, accidental and intentional, caused by modern high explosives, boiling liquid expanding vapour explosions (BLEVEs), older explosives such as gunpowder, volatile petroleum-based fuels such as gasol ...
* Nuclear weapon *
Orica Orica Limited () is an Australian-based multinational corporation that is one of the world's largest providers of commercial explosives and blasting systems to the mining, quarrying, oil and gas, and construction markets, a supplier of sodium c ...
; largest supplier of commercial explosives *
TM 31-210 Improvised Munitions Handbook The TM 31-210 Improvised Munitions Handbook is a 256 pages United States Army technical manual intended for the United States Army Special Forces. It was first published in 1969 by the Department of the Army. Like many other U.S. military manuals ...
* Total body disruption


References


Further reading


U.S. Government


''Explosives and Demolitions''
FM 5–250; U.S. Department of the Army; 274 pp.; 1992.
''Military Explosives''
TM 9-1300-214; U.S. Department of the Army; 355 pp.; 1984.
''Explosives and Blasting Procedures Manual''
U.S. Department of Interior; 128 pp.; 1982. * ''Safety and Performance Tests for Qualification of Explosives''; Commander, Naval Ordnance Systems Command; NAVORD OD 44811. Washington, DC: GPO, 1972. * ''Weapons Systems Fundamentals''; Commander, Naval Ordnance Systems Command. NAVORD OP 3000, vol. 2, 1st rev. Washington, DC: GPO, 1971. * ''Elements of Armament Engineering – Part One''; Army Research Office. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Materiel Command, 1964. * Hazardous Materials Transportation Plaecards; USDOT.


Institute of Makers of Explosives


''Safety in the Handling and Use of Explosives''
SLP 17; Institute of Makers of Explosives; 66 pp.; 1932 / 1935 / 1940. * ''History of the Explosives Industry in America''; Institute of Makers of Explosives; 37 pp.; 1927.
''Clearing Land of Stumps''
Institute of Makers of Explosives; 92 pp.; 1917.
''The Use of Explosives for Agricultural and Other Purposes''
Institute of Makers of Explosives; 190 pp.; 1917.
''The Use of Explosives in making Ditches''
Institute of Makers of Explosives; 80 pp.; 1917.


Other historical


''Farmers' Hand Book of Explosives''
duPont; 113 pp.; 1920.
''A Short Account of Explosives''
Arthur Marshall; 119 pp.; 1917.
''Historical Papers on Modern Explosives''
George MacDonald; 216 pp.; 1912.
''The Rise and Progress of the British Explosives Industry''
International Congress of Pure and Applied Chemistry; 450 pp.; 1909.
''Explosives and their Power''
M. Berthelot; 592 pp.; 1892.


External links

Listed in Alphabetical Order:
Blaster Exchange – Explosives Industry Portal



Explosives Academy

Explosives info

Journal of Energetic Materials



The Explosives and Weapons Forum



YouTube video demonstrating blast wave in slow motion
{{Authority control Chinese inventions Hazardous materials