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Podestà (, English: Potestate, Podesta) was the name given to the holder of the highest civil office in the government of the cities of Central and Northern Italy during the
Late Middle Ages The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history lasting from AD 1300 to 1500. The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period (and in much of Europe, the Renai ...
. Sometimes, it meant the chief magistrate of a city state, the counterpart to similar positions in other cities that went by other names, e.g. ''rettori'' ("rectors"). In the following centuries up to 1918, the term was used to designate the head of the municipal administration, particularly in the Italian-speaking territories of the
Austrian Empire The Austrian Empire (german: link=no, Kaiserthum Oesterreich, modern spelling , ) was a Central-Eastern European multinational great power from 1804 to 1867, created by proclamation out of the realms of the Habsburgs. During its existence ...
. The title was taken up again during the Fascist regime with the same meaning. The podestà's office, its duration and the residence and the local jurisdiction were called ''podesteria'', especially during the Middle Ages, and in later centuries, more rarely during the fascist regime. Currently, ''podestà'' is the title of mayors in
Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance language *** Regional Ita ...
-speaking municipalities of Graubünden in Switzerland, but is not the case for the rest of the Canton of Ticino, which uses the title of "Sindaco" ( en, Mayor).


Etymology

The term derives from the
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
word ''
potestas ''Potestas'' is a Latin word meaning power or faculty. It is an important concept in Roman Law. Origin of the concept The idea of ''potestas'' originally referred to the power, through coercion, of a Roman magistrate to promulgate edicts, give ac ...
'', meaning power. There is a similar derivation for the Arabic term '' Sultan'': originally meaning "power" or "authority", it eventually became the title of the person holding power.


History

The first documented usage of ''podestà'' was in
Bologna Bologna (, , ; egl, label=Emilian language, Emilian, Bulåggna ; lat, Bononia) is the capital and largest city of the Emilia-Romagna region in Northern Italy. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy with about 400,000 inhabitants and 1 ...
in 1151, when it was applied to Guido di Ranieri di Sasso of Canossa, brought in from Faenza to be ''rettore e podestà'', noted in numerous documents. Leander Albertus gives the particulars:
"The citizens, seeing that there often arose among them quarrels and altercations, whether from favoritism or friendship, from envy or hatred that one had against another, by which their republic suffered great harm, loss and detriment; therefore, they decided, after much deliberation, to provide against these disorders. And thus they began to create a man of foreign birth their chief magistrate, giving him every power, authority and jurisdiction over the city, as well over criminal as over civil causes, and in times of war as well as in times of peace, calling him
praetor Praetor ( , ), also pretor, was the title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to a man acting in one of two official capacities: (i) the commander of an army, and (ii) as an elected '' magistratus'' (magistrate), assigned to discharge vari ...
as being above the others, or ''podestà''., as having every authority and power over the city."
Podests were first more widely appointed by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa when he began to assert the rights that his Imperial position gave him over the cities of northern Italy; at the second imperial diet at Roncaglia, November 1158, Frederick appointed in several major cities imperial podestà "as if having imperial power in that place" The elected consuls, which Frederick had claimed the right to ratify, he began to designate directly. The business of the podestà was to enforce imperial rights. From the start, this was very unpopular, and their often arbitrary behaviour was a factor in bringing about the formation of the Lombard League and the uprising against Frederick in 1167. Although the Emperor's experiment was short-lived, the podestà soon became important and common in northern Italy, making their appearance in most communes around the year 1200, with an essential difference. These officials were now appointed by the citizens or by the citizens' representatives, rather like the older
consul Consul (abbrev. ''cos.''; Latin plural ''consules'') was the title of one of the two chief magistrates of the Roman Republic, and subsequently also an important title under the Roman Empire. The title was used in other European city-states throu ...
s (but not collegial). The podestà exercised the supreme power in the city, both in peace and war, and in foreign and domestic matters alike; but their term of office lasted only about a year. In order to avoid the intense strife so common in Italian civic life, it soon became the custom to hire a stranger to fill this position. Venetians were in special demand for this purpose during the 12th and 13th centuries. This was probably due to their lesser concern (at the time) than other Italians in the affairs of the mainland. Afterwards, in a few cases, the term of office was extended to cover a period of years, or even a lifetime. They were confined in a luxury palace to keep them from being influenced by any of the local families. The architectural arrangement of the Palazzo Pubblico at
Siena Siena ( , ; lat, Sena Iulia) is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the province of Siena. The city is historically linked to commercial and banking activities, having been a major banking center until the 13th and 14th centur ...
, built starting in 1297, evokes the uneasy relation of the commune with the ''podestà'', who in Siena's case was a disinterested nobleman at the head of the judiciary. It provided a self-contained lodging round its own interior court for the podestà, separate but housed within the Palazzo Pubblico where the councillors and their committee of nine habitually met. During the later part of the twelfth and the whole of the thirteenth century most Italian cities were governed by a podestà. Concerning
Rome , established_title = Founded , established_date = 753 BC , founder = King Romulus (legendary) , image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg , map_caption ...
, with a history of civic violence,
Gregorovius Ferdinand Gregorovius (19 January 1821, Neidenburg, East Prussia, Kingdom of Prussia – 1 May 1891, Munich, Kingdom of Bavaria) was a German historian who specialized in the medieval history of Rome. Biography Gregorovius was the son of Neiden ...
says that "in 1205 the
Pope Innocent III Pope Innocent III ( la, Innocentius III; 1160 or 1161 – 16 July 1216), born Lotario dei Conti di Segni (anglicized as Lothar of Segni), was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 8 January 1198 to his death in 16 ...
changed the form of the civic government; the executive power lying henceforward in the hand of a single senator or podest, who, directly or indirectly, was appointed by the pope". In
Florence Florence ( ; it, Firenze ) is a city in Central Italy and the capital city of the Tuscany Regions of Italy, region. It is the most populated city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants in 2016, and over 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area.Bilan ...
after 1180, the chief authority was transferred from the
consul Consul (abbrev. ''cos.''; Latin plural ''consules'') was the title of one of the two chief magistrates of the Roman Republic, and subsequently also an important title under the Roman Empire. The title was used in other European city-states throu ...
s to the podest, and
Milan Milan ( , , Lombard: ; it, Milano ) is a city in northern Italy, capital of Lombardy, and the second-most populous city proper in Italy after Rome. The city proper has a population of about 1.4 million, while its metropolitan city h ...
and other cities were also ruled by these officials. The
Republic of Genoa The Republic of Genoa ( lij, Repúbrica de Zêna ; it, Repubblica di Genova; la, Res Publica Ianuensis) was a medieval and early modern maritime republic from the 11th century to 1797 in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast. During the La ...
elected its first Podestà in 1191, a Brescian citizen, to quell the internal unrest that ravaged the capital of the Republic. There were, moreover, podests in some of the cities of the adjoining Provence in southeastern France. An anonymous writer composed a short guide for the would-be ''podestà'' (although it would be unseemly to appear openly to run for the office), ''Oculus pastoralis'', of about 1222; in six simple and brief chapters it guides the novice through the requirements of the office, the salary, the address of welcome given by the retiring ''podestà'' to the new one, the choice of counsellors, the handling of money accounts. The fifth chapter offers some model speeches on public occasions, such as the death of prominent citizens. A final chapter touches upon making war (in a paragraph), and the training of urban officials. In the thirteenth century in Florence, in Orvieto (1251) and some other cities a ''capitano del popolo'' (literally, "captain of the people") was chosen to look after the interests of the lower classes. (To this day, the heads of government of the little independent republic of San Marino are still called "capitani".) In other ways the power of the podests was reduced—they were confined more and more to
judicial The judiciary (also known as the judicial system, judicature, judicial branch, judiciative branch, and court or judiciary system) is the system of courts that adjudicates legal disputes/disagreements and interprets, defends, and applies the law ...
functions until they disappeared early in the sixteenth century. The officials sent by the Italian republics to administer the affairs of dependent cities were also sometimes called podests. Into the 20th century the cities of
Trento Trento ( or ; Ladin and lmo, Trent; german: Trient ; cim, Tria; , ), also anglicized as Trent, is a city on the Adige River in Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol in Italy. It is the capital of the autonomous province of Trento. In the 16th ce ...
and
Trieste Trieste ( , ; sl, Trst ; german: Triest ) is a city and seaport in northeastern Italy. It is the capital city, and largest city, of the autonomous region of Friuli Venezia Giulia, one of two autonomous regions which are not subdivided into prov ...
gave the name of podest to their chief magistrate.


Fascist era

The Fascist regime created its own version of the ''podestà'' figure. In February 1926, Mussolini's Senate issued a decree which abolished the autonomous powers and functions of ''
comune The (; plural: ) is a local administrative division of Italy, roughly equivalent to a township or municipality. It is the third-level administrative division of Italy, after regions ('' regioni'') and provinces (''province''). The can also ...
s'' (municipalities), including elected town councils and
mayor In many countries, a mayor is the highest-ranking official in a municipal government such as that of a city or a town. Worldwide, there is a wide variance in local laws and customs regarding the powers and responsibilities of a mayor as well ...
s. Instead, all ''comunes'' except for
Rome , established_title = Founded , established_date = 753 BC , founder = King Romulus (legendary) , image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg , map_caption ...
were to be headed by a "''podestà''", an authoritarian mayor with full executive and legislative powers. He was appointed by
royal charter A royal charter is a formal grant issued by a monarch under royal prerogative as letters patent. Historically, they have been used to promulgate public laws, the most famous example being the English Magna Carta (great charter) of 1215, but s ...
(in practice, by the
National Fascist Party The National Fascist Party ( it, Partito Nazionale Fascista, PNF) was a political party in Italy, created by Benito Mussolini as the political expression of Italian Fascism and as a reorganization of the previous Italian Fasces of Combat. Th ...
) for a renewable five-year term (which could be revoked at any time with immediate effect). In Rome, a
governor A governor is an administrative leader and head of a polity or political region, ranking under the head of state and in some cases, such as governors-general, as the head of state's official representative. Depending on the type of political ...
was appointed to head the local government. In larger communes, the ''podestà'' was assisted by one or two ''vice-podestà'' nominated by the
Ministry of Interior An interior ministry (sometimes called a ministry of internal affairs or ministry of home affairs) is a government department that is responsible for internal affairs. Lists of current ministries of internal affairs Named "ministry" * Ministry ...
, in addition to a board of advisors (''consulta municipale'') nominated either by the local
prefect Prefect (from the Latin ''praefectus'', substantive adjectival form of ''praeficere'': "put in front", meaning in charge) is a magisterial title of varying definition, but essentially refers to the leader of an administrative area. A prefect's ...
or, in the major cities, by the Ministry of Interior. The decree was in effect from 21 April 1927 until 1945, when the entire system was abandoned with the return to democracy.


Podesteria

Literally this derived word means the office of a podestà or its term, but ''Podesteria'' can also designate a district administered by a ''podestà'' within a larger state. In the ''
domini di Terraferma The ( vec, domini de terraferma or , ) was the hinterland territories of the Republic of Venice beyond the Adriatic coast in Northeast Italy. They were one of the three subdivisions of the Republic's possessions, the other two being the origi ...
'' that the dogal
republic of Venice The Republic of Venice ( vec, Repùblega de Venèsia) or Venetian Republic ( vec, Repùblega Vèneta, links=no), traditionally known as La Serenissima ( en, Most Serene Republic of Venice, italics=yes; vec, Serenìsima Repùblega de Venèsia, ...
gradually established in the basin of the river Po, annexing various former principalities and self-governing cities, mostly in the fifteenth century, podesterias (ven. ''podestarie'') were one of the intermediate levels of the hierarchical administrative organization, the highest ('provincial') level being the ''territorio'' (roughly a modern administrative region). After the other dogal republic,
Genoa Genoa ( ; it, Genova ; lij, Zêna ). is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015, 594,733 people lived within the city's administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of ...
, was in 1273 granted control of Pera and Galata, commercial suburbs of
Constantinople la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه , alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya ( Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis ( ...
, by the Byzantine emperor, it governed them jointly by a common ''podestà'' until 1453, when all Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Turks.


Outside the Italian city-states

The example of Italy in the matter of podests was sometimes followed by cities and republics in northern Europe in the Middle Ages, notably by such as had trade relations with Italy. The officers elected sometimes bore the title of ''podesta'' or ''podestat''. Thus in East Frisia there were podests identical in name and functions with those of the Italian republics; sometimes each province had one, sometimes the federal diet elected a podest-general for the whole country, the term of office being for a limited period or for life.J.L. Motley, ''Dutch Republic'', ed. 1903, vol. i. 44.


Frisian ''potestaat''

The concept of a local man empowered to represent the Holy Roman Emperor was also a feature of medieval Frisia. From apocryphal beginnings, important rights were granted or confirmed under the code of law known as the '' Lex Frisionum''. According to later tradition, it was
Charlemagne Charlemagne ( , ) or Charles the Great ( la, Carolus Magnus; german: Karl der Große; 2 April 747 – 28 January 814), a member of the Carolingian dynasty, was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and the first ...
who granted the Frisians the title of freemen and permitted them to choose their own podestat or imperial governor from among the chieftains, to organize and lead the defense of two of the three districts of Frisia, in Middle Frisia, from the Flie to the Lauwers and in East Frisia from the Lauwers to the Weser, later the Countship of Ostfriesland. The Italians probably became aware of the Frisian Potestaat, in Dutch "op poten staan" in English 'on legs standing', like for instance king Henry on his painting (Dutch: ''potestaat'', German: ''Potestat'', English: ''potestate'') during the Sixth Crusade in 1228. According to privileges that were falsely ascribed to the Carolingian era, the ''potestate'' was chosen by council and he must be able to slay knights. Apocryphal historical writings mention the potestate as early as the
Viking Age The Viking Age () was the period during the Middle Ages when Norsemen known as Vikings undertook large-scale raiding, colonizing, conquest, and trading throughout Europe and reached North America. It followed the Migration Period and the Germ ...
. The only ''potestates'' chosen to lead
Friesland Friesland (, ; official fry, Fryslân ), historically and traditionally known as Frisia, is a province of the Netherlands located in the country's northern part. It is situated west of Groningen, northwest of Drenthe and Overijssel, north of ...
between the Vlie and Lauwers were Juw Juwinga (1396) and Juw Dekema (1494), both were chosen by the Schieringers. However, in 1399 the districts of Westergo and Oostergo elected potestates, Haring Harinxma and Sjoerd Wiarda respectively, in the struggle against the count of Holland. The title became well known outside of Friesland only with the installation of Albrecht of Saxony as ''hereditary potestate'' in 1498; the Frisians chose Jancko Douwama as their imperial stadtholder (1522).


Partial list of legendary and historical potestates

* Magnus Forteman (810), legendary * Taco Ludigman (819), legendary * Adelbrik Adelen (830), legendary * Hessel Hermana (869), legendary * Igo Galema (886), legendary *
Gosse Ludigman Gosse Ludigman (elected 989 died in 1000) was a legendary potestaat (or elected governor) of Friesland, now a province of the Netherlands. He does not appear in sources until hundreds of years after his supposed life. Gosse lived at Stavoren, Sta ...
(989), legendary *
Saco Reinalda Saco Reinalda (chosen from 1150 to 1167) was a legendary '' potestaat'' of Friesland Friesland (, ; official fry, Fryslân ), historically and traditionally known as Frisia, is a province of the Netherlands located in the country's northern pa ...
(1167), legendary *
Sicko Sjaerdema Sikke Sjaardema (died 1260), alternatively spelled Sikko or Sicka, was the eighth potestaat of Friesland, a province of the Netherlands. The potestaat was the elected provincial ruler. Biography Sjaerdema came from Ylst or IJlst (Elostoe in Latin) ...
(1237) *Reinder Cammingha (1306) * Hessel Martena (voor 1313) * Juw Juwinga (1396) *
Sytse Dekama Sytse Dekama (as well as his successor Gale Hania from Weidum, chosen around 1397) was the twelfth potestaat (or magistrate ruler) of Friesland, which was in the time of the religious disputes between Schieringers and Vetkopers. There is little k ...
, Gale Hania and
Odo Botnia Odo Botnia (died 1399) was the fourteenth potestaat (or elected governor) of Friesland, now a province in the Netherlands. Biography Odo was the son of Feicko Botnia, a nobleman of Marrum, who lived on the Botnia stins (stronghold or nobles house) ...
(1399) * Sjoerd Wiarda and Haring Harinxma (1404) * Juw Dekama (1494)


See also

*
Capitano del popolo Captain of the People ( it, Capitano del popolo, Lombard: ''Capitani del Popol'') was an administrative title used in Italy during the Middle Ages, established essentially to balance the power and authority of the noble families of the Italian ...
* Capitano reggente * Gonfaloniere * Podestà of Constantinople


Reading

* Brouwer, J.H., J.J. Klama, W. Kok, and M. Wiegersma, eds., Encyclopedie van Friesland, (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1958) s.v. ''Potestaat van Friesland'' * ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 1911: "Frisians"
Janet Hongyan Woo, "Tension in Siena : Site Selection and Room Arrangement of Piazza Pubblico"
* Burckhardt, Jakob, ''The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy'': "The State as a Work of Art", trans. 1878 * A. M. H. J. Stokvis, ''Manuel d'histoire, de généalogie et de chronologie de tous les états du globe depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à nos jours''; vol. iii * Westermann, ''Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte'' (in German)
WorldStatesmen - Turkey
* William Francis Thomas Butler, ''Lombard Communes: A History of the Republics of North Italy'' (1982)


References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Podesta Legal history of Italy Medieval Italy Italian city-states 2nd millennium in Italy Gubernatorial titles Heads of government Heads of state Heads of local government Potestaats of Friesland