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Peppermint (''Mentha'' × ''piperita'') is a
hybrid Hybrid may refer to: Science * Hybrid (biology), an offspring resulting from cross-breeding ** Hybrid grape, grape varieties produced by cross-breeding two ''Vitis'' species ** Hybridity, the property of a hybrid plant which is a union of two dif ...
species of mint, a cross between watermint and spearmint. Indigenous to Europe and the Middle East, the plant is now widely spread and cultivated in many regions of the world.Euro+Med Plantbase Project
''Mentha'' × ''piperita''
/ref> It is occasionally found in the wild with its parent species.Flora of NW Europe
''Mentha'' × ''piperita''
Although the genus ''Mentha'' comprises more than 25 species, the one in most common use is peppermint. While Western peppermint is derived from ''Mentha × piperita'', Chinese peppermint, or ''bohe'', is derived from the fresh leaves of ''M. haplocalyx''. ''M. × piperita'' and ''M. haplocalyx'' are both recognized as plant sources of
menthol Menthol is an organic compound, more specifically a monoterpenoid, made synthetically or obtained from the oils of corn mint, peppermint, or other mints. It is a waxy, clear or white crystalline substance, which is solid at room temperature an ...
and
menthone Menthone is a monoterpene with a minty flavor that occurs naturally in a number of essential oils. ''l''-Menthone (or (2''S'',5''R'')-''trans''-2-isopropyl-5-methylcyclohexanone), shown at right, is the most abundant in nature of the four possible ...
, and are among the oldest herbs used for both culinary and medicinal products.


Botany

Peppermint was first described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus from specimens that had been collected in England; he treated it as a
species In biology, a species is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of ...
,Linnaeus, C. (1753). '' Species Plantarum'' 2: 576–577. but it is now universally agreed to be a hybrid.Harley, R. M. (1975). ''Mentha'' L. In: Stace, C. A., ed. ''Hybridization and the flora of the British Isles'' page 387. It is a
herbaceous Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground. This broad category of plants includes many perennials, and nearly all annuals and biennials. Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous" The fourth edition o ...
, rhizomatous, perennial plant that grows to be tall, with smooth stems, square in cross section. The rhizomes are wide-spreading and fleshy, and bear fibrous roots. The
leaves A leaf ( : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, ste ...
can be long and broad. They are dark green with reddish veins, with an acute apex and coarsely toothed margins. The leaves and stems are usually slightly fuzzy. The flowers are purple, long, with a four-lobed
corolla Corolla may refer to: *Corolla (botany), the petals of a flower, considered as a unit *Toyota Corolla, an automobile model name *Corolla (headgear) A ''corolla'' is an ancient headdress in the form of a small circlet or crown.chromosome number is variable, with 2n counts of 66, 72, 84, and 120 recorded.Huxley, A., ed. (1992). ''New RHS Dictionary of Gardening''. Macmillan. .Blamey, M. & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). ''Flora of Britain and Northern Europe''. Peppermint is a fast-growing plant; once it sprouts, it spreads very quickly.


Ecology

Peppermint typically occurs in moist habitats, including stream sides and drainage ditches. Being a hybrid, it is usually sterile, producing no seeds and reproducing only vegetatively, spreading by its runners. Outside of its native range, areas where peppermint was formerly grown for oil often have an abundance of feral plants, and it is considered invasive in Australia, the
Galápagos Islands The Galápagos Islands ( Spanish: , , ) are an archipelago of volcanic islands. They are distributed on each side of the equator in the Pacific Ocean, surrounding the centre of the Western Hemisphere, and are part of the Republic of Ecuador ...
, New Zealand,Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk
''Mentha'' x ''piperita''
and the United States in the Great Lakes region, noted since 1843.


Cultivation

Peppermint generally grows best in moist, shaded locations, and expands by underground rhizomes. Young shoots are taken from old stocks and dibbled into the ground about 0.5 m (1.5 ft) apart. They grow quickly and cover the ground with runners if it is permanently moist. For the home gardener, it is often grown in containers to restrict rapid spreading. It grows best with a good supply of water, without being water-logged, and planted in areas with partial sun to shade. The leaves and flowering tops are used; they are collected as soon as the flowers begin to open and can be dried. The wild form of the plant is less suitable for this purpose, with cultivated plants having been selected for more and better oil content. They may be allowed to lie and wilt a little before distillation, or they may be taken directly to the still.


Cultivars

Several cultivars have been selected for garden use: * ''Mentha'' × ''piperita'' 'Candymint' has reddish stems. * ''Mentha'' × ''piperita'' 'Chocolate Mint'. Its flowers open from the bottom up; its flavour is reminiscent of the flavour in Andes Chocolate Mints, a popular confection. * ''Mentha'' × ''piperita'' 'Citrata' includes a number of varieties including 'eau de Cologne' mint, grapefruit mint, lemon mint, and orange mint. Its leaves are aromatic and hairless. * ''Mentha'' × ''piperita'' 'Crispa' has wrinkled leaves. * ''Mentha'' × ''piperita'' 'Lavender Mint' * ''Mentha'' × ''piperita'' 'Lime Mint' has lime-scented foliage. * ''Mentha'' × ''piperita'' 'Variegata' has mottled green and pale yellow leaves. Commercial cultivars may include: * Dulgo pole * Zefir * Bulgarian population #2 * Clone 11-6-22 * Clone 80-121-33 * Mitcham Digne 38 * Mitcham Ribecourt 19 * ' Todd's Mitcham', a verticillium wilt-resistant cultivar produced from a breeding and test program of atomic gardening at
Brookhaven National Laboratory Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) is a United States Department of Energy national laboratories, United States Department of Energy national laboratory located in Upton, New York, Upton, Long Island, and was formally established in 1947 at th ...
from the mid-1950s * ' Refined Murray', also verticillium-resistant * ' Roberts Mitcham', also verticillium-resistant and also the product of
mutation breeding Mutation breeding, sometimes referred to as "variation breeding", is the process of exposing seeds to chemicals, radiation, or enzymes in order to generate mutants with desirable traits to be bred with other cultivars. Plants created using mutagene ...


Diseases

Verticillium wilt is a major constraint in peppermint cultivation. 'Todd's Mitcham', 'Refined Murray', 'Roberts Mitcham' (see above), and a few other cultivars have some degree of resistance.


Production

In 2020, world production of peppermint was 48,437 tonnes, led by Morocco with 83% of the world total and
Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...
with 14% (table). In the United States, Oregon and
Washington Washington commonly refers to: * Washington (state), United States * Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States ** A metonym for the federal government of the United States ** Washington metropolitan area, the metropolitan area centered o ...
produce most of the country's peppermint, the leaves of which are processed for the essential oil to produce flavorings mainly for
chewing gum Chewing gum is a soft, cohesive substance designed to be chewed without being swallowed. Modern chewing gum is composed of gum base, sweeteners, softeners/ plasticizers, flavors, colors, and, typically, a hard or powdered polyol coating. Its ...
and toothpaste.


Chemical constituents

Peppermint has a high menthol content. The essential oil also contains menthone and carboxyl esters, particularly menthyl acetate. Dried peppermint typically has 0.3–0.4% of volatile oil containing menthol (7–48%), menthone (20–46%), menthyl acetate (3–10%),
menthofuran Menthofuran is an organic compound found in a variety of essential oils including that of pennyroyal (''Mentha pulegium''). It is highly toxic and believed to be the primary toxin in pennyroyal responsible for its potentially fatal effects. Aft ...
(1–17%), and 1,8-
cineol Eucalyptol is a monoterpenoid. A colorless liquid, it is a bicyclic ether. Eucalyptol has a fresh mint-like smell and a spicy, cooling taste. It is insoluble in water, but miscible with organic solvents. Eucalyptol makes up ~70% - 90% of eucal ...
(3–6%). Peppermint oil also contains small amounts of many additional compounds, including
limonene Limonene is a colorless liquid aliphatic hydrocarbon classified as a cyclic monoterpene, and is the major component in the oil of citrus fruit peels. The -isomer, occurring more commonly in nature as the fragrance of oranges, is a flavoring a ...
,
pulegone Pulegone is a naturally occurring organic compound obtained from the essential oils of a variety of plants such as ''Nepeta cataria'' (catnip), '' Mentha piperita'', and pennyroyal. It is classified as a monoterpene. Pulegone is a clear colorle ...
,
caryophyllene Caryophyllene (), more formally (−)-β-caryophyllene, (BCP), is a natural bicyclic sesquiterpene that is a constituent of many essential oils, especially clove oil, the oil from the stems and flowers of '' Syzygium aromaticum'' (cloves), the ess ...
, and
pinene Pinene is a collection of unsaturated bicyclic monoterpenes. Two geometric isomers of pinene are found in nature, α-pinene and β-pinene. Both are chiral. As the name suggests, pinenes are found in pines. Specifically, pinene is the major compo ...
. Peppermint contains terpenoids and flavonoids such as
eriocitrin Eriocitrin (eriodictyol glycoside) is a flavanone-7-''O''-glycoside between the flavanone eriodictyol and the disaccharide rutinose. It is commonly found in lemons and other citrus fruits. It is colloquially called lemon flavonoid or a citrus fla ...
, hesperidin, and kaempferol 7-O-rutinoside.


Oil

Peppermint oil has a high concentration of natural pesticides, mainly pulegone (found mainly in ''M. arvensis'' var. ''piperascens'' (cornmint, field mint, or Japanese mint), and to a lesser extent (6,530 ppm) in ''Mentha'' × ''piperita'' subsp. ''notho'') and menthone. It is known to repel some pest insects, including mosquitos, and has uses in organic gardening. It is also widely used to repel rodents. Peppermint oil can also be used as an effective remedy for nausea and digestive issues. The chemical composition of the essential oil from peppermint (''Mentha'' × ''piperita'' L.) was analyzed by GC/FID and GC-MS. The main constituents were
menthol Menthol is an organic compound, more specifically a monoterpenoid, made synthetically or obtained from the oils of corn mint, peppermint, or other mints. It is a waxy, clear or white crystalline substance, which is solid at room temperature an ...
(40.7%) and
menthone Menthone is a monoterpene with a minty flavor that occurs naturally in a number of essential oils. ''l''-Menthone (or (2''S'',5''R'')-''trans''-2-isopropyl-5-methylcyclohexanone), shown at right, is the most abundant in nature of the four possible ...
(23.4%). Further components were (±)- menthyl acetate, 1,8-
cineole Eucalyptol is a monoterpenoid. A colorless liquid, it is a bicyclic ether. Eucalyptol has a fresh mint-like smell and a spicy, cooling taste. It is insoluble in water, but miscible with organic solvents. Eucalyptol makes up ~70% - 90% of eucaly ...
,
limonene Limonene is a colorless liquid aliphatic hydrocarbon classified as a cyclic monoterpene, and is the major component in the oil of citrus fruit peels. The -isomer, occurring more commonly in nature as the fragrance of oranges, is a flavoring a ...
, beta-pinene, and
beta-caryophyllene Caryophyllene (), more formally (−)-β-caryophyllene, (BCP), is a natural bicyclic sesquiterpene that is a constituent of many essential oils, especially clove oil, the oil from the stems and flowers of '' Syzygium aromaticum'' (cloves), the ess ...
.


Research and health effects

Peppermint oil Peppermint extract is an herbal extract of peppermint (''Mentha × piperita'') made from the essential oils of peppermint leaves. Peppermint is a hybrid of water mint and spearmint and was indigenous to Europe and the Middle East before it became ...
is under preliminary research for its potential as a short-term treatment for
irritable bowel syndrome Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a "disorder of gut-brain interaction" characterized by a group of symptoms that commonly include abdominal pain and or abdominal bloating and changes in the consistency of bowel movements. These symptoms may ...
, and has supposed uses in
traditional medicine Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous medicine or folk medicine) comprises medical aspects of traditional knowledge that developed over generations within the folk beliefs of various societies, including indigenous peoples, before the ...
for minor ailments. Peppermint oil and leaves have a cooling effect when used topically for muscle pain, nerve pain, relief from
itch Itch (also known as pruritus) is a sensation that causes the desire or reflex to scratch. Itch has resisted many attempts to be classified as any one type of sensory experience. Itch has many similarities to pain, and while both are unpleasant ...
ing, or as a fragrance. High oral doses of peppermint oil (500 mg) can cause mucosal irritation and mimic
heartburn Heartburn, also known as pyrosis, cardialgia or acid indigestion, is a burning sensation in the central chest or upper central abdomen. Heartburn is usually due to regurgitation of gastric acid (gastric reflux) into the esophagus. It is the ma ...
. Peppermint roots
bioaccumulate Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of substances, such as pesticides or other chemicals, in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a substance at a rate faster than that at which the substance is lost or eliminated ...
radium, so the plant may be effective for phytoremediation of radioactively contaminated soil.


Culinary and other uses

Fresh or dried peppermint leaves are often used alone in
peppermint tea Maghrebi mint tea ( Maghrebi Arabic: , ''atay''; ar, الشاي بالنعناع, aš-šhāy bin-na'nā'; ), also known as Moroccan mint tea and Algerian mint tea, is a North African green tea prepared with spearmint leaves and sugar. It is t ...
or with other herbs in herbal teas (tisanes, infusions). Peppermint is used for flavouring ice cream,
candy Candy, also called sweets (British English) or lollies (Australian English, New Zealand English), is a confection that features sugar as a principal ingredient. The category, called ''sugar confectionery'', encompasses any sweet confection, i ...
, fruit preserves,
alcoholic beverage An alcoholic beverage (also called an alcoholic drink, adult beverage, or a drink) is a drink that contains ethanol, a type of alcohol that acts as a drug and is produced by fermentation of grains, fruits, or other sources of sugar. The con ...
s, chewing gum, toothpaste, and some shampoos, soaps, and skin care products. Menthol activates cold-sensitive
TRPM8 Transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily M (melastatin) member 8 (TRPM8), also known as the cold and menthol receptor 1 (CMR1), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''TRPM8'' gene. The TRPM8 channel is the primary molecular ...
receptors in the skin and mucosal tissues, and is the primary source of the cooling sensation that follows the topical application of peppermint oil. File:Candy-Cane-Classic.jpg,
Candy canes A candy cane is a cane-shaped stick candy often associated with Christmastide, as well as Saint Nicholas Day. It is traditionally white with red stripes and flavored with peppermint, but they also come in a variety of other flavors and colors. ...
are one of the most common peppermint-flavored candies File:CSA-Chocolate-Mint.jpg, ''Mentha'' × ''piperita'' hybrid known as 'Chocolate Mint' File:Pfefferminze ies.jpg, Freeze-dried leaves
Peppermint oil is also used in construction and plumbing to test for the tightness of pipes and disclose leaks by its odor.


Safety

Medicinal uses of peppermint have not been approved as effective or safe by the US Food and Drug Administration. With caution that the concentration of the peppermint constituent pulegone should not exceed 1% (140 mg), peppermint preparations are considered safe by the European Medicines Agency when used in topical formulations for adult subjects. Diluted peppermint essential oil is safe for oral intake when only a few drops are used. Although peppermint is commonly available as a
herbal supplement Herbal medicine (also herbalism) is the study of pharmacognosy and the use of medicinal plants, which are a basis of traditional medicine. With worldwide research into pharmacology, some herbal medicines have been translated into modern remedies ...
, no established, consistent manufacturing standards exist for it, and some peppermint products may be contaminated with toxic metals or other substituted compounds. Skin rashes, irritation, or
allergic reactions Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, refer a number of conditions caused by the hypersensitivity of the immune system to typically harmless substances in the environment. These diseases include hay fever, food allergies, atopic dermati ...
may result from applying peppermint oil to the skin, and its use on the face or chest of young children may cause side effects if the oil menthol is inhaled. A common side effect from oral intake of peppermint oil or capsules is
heartburn Heartburn, also known as pyrosis, cardialgia or acid indigestion, is a burning sensation in the central chest or upper central abdomen. Heartburn is usually due to regurgitation of gastric acid (gastric reflux) into the esophagus. It is the ma ...
. Oral use of peppermint products may have
adverse effect An adverse effect is an undesired harmful effect resulting from a medication or other intervention, such as surgery. An adverse effect may be termed a "side effect", when judged to be secondary to a main or therapeutic effect. The term complica ...
s when used with iron supplements,
cyclosporine Ciclosporin, also spelled cyclosporine and cyclosporin, is a calcineurin inhibitor, used as an immunosuppressant medication. It is a natural product. It is taken orally or intravenously for rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, Crohn's disease, ...
, medicines for heart conditions or high blood pressure, or medicines to decrease stomach acid.


Standardization

*
ISO 676 ISO is the most common abbreviation for the International Organization for Standardization. ISO or Iso may also refer to: Business and finance * Iso (supermarket), a chain of Danish supermarkets incorporated into the SuperBest chain in 2007 * Iso ...
:1995—contains the information about the nomenclature of the variety and cultivars * ISO 5563:1984—a specification for its dried leaves of Mentha piperita Linnaeus * Peppermint oil— ISO 856:2006


See also

* Eucalyptus * Peppermint extract


References

{{Authority control Antiemetics Flora of Europe Herbs Medicinal plants Mentha Plants described in 1753 Hybrid plants