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Nomenclature codes or codes of nomenclature are the various rulebooks that govern biological taxonomic
nomenclature Nomenclature (, ) is a system of names or terms, or the rules for forming these terms in a particular field of arts or sciences. The principles of naming vary from the relatively informal conventions of everyday speech to the internationally ag ...
, each in their own broad field of organisms. To an end-user who only deals with names of species, with some awareness that species are assignable to families, it may not be noticeable that there is more than one code, but beyond this basic level these are rather different in the way they work. The successful introduction of two-part names for species by Linnaeus was the start for an ever-expanding system of nomenclature. With all naturalists worldwide adopting this approach to thinking up names, there arose several schools of thought about the details. It became ever more apparent that a detailed body of rules was necessary to govern scientific names. From the mid-19th century onwards, there were several initiatives to arrive at worldwide-accepted sets of rules. Presently nomenclature codes govern the naming of: * Algae,
Fungi A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately fr ...
and
Plant Plants are predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi; however, all current definitions of Plantae excl ...
s – '' International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants'' (''ICN''), which in July 2011 replaced the '' International Code of Botanical Nomenclature'' (''ICBN'') and the earlier ''International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature''. *
Animal Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and go through an ontogenetic stage ...
s – ''
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) is a widely accepted convention in zoology that rules the formal scientific naming of organisms treated as animals. It is also informally known as the ICZN Code, for its publisher, the I ...
'' (''ICZN'') * Bacteria and Archaea – ''
International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes The International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes (ICNP) formerly the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB) or Bacteriological Code (BC) governs the scientific names for Bacteria and Archaea.P. H. A. Sneath, 2003. A short his ...
'' (''ICNP''), which in 2008 replaced the ''International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria'' (''ICNB'') * Cultivated plants – '' International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants'' (''ICNCP'') * Plant associations – ''
International Code of Phytosociological Nomenclature Phytosociology, also known as phytocoenology or simply plant sociology, is the study of groups of species of plant that are usually found together. Phytosociology aims to empirically describe the vegetative environment of a given territory. A speci ...
(ICPN)'' *
Virus A virus is a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses infect all life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea. Since Dmitri Ivanovsk ...
es – ''The International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature'' (ICVCN); ''see also virus classification''


Differences between codes


Starting point

The starting point, that is the time from which these codes are in effect (usually retroactively), varies from group to group, and sometimes from rank to rank. In
botany Botany, also called , plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term "botany" comes from the Ancient Greek w ...
and
mycology Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans, including as a source for tinder, traditional medicine, food, and entheogen ...
the starting point is often 1 May 1753 ( Linnaeus, '' Species plantarum''), in
zoology Zoology ()The pronunciation of zoology as is usually regarded as nonstandard, though it is not uncommon. is the branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, an ...
1758 (Linnaeus, ''Systema Naturae'', 10th Edition). On the other hand, bacteriology started anew, making a clean sweep in 1980 (Skerman et al., "Approved Lists of Bacterial Names"), although maintaining the original authors and dates of publication. Exceptions in botany: * Spermatophyta and Pteridophyta, suprageneric names: 4 August 1789 ( Jussieu, ''Genera plantarum''); * Musci (except Sphagnaceae): 1 January 1801 ( Hedwig, ''Species muscorum''); *
Sphagnaceae The Sphagnaceae is a family of moss with only one living genus ''Sphagnum ''Sphagnum'' is a genus of approximately 380 accepted species of mosses, commonly known as sphagnum moss, peat moss, also bog moss and quacker moss (although that term ...
and
Hepaticae The Marchantiophyta () are a division of non-vascular land plants commonly referred to as hepatics or liverworts. Like mosses and hornworts, they have a gametophyte-dominant life cycle, in which cells of the plant carry only a single set of ge ...
(including
Anthocerotae Hornworts are a group of non-vascular Embryophytes (land plants) constituting the division Anthocerotophyta (). The common name refers to the elongated horn-like structure, which is the sporophyte. As in mosses and liverworts, hornworts have a ...
), suprageneric names: 4 August 1789 (Jussieu, ''Genera plantarum''); * (
Fungi A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately fr ...
:)
Microsporidia Microsporidia are a group of spore-forming unicellular parasites. These spores contain an extrusion apparatus that has a coiled polar tube ending in an anchoring disc at the apical part of the spore. They were once considered protozoans or pr ...
are governed by the ''ICZN'' (treated as animals), and see below for ''fossil'' fungi; * ( Algae:) ** Nostocaceae homocysteae: 1 January 1892 (Gomont, “''Monographie des Oscillariées''”); ** Nostocaceae heterocysteae: 1 January 1886 ( Bornet & Flahault, “''Révision des Nostocacées hétérocystées''”); ** Desmidiaceae: 1 January 1848 ( Ralfs, ''British Desmidieae''); **
Oedogoniaceae The Oedogoniales are an order of filamentous freshwater green algae of the class Chlorophyceae. The order is well-defined and has several unique features, including asexual reproduction with zoospores that possess stephanokont flagella: numerous ...
: 1 January 1900 ( Hirn, “''Monographie und Iconographie der Oedogoniaceen''”); * ''Fossil'' plants, algae ( diatoms excepted) and fungi: 31 December 1820 ( Sternberg, ''Flora der Vorwelt''). Exceptions in zoology: *
Spider Spiders (order Araneae) are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs, chelicerae with fangs generally able to inject venom, and spinnerets that extrude silk. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species ...
s: 1757 ( Clerck, '' Aranei Svecici'').


Workings

There are also differences in the way codes work. For example, the ''ICN'' (the code for algae, fungi and plants) forbids tautonyms, while the ''ICZN'', (the animal code) allows them.


Terminology

These codes differ in terminology, and there is a long-term project to "harmonize" this. For instance, the ''ICN'' uses "valid" in "valid publication of a name" (= the act of publishing a formal name), with "establishing a name" as the ''ICZN'' equivalent. The ''ICZN'' uses "valid" in "valid name" (= "correct name"), with "correct name" as the ''ICN'' equivalent. Harmonization is making very limited progress.


Types

There are differences in respect of what kinds of types are used. The bacteriological code prefers living type cultures, but allows other kinds. There has been ongoing debate regarding which kind of type is more useful in a case like cyanobacteria.


Other codes


BioCode

A more radical approach was made in 1997 when the IUBS/ IUMS International Committee on Bionomenclature (ICB) presented the long debated ''Draft BioCode'', proposed to replace all existing ''Codes'' with an harmonization of them. The originally planned implementation date for the BioCode draft was January 1, 2000, but agreement to replace the existing ''Codes'' was not reached. In 2011 a revised ''BioCode'' was proposed that, instead of replacing the existing ''Codes'', would provide a unified context for them, referring to them when necessary. Changes in the existing codes are slowly being made in the proposed directions.DL Hawksworth (2011) BioCode 2011. Introduction. http://www.bionomenclature.net/biocode2011.htmlWerner Greuter (2011) BioCode 2011. Explanatory prologue. http://www.bionomenclature.net/biocode2011.html


PhyloCode

Some authors encountered problems in using the Linnean system in phylogenetic classification.de Queiroz, K.; Gauthier, J. (1990). Phylogeny as a Central Principle in Taxonomy: Phylogenetic Definitions of Taxon Names. ''Syst. Zool.'' (39): 307–322. doi:10.2307/2992353 http://vertebrates.si.edu/herps/herps_pdfs/deQueiroz_pdfs/1990deQ_GauSZ.pdf. Another ''Code'' in development since 1998 is the '' PhyloCode'', which would regulate what their creators called phylogenetic nomenclature instead of the traditional
Linnaean nomenclature Linnaean taxonomy can mean either of two related concepts: # The particular form of biological classification (taxonomy) set up by Carl Linnaeus, as set forth in his ''Systema Naturae'' (1735) and subsequent works. In the taxonomy of Linnaeus t ...
(that is, it requires phylogenetic definitions as a "type" attached to every name, and does not contain mandatory ranks). The ''Code'' and the accompanying volume (meant to serve as a list of not-suppressed names and a new starting point, like the 1980s ''Approved Lists of Bacterial Names'' functions relative to the ''Bacteriological Code'', much like ''
Systema naturae ' (originally in Latin written ' with the ligature æ) is one of the major works of the Swedish botanist, zoologist and physician Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) and introduced the Linnaean taxonomy. Although the system, now known as binomial ...
'' functions relative to the ''Zoological Code''), is however still in the draft stage, and it is uncertain when, or even if, the code will see any form of implementation.


Ambiregnal protists

Some
protist A protist () is any eukaryotic organism (that is, an organism whose cells contain a cell nucleus) that is not an animal, plant, or fungus. While it is likely that protists share a common ancestor (the last eukaryotic common ancestor), the e ...
s, sometimes called ambiregnal protists, have been considered to be both protozoa and algae, or protozoa and
fungi A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately fr ...
, and names for these have been published under either or both of the ''ICZN'' and the ''ICN''. The resulting double language throughout protist classification schemes resulted in confusion. Groups claimed by both protozoologists and phycologists include euglenids, dinoflagellates, cryptomonads, haptophytes, glaucophytes, many heterokonts (e.g., chrysophytes, raphidophytes, silicoflagellates, some
xanthophyte Yellow-green algae or the Xanthophyceae (xanthophytes) are an important group of heterokont algae. Most live in fresh water, but some are found in marine and soil habitats. They vary from single-celled flagellates to simple colonial and filamento ...
s, proteromonads), some monadoid green algae ( volvocaleans and
prasinophyte The prasinophytes are a group of unicellular green algae. Prasinophytes mainly include marine planktonic species, as well as some freshwater representatives.Sym, S. D. and Pienaar, R. N. 1993. The class Prasinophyceae. In Round, F. E. and Chapm ...
s),
choanoflagellate The choanoflagellates are a group of free-living unicellular and colonial flagellate eukaryotes considered to be the closest living relatives of the animals. Choanoflagellates are collared flagellates, having a funnel shaped collar of interconne ...
s, bicosoecids, ebriids and
chlorarachniophyte The chlorarachniophytes are a small group of exclusively marine algae widely distributed in tropical and temperate waters. They are typically mixotrophic, ingesting bacteria and smaller protists as well as conducting photosynthesis. Normally t ...
s. Slime molds, plasmodial forms and other " fungus-like" organisms claimed by both protozoologists and mycologists include mycetozoans, plasmodiophorids, acrasids, and labyrinthulomycetess.
Fungi A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately fr ...
claimed by both protozoologists and mycologists include chytrids, blastoclads, and the gut fungi. Other problematic groups are the Cyanobacteria (ICNP/ICN) and
Microsporidia Microsporidia are a group of spore-forming unicellular parasites. These spores contain an extrusion apparatus that has a coiled polar tube ending in an anchoring disc at the apical part of the spore. They were once considered protozoans or pr ...
(ICZN/ICN).


Unregulated taxa

The zoological code does not regulate names of taxa lower than subspecies or higher than superfamily. There are many attempts to introduce some order on the nomenclature of these taxa, including the PhyloCode, or also of circumscriptional nomenclature. The
botanical code The ''International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants'' (ICN) is the set of rules and recommendations dealing with the formal botanical names that are given to plants, fungi and a few other groups of organisms, all those "trad ...
is applied primarily to the ranks of family and below. There are some rules for names above the rank of family, but the principle of priority does not apply to them, and the principle of typification is optional. These names may be either automatically typified names or be
descriptive name In the study of language, description or descriptive linguistics is the work of objectively analyzing and describing how language is actually used (or how it was used in the past) by a speech community. François & Ponsonnet (2013). All a ...
s. In some circumstances, a taxon has two possible names (e.g., Chrysophyceae Pascher, 1914, ''nom. descrip.''; Hibberd, 1976, ''nom. typificatum''). Descriptive names are problematic, once that, if a taxon is split, it is not obvious which new group takes the existing name. Meanwhile, with typified names, the existing name is taken by the new group that still bears the type of this name. However, typified names present special problems for microorganisms.


See also

*
Binomial nomenclature In Taxonomy (biology), taxonomy, binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system"), also called nomenclature ("two-name naming system") or binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name compos ...
* Botanical nomenclature * Chemical nomenclature * Common name * Gene nomenclature *
Glossary of scientific naming This is a list of terms and symbols used in scientific names for organisms, and in describing the names. For proper parts of the names themselves, see List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names. Note that many of the abbrevi ...
* List of taxa named by anagrams * Zoological nomenclature * Tree of life (biology)


References


Bibliography

* * *{{cite book , author1=Turland, N.J. , author2=Wiersema, J.H. , author3=Barry, F.R. , author4=Greuter, W. , author5=Hawksworth, D.L. , author6=Herendeen, P.S. , author7=Knapp, S. , author8=Kusber, W.H. , author9=Li, D.-Z. , author10=Marhold, K. , author11=May, T.W. , author12=McNeill, J. , author13=Monro, A.M. , author14=Prado, J. , author15=Price, M.J. , author16=Smith, G.F. , year=2018 , volume=Regnum Vegetabile 159 , title=International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Shenzhen Code) adopted by the Nineteenth International Botanical Congress Shenzhen, China, July 2017 , publisher=Koeltz Botanical Books , isbn=978-3-946583-16-5 , url=https://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php , ref=Turland


External links


Biocode in Action
at the Smithsonian Ocean Portal
''ICN''
Shenzhen Code (2018)
''ICZN''
the "green book" (1999)

with Standing in Nomenclature (1997), by J.P. Euzéby
''BioCode''
introduction (2011)

Virology