Family and society
The Roman family (the '' familia'', better translated as "household" than "family") was hierarchical, as was Roman society. These hierarchies were traditional and self-perpetuating, that is, they supported and were supported by the ''mos maiorum''. The '' pater familias'', or head of household, held absolute authority over his ''familia'', which was both an autonomous unit within society and a model for the social order, but he was expected to exercise this power with moderation and to act responsibly on behalf of his family. The risk and pressure of social censure if he failed to live up to expectations was also a form of ''mos''. The distinctive social relationship of ancient Rome was that between patron ''(patronus)'' and client ''(cliens)''. Although the obligations of this relationship were mutual, they were also hierarchical. The relationship was not a unit, but a network ''(clientela)'', as a ''patronus'' might himself be obligated to someone of higher status or greater power, and a ''cliens'' might have more than one patron, whose interests might come into conflict. If the ''familia'' was the discrete unit underlying society, these interlocking networks countered that autonomy and created the bonds that made a complex society possible. Although one of the major spheres of activity within patron-client relations was the law courts, patronage was not itself a legal contract; the pressures to uphold one's obligations were moral, founded on the quality of ''fides'', "trust" (see Values below), and the ''mos''. Patronage served as a model when conquerors or governors abroad established personal ties as patron to whole communities, ties which then might be perpetuated as a family obligation. In this sense, ''mos'' becomes less a matter of unchanging tradition than precedent.Tradition and evolution
Roman conservatism finds succinct expression in an edict of the censors from 92 BC, as preserved by the 2nd-century historian Suetonius: "All new that is done contrary to the usage and customs of our ancestors, seems not to be right." However, because the ''mos maiorum'' was a matter of custom, not written law, the complex norms that it embodied evolved over time. The ability to preserve a strongly-centralised sense of identity while it adapted to changing circumstances permitted the expansionism that took Rome from city-state to world power. The preservation of the ''mos maiorum'' depended on consensus and moderation among the ruling elite whose competition for power and status threatened it. Democratic politics, driven by the charismatic appeal of individuals ''( populares)'' to the Roman people ''(populus)'', potentially undermined the conservative principle of the ''mos''. Because the higher magistracies and priesthoods were originally the prerogative of the patricians, the efforts ofValues
Traditional Roman values were essential to the ''mos maiorum'':''Fides''
*The Latin word ''fides'' encompasses several English words, such as trust/trustworthiness, good faith/faithfulness, confidence, reliability and credibility. It was an important concept in''Pietas''
*'' Pietas'' was the Roman attitude of dutiful respect towards the gods, homeland, parents and family, which required the maintenance of relationships in a moral and dutiful manner. Cicero defined ''pietas'' as "justice towards the gods.” It went beyond sacrifice and correct ritual performance to inner devotion and righteousness of the individual, and it was the cardinal virtue of the Roman hero''Religio'' and ''Cultus''
*Related to the Latin verb ''religare'', "to bind", ''''Disciplina''
*The military character of Roman society suggests the importance of ''disciplina'', as related to education, training, discipline and self-control.''Gravitas'' and ''constantia''
*'' Gravitas'' was dignified self-control. ''Constantia'' was steadiness or perseverance. In the face of adversity, a good Roman was to display an unperturbed façade. Roman myth and history reinforced this value by recounting tales of figures such as Gaius Mucius Scaevola, who in a founding legend of the Republic demonstrated his seriousness and determination to the Etruscan king Lars Porsenna by holding his right hand in a fire.''Virtus''
*Derived from the Latin word ''vir'' ("man"), '' virtus'' constituted the ideal of the true Roman male. Gaius Lucilius discusses ''virtus'' in some of his work and says that it is ''virtus'' for a man to know what is good, evil, useless, shameful or dishonorable.''Dignitas'' and ''auctoritas''
*'' Dignitas'' and '' auctoritas'' were the end result of displaying the values of the ideal Roman and the service of the state, in the forms of priesthoods, military positions and magistracies. ''Dignitas'' was reputation for worth, honour and esteem. Thus, a Roman who displayed their ''gravitas'', ''constantia'', ''fides'', ''pietas'' and other values of a Roman would possess ''dignitas'' among their peers. Similarly, by that path, a Roman could earn ''auctoritas'' ("prestige and respect").''Ward''. p. 58See also
* * ("Oh what times! Oh what customs!") *Notes
References
* Adkins, L. and Adkins, R. ''Dictionary of Roman Religion''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. * Berger, Adolph. ''Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law''. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society, 1991. * ''Brill's New Pauly''. Antiquity volumes edited by: Huber Cancik and Helmuth Schneider. Brill, 2008 Brill Online. * ''Oxford Classical Dictionary''. 3rd Revised Ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. * Stambaugh, John E. ''The Ancient Roman City''. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988. * Ward, A., Heichelheim, F., Yeo, C. ''A History of the Roman People''. 4th Ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003.Further reading
* Fredericks, S. C. 1969. ''Mos maiorum in Juvenal and Tacitus.'' University of Pennsylvania Pr. * Hoffmann, Zsuzsanna. 1982. "The Parody of the Idea of mos maiorum in Plautus." ''Oikumene'' , III, 217-223. * Hölkeskamp, Karl-Joachim. 2010. ''Reconstructing the Roman Republic: An Ancient Political Culture and Modern Research (translated by Henry Heitmann-Gordon; revised, updated, and augmented by the author).'' Princeton/Oxford: Princeton University Press. * Kenty, Joanna. 2016. "Congenital Virtue: Mos Maiorum in Cicero's Orations." ''Classical Journal'' 111.4:429-462 * Segal, Erich. 1976. “''O tempora, o mos maiorum''.” In ''The Conflict of Generations in Ancient Greece and Rome'', Edited by Bertman, Stephen S., 135-142. Amsterdam: Grüner. * Tröster, Manuel. 2012. "Plutarch and ''mos maiorum'' in the ''Life of Aemilius Paullus''." ''Ancient Society'' 42, 219-254.External links
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mos Maiorum Latin political words and phrases Roman law Codes of conduct