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Subtraction is an
arithmetic operation Arithmetic () is an elementary part of mathematics that consists of the study of the properties of the traditional operations on numbers—addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation, and extraction of roots. In the 19th c ...
that represents the operation of removing objects from a collection. Subtraction is signified by the
minus sign The plus and minus signs, and , are mathematical symbols used to represent the notions of positive and negative, respectively. In addition, represents the operation of addition, which results in a sum, while represents subtraction, result ...
, . For example, in the adjacent picture, there are peaches—meaning 5 peaches with 2 taken away, resulting in a total of 3 peaches. Therefore, the ''difference'' of 5 and 2 is 3; that is, . While primarily associated with natural numbers in arithmetic, subtraction can also represent removing or decreasing physical and abstract quantities using different kinds of objects including
negative number In mathematics, a negative number represents an opposite. In the real number system, a negative number is a number that is less than zero. Negative numbers are often used to represent the magnitude of a loss or deficiency. A debt that is owed m ...
s,
fractions A fraction (from la, fractus, "broken") represents a part of a whole or, more generally, any number of equal parts. When spoken in everyday English, a fraction describes how many parts of a certain size there are, for example, one-half, eight ...
,
irrational number In mathematics, the irrational numbers (from in- prefix assimilated to ir- (negative prefix, privative) + rational) are all the real numbers that are not rational numbers. That is, irrational numbers cannot be expressed as the ratio of two inte ...
s, vectors, decimals, functions, and matrices. Subtraction follows several important patterns. It is
anticommutative In mathematics, anticommutativity is a specific property of some non-commutative mathematical operations. Swapping the position of two arguments of an antisymmetric operation yields a result which is the ''inverse'' of the result with unswapped ...
, meaning that changing the order changes the sign of the answer. It is also not associative, meaning that when one subtracts more than two numbers, the order in which subtraction is performed matters. Because is the additive identity, subtraction of it does not change a number. Subtraction also obeys predictable rules concerning related operations, such as
addition Addition (usually signified by the plus symbol ) is one of the four basic operations of arithmetic, the other three being subtraction, multiplication and division. The addition of two whole numbers results in the total amount or '' sum'' of ...
and
multiplication Multiplication (often denoted by the cross symbol , by the mid-line dot operator , by juxtaposition, or, on computers, by an asterisk ) is one of the four elementary mathematical operations of arithmetic, with the other ones being a ...
. All of these rules can be
proven Proven is a rural village in the Belgian province of West Flanders, and a "deelgemeente" of the municipality Poperinge. The village has about 1400 inhabitants. The church and parish of Proven are named after Saint Victor. The Saint Victor Chu ...
, starting with the subtraction of
integers An integer is the number zero (), a positive natural number (, , , etc.) or a negative integer with a minus sign ( −1, −2, −3, etc.). The negative numbers are the additive inverses of the corresponding positive numbers. In the languag ...
and generalizing up through the
real number In mathematics, a real number is a number that can be used to measure a ''continuous'' one- dimensional quantity such as a distance, duration or temperature. Here, ''continuous'' means that values can have arbitrarily small variations. Ever ...
s and beyond. General binary operations that follow these patterns are studied in abstract algebra.


Notation and terminology

Subtraction is usually written using the
minus sign The plus and minus signs, and , are mathematical symbols used to represent the notions of positive and negative, respectively. In addition, represents the operation of addition, which results in a sum, while represents subtraction, result ...
"−" between the terms; that is, in
infix notation Infix notation is the notation commonly used in arithmetical and logical formulae and statements. It is characterized by the placement of operators between operands—" infixed operators"—such as the plus sign in . Usage Binary relations are ...
. The result is expressed with an
equals sign The equals sign (British English, Unicode) or equal sign (American English), also known as the equality sign, is the mathematical symbol , which is used to indicate equality in some well-defined sense. In an equation, it is placed between two ...
. For example, :2 - 1 = 1 (pronounced as "two minus one equals one") :4 - 2 = 2 (pronounced as "four minus two equals two") :6 - 3 = 3 (pronounced as "six minus three equals three") :4 - 6 = -2 (pronounced as "four minus six equals negative two") There are also situations where subtraction is "understood", even though no symbol appears: * A column of two numbers, with the lower number in red, usually indicates that the lower number in the column is to be subtracted, with the difference written below, under a line. This is most common in accounting. Formally, the number being subtracted is known as the subtrahend, while the number it is subtracted from is the minuend. The result is the difference. That is, : - = . All of this terminology derives from
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
. "
Subtraction Subtraction is an arithmetic operation that represents the operation of removing objects from a collection. Subtraction is signified by the minus sign, . For example, in the adjacent picture, there are peaches—meaning 5 peaches with 2 taken ...
" is an
English English usually refers to: * English language * English people English may also refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England ** English national ide ...
word derived from the Latin
verb A verb () is a word ( part of speech) that in syntax generally conveys an action (''bring'', ''read'', ''walk'', ''run'', ''learn''), an occurrence (''happen'', ''become''), or a state of being (''be'', ''exist'', ''stand''). In the usual descri ...
''subtrahere'', which in turn is a
compound Compound may refer to: Architecture and built environments * Compound (enclosure), a cluster of buildings having a shared purpose, usually inside a fence or wall ** Compound (fortification), a version of the above fortified with defensive struc ...
of ''sub'' "from under" and ''trahere'' "to pull". Thus, to subtract is to ''draw from below'', or to ''take away''. Using the
gerundive In Latin grammar, a gerundive () is a verb form that functions as a verbal adjective. In Classical Latin, the gerundive is distinct in form and function from the gerund and the present active participle. In Late Latin, the differences were large ...
suffix In linguistics, a suffix is an affix which is placed after the stem of a word. Common examples are case endings, which indicate the grammatical case of nouns, adjectives, and verb endings, which form the conjugation of verbs. Suffixes can carry g ...
''-nd'' results in "subtrahend", "thing to be subtracted"."Subtrahend" is shortened by the inflectional Latin suffix -us, e.g. remaining un-declined as in ''numerus subtrahendus'' "the number to be subtracted". Likewise, from ''minuere'' "to reduce or diminish", one gets "minuend", which means "thing to be diminished".


Of integers and real numbers


Integers

Imagine a
line segment In geometry, a line segment is a part of a straight line that is bounded by two distinct end points, and contains every point on the line that is between its endpoints. The length of a line segment is given by the Euclidean distance between ...
of
length Length is a measure of distance. In the International System of Quantities, length is a quantity with dimension distance. In most systems of measurement a base unit for length is chosen, from which all other units are derived. In the Interna ...
''b'' with the left end labeled ''a'' and the right end labeled ''c''. Starting from ''a'', it takes ''b'' steps to the right to reach ''c''. This movement to the right is modeled mathematically by
addition Addition (usually signified by the plus symbol ) is one of the four basic operations of arithmetic, the other three being subtraction, multiplication and division. The addition of two whole numbers results in the total amount or '' sum'' of ...
: :''a'' + ''b'' = ''c''. From ''c'', it takes ''b'' steps to the ''left'' to get back to ''a''. This movement to the left is modeled by subtraction: :''c'' − ''b'' = ''a''. Now, a line segment labeled with the numbers , , and . From position 3, it takes no steps to the left to stay at 3, so . It takes 2 steps to the left to get to position 1, so . This picture is inadequate to describe what would happen after going 3 steps to the left of position 3. To represent such an operation, the line must be extended. To subtract arbitrary
natural number In mathematics, the natural numbers are those numbers used for counting (as in "there are ''six'' coins on the table") and ordering (as in "this is the ''third'' largest city in the country"). Numbers used for counting are called ''cardinal ...
s, one begins with a line containing every natural number (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ...). From 3, it takes 3 steps to the left to get to 0, so . But is still invalid, since it again leaves the line. The natural numbers are not a useful context for subtraction. The solution is to consider the
integer An integer is the number zero (), a positive natural number (, , , etc.) or a negative integer with a minus sign ( −1, −2, −3, etc.). The negative numbers are the additive inverses of the corresponding positive numbers. In the languag ...
number line In elementary mathematics, a number line is a picture of a graduated straight line that serves as visual representation of the real numbers. Every point of a number line is assumed to correspond to a real number, and every real number to a poin ...
(..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...). This way, it takes 4 steps to the left from 3 to get to −1: :.


Natural numbers

Subtraction of
natural numbers In mathematics, the natural numbers are those numbers used for counting (as in "there are ''six'' coins on the table") and ordering (as in "this is the ''third'' largest city in the country"). Numbers used for counting are called ''cardinal n ...
is not
closed Closed may refer to: Mathematics * Closure (mathematics), a set, along with operations, for which applying those operations on members always results in a member of the set * Closed set, a set which contains all its limit points * Closed interval, ...
: the difference is not a natural number unless the minuend is greater than or equal to the subtrahend. For example, 26 cannot be subtracted from 11 to give a natural number. Such a case uses one of two approaches: # Conclude that 26 cannot be subtracted from 11; subtraction becomes a
partial function In mathematics, a partial function from a set to a set is a function from a subset of (possibly itself) to . The subset , that is, the domain of viewed as a function, is called the domain of definition of . If equals , that is, if is ...
. # Give the answer as an
integer An integer is the number zero (), a positive natural number (, , , etc.) or a negative integer with a minus sign ( −1, −2, −3, etc.). The negative numbers are the additive inverses of the corresponding positive numbers. In the languag ...
representing a
negative number In mathematics, a negative number represents an opposite. In the real number system, a negative number is a number that is less than zero. Negative numbers are often used to represent the magnitude of a loss or deficiency. A debt that is owed m ...
, so the result of subtracting 26 from 11 is −15.


Real numbers

The
field Field may refer to: Expanses of open ground * Field (agriculture), an area of land used for agricultural purposes * Airfield, an aerodrome that lacks the infrastructure of an airport * Battlefield * Lawn, an area of mowed grass * Meadow, a grass ...
of real numbers can be defined specifying only two binary operations, addition and multiplication, together with
unary operations In mathematics, an unary operation is an operation with only one operand, i.e. a single input. This is in contrast to binary operations, which use two operands. An example is any function , where is a set. The function is a unary operation o ...
yielding
additive Additive may refer to: Mathematics * Additive function, a function in number theory * Additive map, a function that preserves the addition operation * Additive set-functionn see Sigma additivity * Additive category, a preadditive category with fi ...
and multiplicative inverses. The subtraction of a real number (the subtrahend) from another (the minuend) can then be defined as the addition of the minuend and the additive inverse of the subtrahend. For example, . Alternatively, instead of requiring these unary operations, the binary operations of subtraction and
division Division or divider may refer to: Mathematics *Division (mathematics), the inverse of multiplication *Division algorithm, a method for computing the result of mathematical division Military *Division (military), a formation typically consisting ...
can be taken as basic.


Properties


Anti-commutativity

Subtraction is
anti-commutative In mathematics, anticommutativity is a specific property of some non-commutative mathematical operations. Swapping the position of two arguments of an antisymmetric operation yields a result which is the ''inverse'' of the result with unswapped ...
, meaning that if one reverses the terms in a difference left-to-right, the result is the negative of the original result. Symbolically, if ''a'' and ''b'' are any two numbers, then :''a'' − ''b'' = −(''b'' − ''a)''.


Non-associativity

Subtraction is non-associative, which comes up when one tries to define repeated subtraction. In general, the expression :"''a'' − ''b'' − ''c''" can be defined to mean either (''a'' − ''b'') − ''c'' or ''a'' − (''b'' − ''c''), but these two possibilities lead to different answers. To resolve this issue, one must establish an
order of operations In mathematics and computer programming, the order of operations (or operator precedence) is a collection of rules that reflect conventions about which procedures to perform first in order to evaluate a given mathematical expression. For examp ...
, with different orders yielding different results.


Predecessor

In the context of integers, subtraction of one also plays a special role: for any integer ''a'', the integer is the largest integer less than ''a'', also known as the predecessor of ''a''.


Units of measurement

When subtracting two numbers with units of measurement such as
kilogram The kilogram (also kilogramme) is the unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI), having the unit symbol kg. It is a widely used measure in science, engineering and commerce worldwide, and is often simply called a kilo colloquiall ...
s or pounds, they must have the same unit. In most cases, the difference will have the same unit as the original numbers.


Percentages

Changes in
percentage In mathematics, a percentage (from la, per centum, "by a hundred") is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100. It is often denoted using the percent sign, "%", although the abbreviations "pct.", "pct" and sometimes "pc" are also u ...
s can be reported in at least two forms,
percentage change In any quantitative science, the terms relative change and relative difference are used to compare two quantities while taking into account the "sizes" of the things being compared, i.e. dividing by a ''standard'' or ''reference'' or ''starting'' va ...
and
percentage point A percentage point or percent point is the unit for the arithmetic difference between two percentages. For example, moving up from 40 percent to 44 percent is an increase of 4 percentage points, but a 10-percent increase in the quantity being m ...
change. Percentage change represents the
relative change In any quantitative science, the terms relative change and relative difference are used to compare two quantities while taking into account the "sizes" of the things being compared, i.e. dividing by a ''standard'' or ''reference'' or ''starting'' va ...
between the two quantities as a percentage, while
percentage point A percentage point or percent point is the unit for the arithmetic difference between two percentages. For example, moving up from 40 percent to 44 percent is an increase of 4 percentage points, but a 10-percent increase in the quantity being m ...
change is simply the number obtained by subtracting the two percentages. As an example, suppose that 30% of widgets made in a factory are defective. Six months later, 20% of widgets are defective. The percentage change is = − = %, while the percentage point change is −10 percentage points.


In computing

The
method of complements In mathematics and computing, the method of complements is a technique to encode a symmetric range of positive and negative integers in a way that they can use the same algorithm (hardware) for addition throughout the whole range. For a given n ...
is a technique used to subtract one number from another using only the addition of positive numbers. This method was commonly used in
mechanical calculator A mechanical calculator, or calculating machine, is a mechanical device used to perform the basic operations of arithmetic automatically, or (historically) a simulation such as an analog computer or a slide rule. Most mechanical calculators we ...
s, and is still used in modern
computers A computer is a machine that can be programmed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations (computation) automatically. Modern digital electronic computers can perform generic sets of operations known as programs. These prog ...
. To subtract a binary number ''y'' (the subtrahend) from another number ''x'' (the minuend), the ones' complement of ''y'' is added to ''x'' and one is added to the sum. The leading digit "1" of the result is then discarded. The method of complements is especially useful in binary (radix 2) since the ones' complement is very easily obtained by inverting each bit (changing "0" to "1" and vice versa). And adding 1 to get the two's complement can be done by simulating a carry into the least significant bit. For example: 01100100 (x, equals decimal 100) - 00010110 (y, equals decimal 22) becomes the sum: 01100100 (x) + 11101001 (ones' complement of y) + 1 (to get the two's complement) —————————— 101001110 Dropping the initial "1" gives the answer: 01001110 (equals decimal 78)


The teaching of subtraction in schools

Methods used to teach subtraction to
elementary school A primary school (in Ireland, the United Kingdom, Australia, Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, and South Africa), junior school (in Australia), elementary school or grade school (in North America and the Philippines) is a school for primary ed ...
vary from country to country, and within a country, different methods are adopted at different times. In what is known in the United States as
traditional mathematics Traditional mathematics (sometimes classical math education) was the predominant method of mathematics education in the United States in the early-to-mid 20th century. This contrasts with non-traditional approaches to math education.decimal representation A decimal representation of a non-negative real number is its expression as a sequence of symbols consisting of decimal digits traditionally written with a single separator: r = b_k b_\ldots b_0.a_1a_2\ldots Here is the decimal separator, i ...
s of fractional numbers.


In America

Almost all American schools currently teach a method of subtraction using borrowing or regrouping (the decomposition algorithm) and a system of markings called crutches. Although a method of borrowing had been known and published in textbooks previously, the use of crutches in American schools spread after
William A. Brownell William Arthur Brownell (May 19, 1895 – May 28, 1977) was an American educational psychologist.Kilpatrick, Jeremy, and J. Fred Weaver. "The place of William A. Brownell in mathematics education." Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 8. ...
published a study—claiming that crutches were beneficial to students using this method. This system caught on rapidly, displacing the other methods of subtraction in use in America at that time.


In Europe

Some European schools employ a method of subtraction called the Austrian method, also known as the additions method. There is no borrowing in this method. There are also crutches (markings to aid memory), which vary by country.


Comparing the two main methods

Both these methods break up the subtraction as a process of one digit subtractions by place value. Starting with a least significant digit, a subtraction of the subtrahend: :''s''''j'' ''s''''j''−1 ... ''s''1 from the minuend :''m''''k'' ''m''''k''−1 ... ''m''1, where each ''s''''i'' and ''m''''i'' is a digit, proceeds by writing down , , and so forth, as long as ''s''''i'' does not exceed ''m''''i''. Otherwise, ''m''''i'' is increased by 10 and some other digit is modified to correct for this increase. The American method corrects by attempting to decrease the minuend digit ''m''''i''+1 by one (or continuing the borrow leftwards until there is a non-zero digit from which to borrow). The European method corrects by increasing the subtrahend digit ''s''''i''+1 by one. Example: 704 − 512. The minuend is 704, the subtrahend is 512. The minuend digits are , and . The subtrahend digits are , and . Beginning at the one's place, 4 is not less than 2 so the difference 2 is written down in the result's one's place. In the ten's place, 0 is less than 1, so the 0 is increased by 10, and the difference with 1, which is 9, is written down in the ten's place. The American method corrects for the increase of ten by reducing the digit in the minuend's hundreds place by one. That is, the 7 is struck through and replaced by a 6. The subtraction then proceeds in the hundreds place, where 6 is not less than 5, so the difference is written down in the result's hundred's place. We are now done, the result is 192. The Austrian method does not reduce the 7 to 6. Rather it increases the subtrahend hundreds digit by one. A small mark is made near or below this digit (depending on the school). Then the subtraction proceeds by asking what number when increased by 1, and 5 is added to it, makes 7. The answer is 1, and is written down in the result's hundreds place. There is an additional subtlety in that the student always employs a mental subtraction table in the American method. The Austrian method often encourages the student to mentally use the addition table in reverse. In the example above, rather than adding 1 to 5, getting 6, and subtracting that from 7, the student is asked to consider what number, when increased by 1, and 5 is added to it, makes 7.


Subtraction by hand


Austrian method

Example: File:Vertical Subtraction Method B Step 1.JPG, 1 + ... = 3 File:Vertical Subtraction Method B Step 2.JPG, The difference is written under the line. File:Vertical Subtraction Method B Step 3.JPG, 9 + ... = 5
The required sum (5) is too small. File:Vertical Subtraction Method B Step 4.JPG, So, we add 10 to it and put a 1 under the next higher place in the subtrahend. File:Vertical Subtraction Method B Step 5.JPG, 9 + ... = 15
Now we can find the difference as before. File:Vertical Subtraction Method B Step 6.JPG, (4 + 1) + ... = 7 File:Vertical Subtraction Method B Step 7.JPG, The difference is written under the line. File:Vertical Subtraction Method B Step 8.JPG, The total difference.


Subtraction from left to right

Example: File:LeftToRight Subtraction Step 1.JPG, 7 − 4 = 3
This result is only penciled in. File:LeftToRight Subtraction Step 2.JPG, Because the next digit of the minuend is smaller than the subtrahend, we subtract one from our penciled-in-number and mentally add ten to the next. File:LeftToRight Subtraction Step 3.JPG, 15 − 9 = 6 File:LeftToRight Subtraction Step 4.JPG, Because the next digit in the minuend is not smaller than the subtrahend, we keep this number. File:LeftToRight Subtraction Step 5.JPG, 3 − 1 = 2


American method

In this method, each digit of the subtrahend is subtracted from the digit above it starting from right to left. If the top number is too small to subtract the bottom number from it, we add 10 to it; this 10 is "borrowed" from the top digit to the left, which we subtract 1 from. Then we move on to subtracting the next digit and borrowing as needed, until every digit has been subtracted. Example: File:Vertical Subtraction Method A Step 1.JPG, 3 − 1 = ... File:Vertical Subtraction Method A Step 2.JPG, We write the difference under the line. File:Vertical Subtraction Method A Step 3.JPG, 5 − 9 = ...
The minuend (5) is too small! File:Vertical Subtraction Method A Step 4.JPG, So, we add 10 to it. The 10 is "borrowed" from the digit on the left, which goes down by 1. File:Vertical Subtraction Method A Step 5.JPG, 15 − 9 = ...
Now the subtraction works, and we write the difference under the line. File:Vertical Subtraction Method A Step 6.JPG, 6 − 4 = ... File:Vertical Subtraction Method A Step 7.JPG, We write the difference under the line. File:Vertical Subtraction Method A Step 8.JPG, The total difference.


Trade first

A variant of the American method where all borrowing is done before all subtraction. Example: File:Trade First Subtraction Step 1.JPG, 1 − 3 = not possible.
We add a 10 to the 1. Because the 10 is "borrowed" from the nearby 5, the 5 is lowered by 1. File:Trade First Subtraction Step 2.JPG, 4 − 9 = not possible.
So we proceed as in step 1. File:Trade First Subtraction Step 3.JPG, Working from right to left:
11 − 3 = 8 File:Trade First Subtraction Step 4.JPG, 14 − 9 = 5 File:Trade First Subtraction Step 5.JPG, 6 − 4 = 2


Partial differences

The partial differences method is different from other vertical subtraction methods because no borrowing or carrying takes place. In their place, one places plus or minus signs depending on whether the minuend is greater or smaller than the subtrahend. The sum of the partial differences is the total difference. Example: File:Partial-Differences Subtraction Step 1.JPG, The smaller number is subtracted from the greater:
700 − 400 = 300
Because the minuend is greater than the subtrahend, this difference has a plus sign. File:Partial-Differences Subtraction Step 2.JPG, The smaller number is subtracted from the greater:
90 − 50 = 40
Because the minuend is smaller than the subtrahend, this difference has a minus sign. File:Partial-Differences Subtraction Step 3.JPG, The smaller number is subtracted from the greater:
3 − 1 = 2
Because the minuend is greater than the subtrahend, this difference has a plus sign. File:Partial-Differences Subtraction Step 4.JPG, +300 − 40 + 2 = 262


Nonvertical methods


Counting up

Instead of finding the difference digit by digit, one can count up the numbers between the subtrahend and the minuend. Example: 1234 − 567 = can be found by the following steps: * * * * Add up the value from each step to get the total difference: .


Breaking up the subtraction

Another method that is useful for
mental arithmetic Mental calculation consists of arithmetical calculations using only the human brain, with no help from any supplies (such as pencil and paper) or devices such as a calculator. People may use mental calculation when computing tools are not availab ...
is to split up the subtraction into small steps. Example: 1234 − 567 = can be solved in the following way: * 1234 − 500 = 734 * 734 − 60 = 674 * 674 − 7 = 667


Same change

The same change method uses the fact that adding or subtracting the same number from the minuend and subtrahend does not change the answer. One simply adds the amount needed to get zeros in the subtrahend.The Many Ways of Arithmetic in UCSMP Everyday Mathematics
Subtraction: Same Change Rule
Example: "1234 − 567 =" can be solved as follows: *


See also

* Absolute difference * Decrement *
Elementary arithmetic The operators in elementary arithmetic are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The operators can be applied on both real numbers and imaginary numbers. Each kind of number is represented on a number line designated to the type. ...
*
Method of complements In mathematics and computing, the method of complements is a technique to encode a symmetric range of positive and negative integers in a way that they can use the same algorithm (hardware) for addition throughout the whole range. For a given n ...
*
Negative number In mathematics, a negative number represents an opposite. In the real number system, a negative number is a number that is less than zero. Negative numbers are often used to represent the magnitude of a loss or deficiency. A debt that is owed m ...
*
Plus and minus signs The plus and minus signs, and , are mathematical symbols used to represent the notions of positive and negative, respectively. In addition, represents the operation of addition, which results in a sum, while represents subtraction, result ...


Notes


References


Bibliography

* Brownell, W.A. (1939). Learning as reorganization: An experimental study in third-grade arithmetic, Duke University Press.
Subtraction in the United States: An Historical Perspective, Susan Ross, Mary Pratt-Cotter, ''The Mathematics Educator'', Vol. 8, No. 1 (original publication) and Vol. 10, No. 1 (reprint.)
PDF Portable Document Format (PDF), standardized as ISO 32000, is a file format developed by Adobe in 1992 to present documents, including text formatting and images, in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems ...


External links

* * Printable Worksheets
Subtraction WorksheetsOne Digit SubtractionTwo Digit SubtractionFour Digit Subtraction
an


Subtraction Game
at
cut-the-knot Alexander Bogomolny (January 4, 1948 July 7, 2018) was a Soviet-born Israeli-American mathematician. He was Professor Emeritus of Mathematics at the University of Iowa, and formerly research fellow at the Moscow Institute of Electronics and Ma ...

Subtraction on a Japanese abacus
selected fro
Abacus: Mystery of the Bead
{{Authority control Elementary arithmetic