Coccinellidae () is a widespread family of small

beetle Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera (), in the superorder Endopterygota. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 describ ...

s ranging in size from . They are commonly known as ladybugs in North America and ladybirds in Great Britain. Some entomologists prefer the names ladybird beetles or lady beetles as they are not

true bugs Hemiptera (; ) is an order of insects, commonly called true bugs, comprising over 80,000 species within groups such as the cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, assassin bugs, bed bugs, and shield bugs. They range in size from to aroun ...

. Many of the species have conspicuous

aposematic Aposematism is the advertising by an animal to potential predators that it is not worth attacking or eating. This unprofitability may consist of any defences which make the prey difficult to kill and eat, such as toxicity, venom, foul taste or ...

colours and patterns, such as red with black spots, that warn potential predators that they are distasteful. The majority of the more than 6,000 described species are generally considered

beneficial insect Beneficial insects (sometimes called beneficial bugs) are any of a number of species of insects that perform valued services like pollination and pest control. The concept of ''beneficial'' is subjective and only arises in light of desired outcome ...

s, because many prey on herbivorous

hemiptera Hemiptera (; ) is an order of insects, commonly called true bugs, comprising over 80,000 species within groups such as the cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, assassin bugs, bed bugs, and shield bugs. They range in size from to aroun ...

ns such as

aphid Aphids are small sap-sucking insects and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea. Common names include greenfly and blackfly, although individuals within a species can vary widely in color. The group includes the fluffy white woolly aphids. A t ...

s or

scale insect Scale insects are small insects of the order Hemiptera, suborder Sternorrhyncha. Of dramatically variable appearance and extreme sexual dimorphism, they comprise the infraorder Coccomorpha which is considered a more convenient grouping than the ...

s, which are

agricultural pests A pest is any animal or plant harmful to humans or human concerns. The term is particularly used for creatures that damage crops, livestock, and forestry or cause a nuisance to people, especially in their homes. Humans have modified the environ ...

. Many coccinellids lay their eggs directly in aphid and scale insect colonies, ensuring their larvae have an immediate food source. However, some species such as the herbivorous

Mexican bean beetle The Mexican bean beetle (''Epilachna varivestis'') is a species of lady beetle that can be an agricultural pest. It is one of the few North American lady beetles that feed on plants rather than other insects. It is found throughout Mexico and ...

are agricultural pests.

Etymology

The name ''coccinellids'', created by Pierre André Latreille, is derived from the Latin word ''coccineus'' meaning "scarlet". The name ''ladybird'' originated in Britain where the insects became known as "Our Lady's bird" or the Lady beetle.

Mary Mary may refer to: People * Mary (name), a feminine given name (includes a list of people with the name) Religious contexts * New Testament people named Mary, overview article linking to many of those below * Mary, mother of Jesus, also call ...

(Our Lady) was often depicted wearing a red cloak in early paintings, and the spots of the seven-spot ladybird (the most common in Europe) were said to symbolise her seven joys and seven sorrows. In the United States, the name was popularly adapted to ''ladybug''. Common names in some other European languages share associations; for example, the German name ''Marienkäfer'' translates to Marybeetle or ladybeetle. Entomologists prefer the names ladybird beetles or lady beetles to avoid confusion with the

Description

Most coccinellids have round to elliptical, dome-shaped bodies with six short legs. They are often conspicuously coloured yellow, orange, or red with small black spots on their wing covers, with black legs, heads and antennae. There is, however, great variation in these colour patterns. For example, a minority of species, such as '' Vibidia duodecimguttata'', a twelve-spotted species, have whitish spots on a brown background. Coccinellids are found worldwide, with over 6,000 species described. File:BIEDRONA mirrored, cropped.png, ''

Coccinella septempunctata ''Coccinella septempunctata'', the seven-spot ladybird (or, in North America, seven-spotted ladybug or "C-7"), is the most common ladybird in Europe. Its elytra are of a red colour, but punctuated with three black spots each, with one further spo ...

'', black spots on red File:Psyllobora.vigintiduopunctata.6920.jpg, ''

Psyllobora vigintiduopunctata ''Psyllobora vigintiduopunctata'' (often abbreviated to ''Psyllobora 22-punctata''), the 22-spot ladybird, (earlier known as ''Thea vigintiduopunctata'') is a common, 3–5 mm long ladybird native to Europe . The elytra are yellow in c ...

'', black spots on yellow File:Coccinellidae - Vibidia duodecimguttata-1 (cropped).JPG, '' Vibidia duodecimguttata'', whitish spots on brown File:Brumoides suturalis (10.3897-zookeys.803.22543) Figure 16.jpg, '' Brumoides suturalis'', longitudinally striped File:Rhyzobius chrysomeloides.jpg, '' Rhyzobius chrysomeloides'', brown, unspotted

Evolution

Fossil history

The Coccinellidae are sparsely preserved in the fossil record. Although

molecular clock The molecular clock is a figurative term for a technique that uses the mutation rate of biomolecules to deduce the time in prehistory when two or more life forms diverged. The biomolecular data used for such calculations are usually nucleotid ...

estimates have placed their origin in the Cretaceous, the oldest fossils of the group are known from the Oise amber of France, dating to the Early Eocene (

Ypresian In the geologic timescale the Ypresian is the oldest age or lowest stratigraphic stage of the Eocene. It spans the time between , is preceded by the Thanetian Age (part of the Paleocene) and is followed by the Eocene Lutetian Age. The Ypresian ...

) around 53 million years ago, which belong to the extant genera '' Rhyzobius'' and '' Nephus''. The greatest number of fossils comes from the younger Eocene

Baltic amber The Baltic region is home to the largest known deposit of amber, called Baltic amber or succinite. It was produced sometime during the Eocene epoch, but exactly when is controversial. It has been estimated that these forests created more than ...

, including members of the extant genera '' Serangium'' and '' Rhyzobius'' as well as extinct genera belonging to the tribes Microweiseini (''Baltosidis'') and Sticholotidini (''Electrolotis'').

Phylogeny

The Coccinellidae are within the superfamily

Coccinelloidea Coccinelloidea is a superfamily of beetles in the order Coleoptera, formerly included in the superfamily Cucujoidea. There are more than 10,000 species in Coccinelloidea, including more than 6000 in the lady beetle family Coccinellidae. Morphol ...

, which in turn is part of the infraorder

Cucujiformia Cucujiformia is an infraorder of polyphagan beetles, representing most plant-eating beetles. The infraorder contains the seven superfamilies: * Chrysomeloidea (~7 families including longhorn beetles and leaf beetles) * Cleroidea ( checkered b ...

, a group containing most of the plant-eating beetles. The ladybirds form the majority of the species in the Coccinelloidea; many of the rest are small

bark beetle A bark beetle is the common name for the subfamily of beetles Scolytinae. Previously, this was considered a distinct family (Scolytidae), but is now understood to be a specialized clade of the "true weevil" family (Curculionidae). Although the ...

s. The

Cleroidea Cleroidea is a small superfamily of beetles containing over 10,000 species. Most of the members of the group are somewhat slender, often with fairly soft, flexible elytra, and typically hairy or scaly. Description Cleroidea is defined by the f ...

, a superfamily of mainly hairy beetles with soft elytra, is the sister group to the Coccinelloidea. The internal phylogeny of the Coccinellidae has been studied using gene sampling across many species by LiHeng and colleagues in 2021. It identified three subfamilies including one newly-identified, the Monocoryninae. All three subfamilies were strongly supported, but the study noted that at lower classification levels, while the

tribe The term tribe is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. The predominant worldwide usage of the term in English is in the discipline of anthropology. This definition is contested, in part due to conflic ...

s are mostly monophyletic, their relationships are only weakly supported. The study suggests that the crown group appeared some 143 Mya in the Early Cretaceous, and that the group diversified rapidly during the Late Cretaceous, perhaps because the growth in diversity of

angiosperm Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants th ...

plants then encouraged the radiation of Sternorrhyncha such as aphids on which ladybirds could feed.

Biology

Life cycle

Predatory ladybirds are usually found on plants which harbour their prey. They lay their eggs near their prey, to increase the likelihood the larvae will find food easily. In ''Harmonia axyridis'', eggs hatch in three to four days from clutches numbering from a few to several dozen. The larvae pass through four instars, over a period of 10 to 14 days, the time taken depending on resource availability, after which pupation occurs. After a

teneral Ecdysis is the moulting of the cuticle in many invertebrates of the clade Ecdysozoa. Since the cuticle of these animals typically forms a largely inelastic exoskeleton, it is shed during growth and a new, larger covering is formed. The remnants ...

period of several days, the adults become reproductively active and are able to reproduce again later, although they may become reproductively quiescent if they emerge late in the season. Total life span is one to two years on average. Most species

overwinter Overwintering is the process by which some organisms pass through or wait out the winter season, or pass through that period of the year when "winter" conditions (cold or sub-zero temperatures, ice, snow, limited food supplies) make normal activi ...

as adults in

diapause In animal dormancy, diapause is the delay in development in response to regular and recurring periods of adverse environmental conditions.Tauber, M.J., Tauber, C.A., Masaki, S. (1986) ''Seasonal Adaptations of Insects''. Oxford University Press I ...

, aggregating on the south sides of large objects such as trees or houses during the winter months, and dispersing in response to increasing day length in the spring. File:Mating ladybugs.jpg, Adults mating File:MarienkäferEier 03.JPG, Eggs (match for scale) File:Ladybug larva (Coccinellidae).jpg, Larva File:Pupa de coccinélido, Hartelholz, Múnich, Alemania, 2020-06-27, DD 285-298 FS.jpg, Pupa

Diet

Coccinellids are best known as predators of Sternorrhyncha such as

aphids Aphids are small sap-sucking insects and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea. Common names include greenfly and blackfly, although individuals within a species can vary widely in color. The group includes the fluffy white woolly aphids. A t ...

and

scale insects Scale insects are small insects of the order Hemiptera, suborder Sternorrhyncha. Of dramatically variable appearance and extreme sexual dimorphism, they comprise the infraorder Coccomorpha which is considered a more convenient grouping than t ...

, but the range of prey species that various Coccinellidae may attack is much wider. A genus of small black ladybirds, '' Stethorus'', predates non-Sternorrhyncha; they specialise in mites as prey, notably '' Tetranychus'' spider mites. ''Stethorus'' species accordingly are important in

biological control Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests, such as insects, mites, weeds, and plant diseases, using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also invo ...

on many fruit crops. Several genera feed on various insects or their eggs; for example, '' Coleomegilla'' species are significant predators of the eggs and larvae of moths such as ''

Spodoptera ''Spodoptera'' is a genus of moths of the family Noctuidae erected by Achille Guenée in 1852. Many are known as pest insects. The larvae are sometimes called armyworms. The roughly thirty species are distributed across six continents. Descri ...

'' and the

Plutellidae The Plutellidae are a family of moths commonly known as the diamondback moths, named after the diamondback moth (''Plutella xylostella'') of European origin. It was once considered to have three subfamilies: Plutellinae, Praydinae, and Scythropi ...

. Larvae and eggs of ladybirds, either their own or of other species, can also be an important food resource when alternative prey are scarce. The Coccinellidae used to be regarded as purely carnivorous, but they are far more omnivorous than previously thought, both as a family and in individual species; examination of gut contents of apparently specialist predators commonly yield residues of pollen and other plant materials. Most predatory coccinellids include other items in their diets, such as honeydew, pollen, plant sap, nectar, and fungi. File:Epilachna guttatopustulata01.jpg, '' Henosepilachna guttatopustulata'', a herbivore, feeding on a potato leaf File:Yellow Shouldered Ladybird (Apolinus lividigaster) with Aphis nerii.jpg, Yellow-shouldered ladybird, '' Apolinus lividigaster'' eating an aphid File:Harmonia axyridis cannibalism.jpg, ''

Harmonia axyridis ''Harmonia axyridis'' is a large lady beetle or ladybug species that is most commonly known as the harlequin, multicoloured Asian, or Asian lady beetle. This is one of the most variable species in the world, with an exceptionally wide range of col ...

'' larva cannibalism Certain species lay extra infertile

trophic egg A trophic egg, in most species that produce them, usually is an unfertilised egg because its function is not reproduction but nutrition; in essence it serves as food for offspring hatched from viable eggs. The production of trophic eggs has been ...

s with the fertile eggs, providing a backup food source for the larvae when they hatch. The ratio of infertile to fertile eggs increases with scarcity of food at the time of egg laying. Some species in the subfamily Epilachninae are

herbivore A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material, for example foliage or marine algae, for the main component of its diet. As a result of their plant diet, herbivorous animals typically have mouthp ...

Ecology

The main predators of ladybugs are birds, but they are also the prey of frogs, wasps, spiders, and dragonflies. The bright

colours of many coccinellids discourage potential predators, warning of their toxicity. Their haemolymph contains toxic

alkaloid Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar s ...

s, most commonly polyazamacrolides and

polyamine A polyamine is an organic compound having more than two amino groups. Alkyl polyamines occur naturally, but some are synthetic. Alkylpolyamines are colorless, hygroscopic, and water soluble. Near neutral pH, they exist as the ammonium derivatives. ...

s, as well as foul-smelling pyrazines. Some 50 types of alkaloids have been identified in ladybirds. When disturbed, ladybirds further defend themselves with reflex bleeding, exuding droplets of "blood" from their tibio-femoral (knee) joints, effectively presenting predators with a sample of their toxic and bitter body fluid. Changing environmental conditions and invasive species can cause rapid changes in ladybird abundance, as has been documented in the British Isles. File:Coccinella transversalis 2.jpg, ''

Coccinella transversalis ''Coccinella transversalis'', commonly known as the transverse ladybird or transverse lady beetle is a species of ladybird beetle found from India across southern and southeastern Asia to Malesia and Australia. It is not to be confused with '' Co ...

'',

elytra An elytron (; ; , ) is a modified, hardened forewing of beetles (Coleoptera), though a few of the true bugs (Hemiptera) such as the family Schizopteridae are extremely similar; in true bugs, the forewings are called hemelytra (sometimes alterna ...

in the open position File:Lady beetle taking flight.jpg, Full wings of a ''

'' taking flight

Relationship to humans

Biological control

Ladybirds are natural predators of a range of serious pests, such as the

European corn borer The European corn borer (''Ostrinia nubilalis''), also known as the European corn worm or European high-flyer, is a moth of the family Crambidae which includes other grass moths. It is a pest of grain, particularly maize (''Zea mays''). The ...

. The larva of the vedalia ladybird ''

Rodolia cardinalis ''Novius cardinalis'' (common names vedalia beetle or cardinal ladybird) is a species of ladybird beetle native to Australia. It was formerly placed in the genus ''Rodolia'', but that genus was synonymized under the genus '' Novius'' in 2020.P ...

'' is a specialist predator on a few species of

Monophlebidae Monophlebidae is a family of scale insects commonly known as the giant scales or monophlebids. They occur in most parts of the world but more genera are found in the tropics than elsewhere.Icerya purchasi''. It was introduced to California in 1887 from Australia, to protect citrus trees from cottony cushion scale. The project was markedly successful, making it "a textbook example of the great potential of classical biological control as a tactic for suppressing invasive pests." The vedalia beetle was then used in 29 countries, again with success. This led to many further attempts to use ladybird species against pests. Around 179 ladybird species were deliberately introduced to North America in the 20th century, of which only 18 became established. Further, establishment does not guarantee effective biological control of the target species. Thus, the vedalia beetle's success looks exceptional compared to the Coccinellidae as a whole; reasons for this include its high prey specificity, short generation time, efficient discovery of host patches, and larval development completed on a single host insect. Some species are voracious specialist predators, making them valuable as agents of

, at least when rapid impact is required, as with sudden outbreaks of

s on crop plants. However, since many prey are transient or seasonal, high specificity and voracity can equally be a disadvantage. Ladybird species vary in specificity; those that are dominant in specific communities are often rather generalist in their diet. Species that are able to multiply quickly in response to aphid outbreaks are mostly generalists, enabling them to survive on other prey while aphids are scarce. The variability of ladybird responses to prey has made finding suitable species for use as biological control agents difficult; out of 155 deliberate introductions meant to control aphids by the year 2000, only one was deemed to be "substantially successful".

Invasive species

'' (the multicoloured Asian lady beetle or harlequin ladybird) was introduced into North America from Asia in 1979 to control aphids, but it is now the most common species, outcompeting many of the native species. It has become a domestic and agricultural pest in some regions, and gives cause for ecological concern. It has similarly arrived in South Africa, where it has proved variously unwelcome, perhaps most prominently in vine-related crops. The populations in South Africa and South America originated independently from eastern North America. The population in Europe originated partly from eastern North America, and partly from deliberate introduction as a biological control agent in 1982. It has since spread to much of western Europe, reaching the UK in 2004. ''

'', another introduced species in North America, similarly outcompetes and displaces native coccinellids.

Infestations

In North America, coccinellids usually begin to appear indoors in the autumn when they leave their summer feeding sites in fields, forests, and yards and search out places to spend the winter. Typically, when temperatures warm to the mid-60s °F (around 18 °C) in the late afternoon, following a period of cooler weather, they swarm onto or into buildings illuminated by the sun. Swarms of the insects fly to buildings near fields or woods in September through November depending on weather conditions. After an abnormally long period of hot, dry weather in the summer of 1976 in the UK, a marked increase in the aphid population was followed by a "plague" of ladybirds, with many reports of people being bitten as the supply of aphids dwindled. The herbivorous

is an agricultural pest. The presence of coccinellids in grape harvests can cause ladybird taint in wines produced from the grapes.

In culture

Card cutout ladybirds for children's nature trail

Ladybirds have long been of interest to children. They once had many regional names in English, such as variations on Bishop-Barnaby ( Norfolk and

Suffolk dialect East Anglian English is a dialect of English spoken in East Anglia, primarily in or before the mid-20th century. East Anglian English has had a very considerable input into modern Estuary English, which has largely replaced it. However, it has r ...

) – Barnabee, Burnabee, the Bishop-that-burneth, and bishy bishy barnabee. The etymology is unclear, but it may be from

St. Barnabas Barnabas (; arc, ܒܪܢܒܐ; grc, Βαρνάβας), born Joseph () or Joses (), was according to tradition an early Christian, one of the prominent Christian disciples in Jerusalem. According to Acts 4:36, Barnabas was a Cypriot Jew. Nam ...

's feast in June, when the insect appears, or a corruption of "Bishop-that-burneth", from the fiery

of the beetles. In the 17th century, they were sometimes named "ladycows". The ladybird was immortalised in the popular children's nursery rhyme ''

Ladybird Ladybird "Ladybird! Ladybird!" is the first line of an English-language nursery rhyme that also has German analogues. It is included in the Roud Folk Song Index as number of 16215. The rhyme This traditional verse relates to ladybirds, brightly colou ...

'': This poem has its counterpart in German as ''Marienwürmchen'', collected in ''

Des Knaben Wunderhorn ''Des Knaben Wunderhorn: Alte deutsche Lieder'' ( German; "The boy's magic horn: old German songs") is a collection of German folk poems and songs edited by Achim von Arnim and Clemens Brentano, and published in Heidelberg, Baden. The book was ...

'', and set to music by Robert Schumann as Op. 79, No. 13, and a Polish nursery rhyme, "Little Ladybirds' Anthem", of which a part ("fly to the sky, little ladybird, bring me a piece of bread") became a saying. In Christian areas, they are often associated with the

Virgin Mary Mary; arc, ܡܪܝܡ, translit=Mariam; ar, مريم, translit=Maryam; grc, Μαρία, translit=María; la, Maria; cop, Ⲙⲁⲣⲓⲁ, translit=Maria was a first-century Jews, Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Saint Joseph, Jose ...

, and the name that the insect bears in the various languages of Europe corresponds to this. Although historically many European languages referenced Freyja, the fertility goddess of Norse mythology, in the names, the Virgin Mary has now largely supplanted her as the "Lady", so that, for example, ''freyjuhœna'' ( Old Norse) and ''Frouehenge'' have been changed into ''Mariehone'' in

Danish Danish may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to the country of Denmark People * A national or citizen of Denmark, also called a "Dane," see Demographics of Denmark * Culture of Denmark * Danish people or Danes, people with a Danish ance ...

, ''marihøne'' in Norwegian and ''Marienkäfer'' in

German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...

. In Swedish it is ''Maria Nyckelpiga'', Mary the key-maid (who holds the key to heaven). Sometimes, the insect is referred to as belonging directly to God, with

Irish Irish may refer to: Common meanings * Someone or something of, from, or related to: ** Ireland, an island situated off the north-western coast of continental Europe ***Éire, Irish language name for the isle ** Northern Ireland, a constituent unit ...

''bóín Dé'', Polish ''boża krówka'',

Russian Russian(s) refers to anything related to Russia, including: *Russians (, ''russkiye''), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries * Rossiyane (), Russian language term for all citizens and p ...

божья коровка 'bozhya korovka'' and

Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries **Spanish cuisine Other places * Spanish, Ontario, Can ...

''Vaquilla de Dios'', all meaning 'God's ittlecow'. The insects have been used to symbolise

Ladybird Books Ladybird Books is a London-based publishing company, trading as a stand-alone imprint within the Penguin Group of companies. The Ladybird imprint publishes mass-market children's books. It is an imprint of Penguin Random House, a subsidiary o ...

(part of

Penguin Group Penguin Group is a British trade book publisher and part of Penguin Random House, which is owned by the German media conglomerate Bertelsmann. The new company was created by a merger that was finalised on 1 July 2013, with Bertelsmann initial ...

), and the Ladybird range of children's clothing sold by the former high street chain

Woolworth's Woolworth, Woolworth's, or Woolworths may refer to: Businesses * F. W. Woolworth Company, the original US-based chain of "five and dime" (5¢ and 10¢) stores * Woolworths Group (United Kingdom), former operator of the Woolworths chain of shop ...

in the UK, while the ladybird street tile is a symbol against

senseless violence Senseless violence ( nl, zinloos geweld) is a term frequently used by among others the media, politicians and NGOs to define the nature of several shocking events in Belgium and the Netherlands in recent years. The use of the term is politically ...

in the Netherlands, and is often placed on the sites of deadly crimes. They have been adopted as the mascot of

Candanchú Candanchú is a ski resort situated near the town of Canfranc in the High Aragon of the western Pyrenees (province of Huesca, Spain). The name of the area is an adaptation of French "Camp d'Anjou" as this was originally the site of a milit ...

, a ski resort near

Canfranc Canfranc () is a municipality in the Aragón Valley of north-eastern Spain consisting of two villages, the original village and ''Canfranc Estación'', which developed with the establishment of Canfranc International railway station to serve railw ...

in the Spanish Pyrenees. The ladybird serves as a long-standing symbol for the

Swedish People's Party of Finland The Swedish People's Party of Finland ( sv, Svenska folkpartiet i Finland (SFP); fi, Suomen ruotsalainen kansanpuolue (RKP)) is a political party in Finland aiming to represent the interests of the minority Swedish-speaking population of Finlan ...

. Various lady beetle species have been adopted as US state insects in states such as Delaware, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, and Tennessee; some of those designated species, such as ''

'', are introduced rather than native to North America.

References

Sources

External links

* * {{DEFAULTSORT:Coccinellidae Beetle families Articles containing video clips Biological pest control beetles Insects used as insect pest control agents Taxa named by Pierre André Latreille Insects in culture