Purpose
According to Crowley and Hawhee, invention is the division of rhetoric that investigates the possible means by which proofs can be discovered. It supplies the speaker and writers with sets of instructions or ideas that help them to find and compose arguments that are appropriate for a given rhetorical situation. For personal and lyric essays, narratives, and descriptive writing, invention techniques help writers draw from their memory and observation for the kinds of details that will add depth to their essays. The first direction of invention aims toward deriving heuristic procedures or systematic strategies that will aid students in discovering and generating ideas about which they might write; the second direction of invention is characterized by how writers establish "voice" in writing and realize individual selves in discourse. One of the oldest criticisms of rhetoric is that as an art it has no proper subject matter. In other words, an orator might speak on any topic, with his success being measured purely on the brilliance of his rhetorical skills. This aspect of rhetoric is one reason why''Topoi''
In classical rhetoric, arguments are obtained from various sources of information, or topoi ( Greek 'places'; i.e. "places to find something"), also called by theModes of persuasion
Aristotle described three "modes of persuasion," or "appeals." The first dealt with the matter of the case (logos), the second dealt with the character of the speaker (ethos), and the third dealt with the emotions of the audience (pathos). Each mode of persuasion can be inventional, helping an orator create an effective argument. As Aristotle explains, logos, often referred to as the "logical" appeal, uses the arguments present in the case itself to appeal to the audience's reason. Aristotle writes that logos depends on "the proof, or apparent proof, provided by the words of the speech itself." Logos appeals work "when we have proved a truth or an apparent truth by means of the persuasive arguments suitable to the case in question." ''Inventio'' is linked with logos such that it deals with what an author would say as opposed to ''how'' it might be said. Aristotle defined ethos as an appeal based on a speaker's character within a persuasive act. Later, the Roman rhetorician Cicero expanded this definition to contain elements of character outside a particular rhetorical act. Most rhetoric scholars today combine the two definitions, understanding ethos to mean character both inside and outside a rhetorical circumstance. Speakers use the mode of ethos when they create an argument based on their own character. When relying on ethos, a speaker uses personal "trustworthiness or credibility" to persuade the audience to believe their specific argument on a particular topic (Ramage 81). For example, if a presidential candidate has a long history of philanthropy, he or she will invent an argument that demonstrates personal good character in order to convince the audience that he or she is the best candidate for office. Pathos represents an appeal to the audience's emotions. This appeal can be achieved by the use of metaphors, storytelling, or general passion. In order to appeal to an audience's emotions during the speech's delivery, the speaker must first take the audience's emotion into account during the early invention phase. For example, if a presidential candidate grew up poor and managed to succeed in life through hard work and education, then the candidate would have to apply that story to the speech-inventing process in order to appeal to the audience's emotions. This storytelling draws upon the common "bootstraps" narrative of American culture, one that often appeals to the emotions of the U.S. electorate.''Stasis''
According to rhetorical scholar Thomas O. Sloane, Cicero described rhetoric as the devising of true or seemingly true arguments for the sake of making one's case appear probable. Therefore, a speaker must debate both sides of an argument to invent an effective argument. Sloane goes on to say it is important for a speaker to critique every aspect of his or her argument. Ciceronian invention is simply an analytical process of argument. However, as a theorist of law, Cicero put forward a specific procedure commonly referred to as stasis theory. Stasis is a procedure by which a speaker poses questions in order to clarify the main issues and persuasive points of a speech or debate. This procedure allows the speaker to critically question each point, assessing the relative worth of each point as appropriate to the substance of the case and to its capacity to persuade an audience. Using stasis theory gives the speaker numerous advantages that will help them excel in persuading. According to Crowley and Hawhee, the following advantages may accrue in the use of stasis theory. *Allows the speaker to clarify his or her thinking about the point in dispute. *Allows the speaker to consider the assumption and values an audience holds. *Establishes certain areas in which more research and effort needs to be spent. *Distinguishes which points are crucial to an effective argument. *Guides the speaker towards building an effective arrangement for their argument or speech. There are four types of stasis: conjectural (question of fact: Is/was it?), definitional (question of definition: What is/what is its meaning?), qualitative (question of quality: How good or bad is/was it), and translative (question of place or procedure: Is/was this appropriate process or place to handle the matter?). For instance, a lawyer defending someone accused of damaging property might pose the following questions: *Question of fact: did the person damage the item? (conjectural) *Question of definition: was the damage minor or major? (definitional) *Question of quality: was he justified in damaging the item? (qualitative) *Question of jurisdiction: should this be a civil or criminal trial? (translative) The question of fact is key as the first step in formulating any argument is separating the true from the false. If the terms of the argument at hand cannot be agreed on, the discussion will not move in any positive direction. Going back and forth attacking sources of information is not conducive to making any real progress, so an emphasis on using only solid information and evidence-based anecdotes is at the crucial to achieving stasis The question of definition means to define what, exactly, the issue of concern is, and what, if any, biases or preconceptions our arguments hold. Then, categorizing the problem is the next focus, agreeing on the class of the event and therefore the attitude with which it should be approached. A political disagreement should be investigated with a different lens than a criminal case, for example, as they are concerns of a different nature. The question of quality means identifying the magnitude of the event, the wider impacts, as well as what would happen if no action were to be taken. Identifying if this problem is important as part of a bigger picture is key to preparing a sound argument, as well as figuring out whether or not it is a cause worth pursuing. The quality aspect of stasis comes down to deciding if this particular problem requires attention, and at what cost will a resolution come about. The question of jurisdiction means formulating a plan of action. Just as we calculate whether the particular problem is worth the energy in the quality category, here we make the decision to take action. A plan of action includes determining what kind of people should be involved in solving this problem, and what strategy these people will use.In the rhetorical tradition
Invention also entails the adaptation of ideas and stylistic devices to unfamiliar audiences. Rhetorical scholar John M. Murphy argues that rhetorical traditions consist of common patterns of language use and organized "social knowledge" of communities that make resources available for the invention of effective arguments. Invention allows these rhetorical traditions to be adapted across cultural differences or situations. Murphy provides an example in which an orator would blend several rhetorical traditions: one by which the orator might primarily identify and another by which the audience might identify, thus merging speaker and audience through a display of interconnected rhetorical traditions. To Cicero, traditional rhetoric was a "mode of thought" and to attain this rhetoric it is required to make the "true nature of rhetorical inventio" apparent. Thomas O. Sloane, a rhetorical scholar, discusses that ''inventio'' in the rhetorical tradition specifically refers to addressing the pros and cons of an argumentation. Sloane argues that it is required when using ''inventio'' as a tool that one must not only consider the discourse at hand but the discourses that accompany the positives and negatives attached. In further explanation, one must debate all sides of an argument "or one's ''inventio'' will remain not fully invented." In modern revivals of rhetoric, Sloane argues along with Reed Way Dasenbrock that these pros and cons of ''inventio'' do not have as much emphasis as they did in Cicero. This lack of attention to different sides of an argument is why Dasenbrock believes that the revival of rhetoric "is relevant; utit isn't complete."Amplification and invention
Amplification is a term in rhetoric defined as the enrichment of words to increase rhetorical effect. It is closely related to invention such that it deals with the development and progression of notions, drawing from the topics of invention. Topics of invention can also be seen as topics of amplification, especially those of division, definition, and comparison.See also
* Rhetorical reasonReferences
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